Latest Quaternary thrusting recorded by a flight of strath terraces in the northeastern margin
Latest Pleistocene to Holocene Thrusting Recorded by a Flight of Strath Terraces in the Eastern Qilian Shan,NE Tibetan Plateau Jianguo Xiong 1,2,Youli Li 2,Yuezhi Zhong 2,Honghua Lu 3,Jinghao Lei 2,Weilin Xin 2,Libo Wang 2,Xiu Hu 2,and Peizhen Zhang 1,41School of Earth Sciences and Engineering,Sun Yat-Sen University,Guangzhou,China,2Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes,Ministry of Education,Peking University,Beijing,China,3Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of Ministry of Education,School of Geographic Sciences,East China Normal University,Shanghai,China,4Institute of Geology,China Earthquake Administration,Beijing,China
Abstract At the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front in the NE Tibetan Plateau,the Minle-Damaying Fault
(MDF),the southernmost fault of the North Frontal Thrust (NFT)system,has previously been proposed as an inactive structure during the Holocene.Here we present a detailed record of six strath terraces of the Xie River that document the history of active deformation of the MDF.One optically stimulated luminescence dating sample constrains abandonment of the highest terrace T 6at 12.7±1.4ka.The formation ages of the lower terraces (T 4–T 1)are dated by AMS 14C dating.The cumulative vertical offsets of the MDF recorded by these terraces are determined as 12.2±0.4m (T 6),8.0±0.4m (T 5),6.4±0.4m (T 4),4.6±0.1m (T 3),and 3.2±0.2m (T 1c )by an unmanned aerial vehicle system,respectively.A long-term vertical slip rate of the MDF of 0.9±0.2mm/yr is then estimated from the above data of terrace age and vertical offset by a linear regression.Assuming that the fault dip of 35±5°measured at the surface is representative for the depth-averaged fault dip,horizontal shortening rates of 0.83–1.91mm/yr are inferred for the MDF.Our new data show that the proximal fault (the MDF)of the NFT system at the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front has remained active when the deformation propagated basinward,a different scenario from that observed at both the western and central Qilian Shan mountain front.
1.Introduction
Since the Early Cenozoic,the India-Eurasia collision has exerted a major control on the tectonic and topo-
graphic development of the Asian inland (Figure 1a)(e.g.,Avouac &Tapponnier,1993;Najman et al.,2001;
Tapponnier et al.,2001;Zhang et al.,2004).A striking result of the collision is the growth of the Tibetan
Plateau that today reaches average elevations of >4km.The progressive outward growth of the plateau
has caused propagation of thrusting and folding into its surrounding sedimentary basins that accommodate
Cenozoic crustal shortening (e.g.,Burch ?el et al.,1999;Heermance et al.,2008;Molnar &Tapponnier,1975;
Sobel et al.,2006;Tapponnier et al.,2001;Thompson et al.,2015).The Qilian Shan (Shan means “mountains ”
in Chinese)on the northeastern margin of the plateau is one of the major ranges that formed over the past
~10Myr in response to the outward growth of the plateau (e.g.,Tapponnier et al.,1990,2001;Wang et al.,
2016;Zheng,Zhang,Ge,et al.,2013;Zheng,Zhang,Zhang,et al.,2013).The history of uplift and growth of
the Qilian Shan is thus crucial to understand the process and the mechanism of upward and outward growth
of the Tibetan Plateau (e.g.,Hetzel et al.,2004,2006;Pan et al.,2013;Tapponnier et al.,1990;Zheng et al.,
2017;Zheng,Zhang,Ge,et al.,2013;Zheng,Zhang,Zhang,et al.,2013).
The Qilian Shan is located in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau,which comprises several WNW
trending mountain ranges (Figure 1a).The crustal shortening of the range is mainly linked kinematically to
thrusting of several NW trending reverse faults (Tapponnier et al.,1990;Zhang et al.,2004).Separating the
Qilian Shan to the south from the sedimentary basins of the Hexi Corridor to the north,these structures
de ?ne the steep mountain front of the range (Figure 1a).Previous studies have utilized low-temperature ther-
mochronology (e.g.,George et al.,2001),sedimentology and magnetostratigraphy (e.g.,Fang et al.,2005;
Wang et al.,2016;Zheng et al.,2017),geological and geodetic investigations (e.g.,Zhang et al.,2004),or dat-
ing of deformed geomorphic surfaces using exposure and luminescence dating (e.g.,Hetzel et al.,2004,2006;
Hu et al.,2015;Pan et al.,2013)to constrain the timing and magnitude of the Cenozoic deformation along the
PUBLICATIONS
Tectonics
RESEARCH ARTICLE
10.1002/2017TC004648
Key Points:
?Deformed terraces document recent
activity of the Minle-Damaying Fault,a
structure previously proposed to be
inactive during the Holocene
?Vertical slip rates of the fault averaged
over the last 12.7kyr are on the order
of 1mm/yr
?Distribution of active deformation
across the eastern Qilian Shan
foreland is different to the western
and central foreland Correspondence to:
H.Lu,
hhlv@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/082590369.html,
Citation:
Xiong,J.,Li,Y.,Zhong,Y.,Lu,H.,Lei,J.,
Xin,W.,…Zhang,P.(2017).Latest
Pleistocene to Holocene thrusting
recorded by a ?ight of strath terraces in
the eastern Qilian Shan,NE Tibetan
Plateau.Tectonics ,36,2973–2986.
https://https://www.wendangku.net/doc/082590369.html,/10.1002/2017TC004648
Received 4MAY 2017
Accepted 8NOV 2017
Accepted article online 22NOV 2017
Published online 13DEC 2017?2017.American Geophysical Union.All Rights Reserved.
Qilian Shan.Nonetheless,the detailed depositional and geomorphic responses to the ongoing growth of the
Qilian Shan still need to be further understood.
Along the margins of active orogenic belts,detailed sedimentological and geomorphological investigations
are necessary to understand the tectonic evolution of mountain belts (e.g.,Burch ?el et al.,1999;Lavé&
Avouac,2000;Li et al.,1999;Li &Yang,1998;Lu et al.,2010,2015,2017;Molnar et al.,1994;Thompson
et al.,2015).In particular,deformed river terraces are very useful in reconstructing the history of active
deformation and understanding the kinematics of active structures.Two prerequisites exist when utilizing
river terrace to constrain the history of active deformation.One is to establish a robust chronology for
terrace formation and/or abandonment,and the other is to precisely determine the magnitude of deforma-
tion (e.g.,a vertical offset)recorded by the abandoned terrace tread (e.g.,Burbank &Anderson,2012;Yang
&Li,2011).
Here we present a detailed record of the latest Quaternary ?uvial terraces of the Xie River,the upper reach of
the Dongda River ?owing across the eastern Qilian Shan (Figure 1b);the terraces have been sequentially
deformed by thrusting of the Minle-Damaying Fault (MDF),a structure at the eastern Qilian Shan
mountain
Figure 1.(a)Active tectonics in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau and adjacent regions (Yuan,2003;Zheng,Zhang,Zhang,
et al.,2013)based on a digital elevation model.Insert map showing topography of the Asian Inland.Boundary fault means
fault with unknown kinematics.NFT:the north frontal thrust system,GF:Gulang Fault,and LMF:Laohushan-Maomaoshan
Fault.(b)Active faults and river systems along the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front.HC Basin:Huangcheng Basin.See
Figure 1a for the location of Figure 1b.The earthquake data (since the year AD 1917)are downloaded from the website of
USGS:https://https://www.wendangku.net/doc/082590369.html,/earthquakes.
front that has previously been proposed to be inactive during the Holocene(Figure1b)(IG,LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993).A combination of AMS14C dating and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)dating was used to constrain the timing of terrace formation and/or abandonment.An unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV)photogrammetry system was then utilized to generate a digital elevation model(DEM) and determine accurate vertical offsets of the MDF at the Xie River.The main aims of this paper are to(1)reveal the latest Quaternary activity of the MDF(timing,magnitude,and rate)and further to(2)discuss the implica-tions of our results for active deformation at the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.
2.General Setting and Active Tectonics of the Study Area
2.1.General Setting
The Cenozoic growth of the Qilian Shan is controlled by the northeastward propagation of the Tibetan Plateau.Unconformities between Neogene and Jurassic sedimentary rocks(GGB,1989)indicate that major tectonic deformation occurred during Late Mesozoic or Early https://www.wendangku.net/doc/082590369.html,te Cenozoic deformation along the Qilian Shan range has been controlled by a thrust system that de?nes the basin-mountain boundary (Gaudemer et al.,1995;IG,LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993).In the eastern Qilian Shan between the Xida River and the Xiying River(Figure1b),ranges comprise mainly Paleozoic and Mesozoic low-grade metamorphic and sedimentary rocks,Late Cenozoic sedimentary strata,and Caledonian granite.Thrusting on the faults at the mountain front places Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks above Late Cenozoic sedimentary strata(GGB,1989;IG,LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993).In the drainage basin of the Xie River(Figure1b),the major rock types include Devonian conglomerate and sandstone as well as Lower Carboniferous conglomerate,sandstone,and shale.A small amount of Lower Silurian sedimentary rocks and Lower Ordovician volcanic and metamorphic rocks are found in the upper reach of the Xie River.
2.2.Active Tectonics Along the Eastern Qilian Shan
Active faults in the eastern Qilian Shan deformation zone comprise the Lenglongling Fault and the North Frontal Thrust(NFT)system that includes several northeast vergent thrust faults,that is,the Minle-Damaying Fault(MDF),Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault,Fengle Fault,and Kangningqiao Fault(Figure1b). Along the mountain crest of the eastern Qilian Shan,the southeast striking Lenglongling Fault is a sinistral strike-slip fault with a vertical component(Figure1b)(He et al.,2010).The Lenglongling Fault is the western segment of the Haiyuan Fault and bifurcates eastward into the Laohushan-Maomaoshan Fault(LMF)to the southeast and the Gulang Fault(GF)to the east(Figure1a)(He et al.,2010).This left-lateral strike-slip fault system has been active during the Quaternary and exhibits a high seismicity with a series of major historical Earthquakes(e.g.,the Haiyuan M s8.7earthquake of16December1920and the Menyuan M s6.4earthquake of26August1986)(He et al.,2000,2010;Lasserre et al.,2002;Zhang et al.,1987).The late Pleistocene rate of sinistral slip on the Lenglongling Fault has been estimated to4.3±0.7mm/yr(He et al.,2010).
To the north of the Lenglongling Fault,the NFT system dominates the tectonic and topographic patterns of the eastern Qilian Shan(Figure1b).The MDF is the southernmost fault in the NFT system,which separates the eastern Qilian Shan to the south from the Minle Basin to the north(Figure1b).This fault roughly dips southward at an angle varying along the strike(IG,LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993).On the west bank of the Xie River,a surface dip of35±5°of the fault has been measured in the?eld (Figures2a–2d).The MDF has previously been proposed to have been inactive during the Holocene(IG, LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993).However,in this study we show that a?ight of well-developed and deformed latest Quaternary terraces of the Xie River records active thrusting of the MDF over the latest Quaternary(Figure2c).The Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault,to the north of the MDF,has also been active in the Holocene with average vertical slip rates estimated to0.54–0.8mm/yr on the eastern segment of the fault(Chen,2003).At least one major history Earthquake,the Gulang M s8earthquake of 23May1927,occurred on this fault(Gaudemer et al.,1995).Between the western Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault and the eastern MDF,a zone of the sinistral shear has formed a pull-apart basin,that is,the Huangcheng Basin(Figure1b).The frontal thrusts of the NFT system,the Fengle Fault,and the Kangningqiao Fault de?ne the basin-mountain boundary near the cities of Yongchang and Wuwei (Figure1b).The average vertical slip rate of the Fengle Fault has been estimated as2.8±1.3mm/yr with a horizontal shortening rate of~2.5mm/yr over the past~30kyr(Champagnac et al.,2010).Although
Figure2.(a)Google Earth image showing the geomorphic framework at the mountain front of the Xie River and(b)the interpreted distribution of the terraces based on detailed?eld investigations.(c)Photo showing the fault scarps of the Xie River terraces caused by thrusting of the Minle-Damaying Fault.(d)Outcrop of the Minle-Damaying Fault dipping southwestward with an angle of35±5°.(e)II-II0terrace-to-river cross section on the hanging wall of the Minle-Damaying
Fault showing the geomorphic framework.See Figure2b for the location of this cross section.
the general framework of the active thrust system at the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front is well characterized(Figure1b)(IG,LERI,China Earthquake Administration,1993),the detailed characteristics (timing,magnitude,and rate)of the fault system remain unclear.Until now,no estimate of the Holocene slip rate of the MDF is available.This hinders better understanding of the process and the mechanism of the northeastward growth of the Tibetan Plateau.
3.The Xie River Terraces
3.1.Terrace Classi?cation
Where the Xie River crosses the MDF,we mapped and characterized a?ight of six?uvial strath terraces that were deformed above the thrust fault.The geomorphic characterization of terraces in the study area along the Xie River(Figure2)involved three components.First,?uvial terraces were mapped in the?eld and using Google Earth images.Second,sedimentology(color,thickness,grain size,roundness,composition,etc.)and geomorphology(height above the modern river and extent of dissection)of the?uvial sediments overlying the bedrock were characterized.Third,based on the mapping,terraces were divided into six levels:T1to T6 increasing systematically in elevation(Figure2).
All six terraces(T1–T6)are beveled into the southwest dipping Lower Carboniferous sandstone and shale,and planated bedrock surfaces(called“strath surfaces”)are clearly exposed along the west bank of the river (Figures2and3).The straths are covered with a continuous layer of?uvial deposits that is about2–4m thick (for terraces T1to T5)and up to about7–10m thick(for terrace T6)(Figures2e and3).Based on these observa-tions,the terraces at the mountain front of the Xie River are de?ned as strath terraces.The distribution of the low terraces T1and T2is relatively restricted(Figures2a and2b).Terrace T1is subdivided into three secondary terraces T1a,T1b,and T1c based on the difference in height above riverbed(Figure2).The higher terraces T3to T6are widely distributed along the west bank of the river(Figures2a and2b).The surfaces of all terraces are relatively planar and continuous(Figures2a and2c),and no obvious erosion and dissection was observed in the?eld.This observation implies a relatively late timing of abandonment of the terrace caused by river incision.In striking contrast with terraces T1–T5,the?uvial deposits of terrace T6are covered by~2.1m thick aeolian loess(Figures2e and4).The terraces are mainly composed of subrounded to rounded pebble-to cobble-sized gravels with the largest boulders reaching several decimeters in diameter(Figure3).The?uvial gravels on all terraces have a similar distribution of clast lithologies and include mainly sedimentary rocks (sandstone and conglomerate)with a small amount of metamorphic rocks.
3.2.Terrace Formation and/or Abandonment Age
3.2.1.AMS14C Dating
The time of terrace formation for the low terraces T1to T4was estimated using AMS14C dating.Charcoal was collected from layers of sand and silt overlying the terrace gravels(Figure3).A total of11AMS14C dating samples were taken in the?eld.In order to well constrain the terrace formation ages,four sets of paired sam-ples were collected(Table1).The pair HC26-27and the pair HC29-30were processed each from one single piece of charcoal(Figures3c and3g).In contrast,the pairs HC22-23and HC31-32were collected from the same outcrop but in different positions(Figures3a and3f).
Following standard procedures(Vries&Barendsen,1954),the complete sample preparation was performed either at the Beta Analytic(?ve samples)or the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of Peking University(six sam-ples)(Table1).The charcoal of each sample was pretreated using the acid-alkali-acid(AAA)sequence to remove contaminants(Vries&Barendsen,1954).The sample was?rst gently crushed and then dispersed in deionized water.It was then washed with hot hydrochloric acid(HCl)to eliminate carbonates followed by an alkali(NaOH)wash to remove secondary organic acids.The alkali wash was followed by a?nal acid rinse to neutralize the solution before drying.Finally,the processed samples were transformed into graphite following standard procedures(Santos et al.,2004).The AMS radiocarbon measurements of the prepared gra-phite samples were performed at both the Beta Analytic(?ve samples)and the AMS Center,School of Physics, Peking University(six samples).Based on the approach of Talma and Vogel(1993),the14C ages of the sam-ples were determined with Libby’s half-life(5,568years),the Northern Hemisphere14C calibration curve IntCal13(Reimer et al.,2013),and OxCal V4.2(University of Oxford,2017).Dates are reported as years before present(present=AD1950).
locations.
3.2.2.Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating
To estimate the age of the highest terrace T 6of the Xie River,we took an optically stimulated luminescence
(OSL)dating sample from the bottom of the ~2.1m thick loess sediments capping the ?uvial deposits
(Figures 2b and 4).Fresh sediments were exposed with a shovel before using a plastic hammer to drive a
20cm long steel pipe with a diameter of 5cm into the freshly exposed deposits.The pipe containing the
sample remained sealed with opaque materials before processing in the lab.
Following standard procedures (Aitken,1998),preparation and measurements of the OSL sample were car-
ried out at the OSL Laboratory of the Institute of Geology and Geophysics,Chinese Academy of Sciences.
In order to insure maximal shielding,2–3cm of the sample was removed from each end of the pipe and only
the sample in the center of the steel pipe was analyzed in the lab.About 20g of loess from the center of the
steel pipe were used for water content measurement,and an uncertainty of 10%was assigned.The rest of the
loess was ?rst dried and then was treated with 10%hydrochloric acid (HCl)and 10%hydrogen peroxide
(H 2O 2)to remove carbonates and organic materials,respectively.Grains <90μm were obtained by mechan-
ical dry sieving,and then were etched with 40%HF for about 80min to remove feldspar as well as etch the
outer alpha dosed layer of quartz grains.Before ?nal rinsing and drying,HCl (10%)was used again to
dissolve
Figure 4.Photograph of ~2.1thick loess sediments capping the terrace deposits of T 6,from which the OSL sample was
taken.See Figure 2b for the location of the sampled section.
Table 1AMS 14C Dating Data of the Xie River Terraces
Sample no.
a Sampled terrace level Sample location Terrace elevation at the sampling site (m)
b Sampling depth (m)
c Conventional 14C age (a BP)Calibrate
d 14C cal ag
e (cal a BP)d Terrace formation age (cal a BP)HC22
T 437°50047.00″N 3005±50.606445±357360±705825±130HC23*
101°34028.10″E 3005±50.909160±3010320±80HC29
37°50057.38″N 2984±50.545200±305953±50HC30*
101°34044.60″E 2984±50.684980±305698±60HC24
T 337°50052.70″N 2992±50.73995±304471±604471±60101°34039.52″E HC26
T 237°50053.25″N 2985±40.973130±253363±403288±150HC27
101°34042.23″E 2985±40.873130±253363±40HC28*
37°50054.76″N 2982±50.972970±303138±80101°34044.18″E HC31*
T 1b 37°51004.17″N 2969±4 1.162710±302807±602511±300HC32
101°35003.63″E 2969±40.852225±252215±70HC33*
T 1b 37°51006.01″N 2962±40.601480±301360±501360±50101°35011.08″E Note .The AMS 14C dating procedure is performed at the Beta Analytic (for the samples marked by the asterisk)and the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of Peking
University,respectively.a The dating material of all the samples is charred material,and the pretreatment on all the samples is acid/alkali/acid.The sampling locations and the sampled sections are shown in Figures 2b and 3,respectively.b The terrace elevation was obtained by a Garmin handheld GPS.c The sampling depth was measured by a tape with the scale of 1cm.d Based on the IntCal13database (Reimer et al.,2013),a simpli ?ed approach (Talma &Vogel,1993)is used to calibrate 14C dates.Reported 14C ages used Libby ’s half-life (5,568years)and were referenced to the year AD 1950.The age uncertainty is two sigma.
any residual ?uorides after etching.The etched grains were sieved again through a 63μm mesh and then
mounted as a monolayer on 9.8mm diameter aluminum discs using silicone oil as an adhesive.Grains cov-
ered the central ~3mm diameter portion of each disc,corresponding to several hundreds of grains per ali-
quot.Luminescence measurements were performed on a Ris?TL/OSL DA-15reader.First,the purity of the
samples was tested by measuring the infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL)and 110°C thermolumines-
cence (TL)peak that is indicative of feldspar.We used a 90Sr/90Y beta source with a dose rate of 0.09Gy/s
for dosing and blue light emitting diodes (λ=470±20nm)and infrared (λ=830nm)LED units for stimula-
tion.Equivalent dose (De )of the quartz was determined by using the Simpli ?ed Multiple Aliquot
Regenerative-dose (SMAR)procedure (Wang et al.,2006).Signals of initial 0.64s of stimulation were inte-
grated for growth curve construction after subtracting background (last 5s).To determine the environmental
dose rate,U,Th,and K contents in the samples were measured using an ELEMENT Plasma Mass Spectrometer
with a relative measurement error of <5%.The cosmic ray dose rate was estimated according to Prescott and
Hutton (1994).The environmental dose rate was determined based on the conversion relation between dose
rate of quartz and the contents of U,Th,and K and water content (Aitken,1998).Finally,OSL date for the mea-
sured sample was calculated from the acquired De and environmental dose rate.
3.2.3.Determination of Terrace Formation and/or Abandonment Age
Ages for T 1to T 4obtained by AMS 14C dating are shown in Table 1.Except for the paired samples HC22-23
that have about 3,000years of difference in age,the small range of radiocarbon ages of the sample pairs
HC29-30and HC31-32obtained in two different labs (Table 1)lends con ?dence in our AMS dating.For the
terrace T 4,the paired AMS 14C samples HC22and HC23yielded two ages that are not within the uncertainty
bounds:7.36±0.07ka and 10.32±0.08ka (Table 1and Figure 3f),both of which are signi ?cantly older than
the ages of the paired samples HC29and HC30(5.95±0.05ka and 5.7±0.06ka)taken from the same terrace
(Table 1and Figure 3g).The scattered and older ages of HC22and HC23might be attributed to reworking of
older deposits upstream and different sources of charcoal.We thus discarded these two older ages
(7.36±0.07ka and 10.32±0.08ka)and did not use them to constrain the formation age of terrace T 4.We
then calculated mean terrace ages for the sample pairs using the accepted 14C age data of the samples taken
from the three terraces T 4,T 2,and T 1a ,and estimated the formation ages of terraces T 4,T 3,T 2,T 1a ,and T 1b to
5.83±0.13ka,4.47±0.06ka,3.29±0.15ka,2.51±0.3ka,and 1.36±0.05ka,respectively (Table 1).The errors
assigned to the mean ages include the nominal values of the involved individual (two or three)ages.
Provided (1)that the charcoal got transported by the river into the terrace deposits and did not form in situ
from organic material and (2)that there are no postdepositional formation processes working on the terrace
sediments,such as bioturbation,any of the above radiocarbon ages from the charcoal is a maximum age of
the deposition of the sampled terrace sediment horizon.Therefore,the calibrated radiocarbon ages of the
sampled charcoal fragments found in the ?uvial sediments (Table 1)provide a maximum age for the forma-
tion of terraces T 1–T 4.
The OSL sample taken from the bottom of the loess overlying the terrace sediments of T 6constrains the ter-
race abandonment to 12.7±1.4ka (Table 2and Figure 4).It is reasonable to assume that loess begins to accu-
mulate on the terrace after abandonment of the terrace (e.g.,Hu et al.,2015;Lu et al.,2014;Pan et al.,2013).
Hence,the age of the basal loess provides a reliable minimum age on the timing of terrace abandonment,
and the OSL age of 12.7±1.4ka may be slightly younger than the actual time of terrace abandonment.
No suitable material for OSL or AMS 14C dating was found in the terrace deposits of T 5and T 1c ;thus,their
formation or abandonment ages remain unconstrained.
Table 2
Calculated Values of Equivalent Doses,Annual Doses,and OSL Ages
Sample no.
Sample location Sampled layer (m)U a (ppm)Th (ppm)K (%)Water content (%)b Equivalent doses (Gy)Annual doses (Gy/kyr)OSL age (ka)c HC-T6-1d 37°51035.03″N
The lower part of ~2.1m thick loess capping the
terrace gravels of T 6 3.8115.6 1.88 6.149.7±1.7 3.90±0.1712.7±1.4
101°35028.9″E a The contents of U,Th,and K were determined using an ELEMENT Plasma Mass Spectrometer.The uncertainty of 5%was taken.b
An uncertainty of 10%is assigned to the water content.c The age uncertainty is two sigma.d Location of the dating sample and the sampled terrace cross section are shown in Figures 2b and 4,respectively.
4.Vertical Offset of the Minle-Damaying Fault
by Morphometry
Photogrammetry acquired by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)sys-
tem equipped with a camera has progressively become an important
tool to obtain landscape surveys.Images obtained by a UAV photo-
grammetry system can be used to generate a digital elevation model
(DEM).In this work,a DW-01UAV with an octorotor,a Canon EOS 5D
Mark II camera,a MX-20transmitter,a MikroKopter-tool ground con-
troller,and a navigation board was used to obtain areal imagery.
Three aerial surveys at an altitude of about 200m were performed
(Figure 5a).In total,141images covering an area of 0.51km 2were
acquired (Figure 5a).The horizontal and vertical precision of the images
is about 0.5m and 0.2m,respectively.Agisoft PhotoScan was used for
photo alignment,dense cloud building,mesh building,and texture
building.This standard procedure provided a high-density point cloud
to generate a DEM (Figure 5b),and the resolution of the DEM is con-
trolled by 16ground control points (Figure 5c).The DEM transferred
from the obtained aerial images was then used to extract topographic
pro ?les perpendicular to the fault scarp of the MDF (Figures 5b and 6).
Finally,the vertical offset of the MDF recorded by each terrace was pre-
cisely determined by averaging the offsets of three parallel pro ?les
(Figures 5b and 6).Assuming that erosion and/or sedimentation is zero,
the determined vertical offsets recorded by the strath terrace treads
can be used to represent the vertical component (rock uplift)of thrust-
ing of the MDF.
The vertical offsets of the fault scarp recorded by the Xie River terraces
(Figures 2c and 6)clearly reveal the recent history of thrusting of the
MDF.Since terrace T 6was formed,the cumulative vertical offset of
the MDF is 12.2±0.4m (Figure 6).Both seismic events and/or continu-
ous thrusting of the MDF may have contributed to the total offset since
abandonment of terrace T 6.The cumulative vertical offset recorded by
the terrace treads decreases sequentially,that is,the younger terrace
recording less vertical offset (Figure 6).
5.Estimates of Deformation Rates on the
Minle-Damaying Fault
Using the formation ages of the faulted Xie River terraces and the ver-
tical offsets recorded by each terrace tread,the slip rate of the terrace
surface above the MDF is calculated,and the uncertainty is estimated
based on the uncertainties of the ages and the vertical offsets.First,
we calculate the vertical slip rate (vertical component of the fault slip
rate)of the MDF by dividing the age of each terrace by the vertical off-
set of the terrace across the fault scarp.Thus,we obtain a vertical slip
rate of 0.96±0.11mm/yr for T 6.This rate is of the same magnitude
as 1.1±0.07mm/yr recorded by the terrace tread of T 4and
1.03±0.04mm/yr recorded by the T 3terrace tread,respectively.The
similarity of vertical slip rates calculated across three different time
intervals supports the notion that the MDF had a relatively constant
Holocene vertical slip rate over at least the past 12.7kyr.Finally,we esti-
mate a vertical slip rate of 0.9±0.2mm/yr from the formation ages of
these three terraces and the vertical offsets recorded by their terrace
treads by a linear regression using Isoplot (Figure 7).Combined
with
Figure 5.(a)Composite image of the area covering the Minle-Damaying Fault obtained by a DW-01unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry system.Yellow dots show the camera positions ~200m above the ground.(b)Digital elevation model (DEM)generated from the obtained aerial images using Agisoft PhotoScan.Topographic pro ?les extracted from the DEM are shown in Figure 6.(c)Sixteen ground control points with associated horizontal and vertical errors which control the resolution of the constructed DEM.The horizontal error of each ground control point is shown as a vector.
the fault dip of 35±5°that was measured on the west bank of the Xie
River (Figures 2c and 2d),and provided that the measured surface dip
of the fault is representative of the subsurface dip,this vertical slip rate
yields an estimated shortening rate (horizontal component of the fault
slip rate)of 0.83–1.91mm/yr on the MDF.As shown in section 3.2.3,the
AMS 14C dates on the charcoal fragments from the terrace deposits of
T 1–T 4and the OSL dates on the overlying loess of T 6provide a maxi-
mum and minimum age for the terrace formation and abandonment,
respectively.Thus,the obtained rates of vertical slip and shortening
for the MDF from these ages would be a little bit underestimated and
overestimated,respectively.
6.Discussion
6.1.Implications for Active Deformation Along the Eastern
Qilian Shan
Along the eastern Qilian Shan,active deformation is driven mainly by
slip on a series of thrust faults.At the mountain front of the Xie River,
continuous deformation of the MDF during the latest Quaternary is
supported by a ?ight of successively deformed strath terraces
(Figures 2c,5,and 6).The vertical slip rate over the last 12.7kyr was esti-
mated as 0.9±0.2mm/yr (Figure 7),which is of the same order of mag-
nitude as the vertical slip rates of the other reverse faults of the NFT
system at the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front (Figures 8and 9).
For example,at the eastern segment of the Huangcheng-Taerzhuang
Fault,Chen (2003)has estimated Holocene vertical slip rates to
0.54–0.8mm/yr by topographic surveying on the fault scarps recorded
by river terrace treads and thermoluminescence dating (Figures 8
and 9).Based on AMS 14C dating and paleoseismic trenching,the
Holocene vertical slip rate of the Kangningqiao Fault has been esti-
mated as 0.44±0.08mm/yr (Figures 8and 9)(Ai et al.,2017).
However,there is an exception to these estimates on vertical slip rates.
At the eastern segment of the Fengle Fault near the Xiying River
(Figures 1b and 9),Champagnac et al.(2010)have estimated the
long-term rate of vertical slip of the Fengle Fault as 2.8±1.3mm/yr
over the past ~30kyr by 10Be exposure dating and topographic survey-
ing.Tectonically,the Kangniangqiao Fault and the Fengle Fault are con-
sidered as the eastern and western segments of the Southern Wuwei
Basin Fault,respectively (Figures 1b and 9);both of the faults would be expected to have a similar rate of deformation.Relative to the low rate of vertical slip of 0.44±0.08mm/yr from the Kangningqiao Fault
(Ai et al.,2017),however,the rate from the Fengle Fault proposed by
Champagnac et al.(2010)is exceptionally high and has been argued to be overestimated due to uncertainties in age control and/or fault offset estimates (Hetzel,2013;Hu et al.,2015).If the vertical slip rate of
2.8±1.3mm/yr of Champagnac et al.(2010)is ignored,vertical slip rates are comparable on different faults in the NFT system along the eastern Qilian Shan (Figures 8and 9).
When combining the estimated vertical slip rates of thrust faults along the eastern Qilian Shan and the mea-sured fault dips at the surface,Chen (2003)has estimated the Holocene rates of horizontal shortening of the Kangniangqiao Fault and the Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault as ~0.9mm/yr and 0.8–1.1mm/yr,respectively.Recent studies show that distributed folding in response to thrusting on blind faults has accomplished a considerable portion of the deformation (e.g.,Hetzel et al.,2006;Hu et al.,2015).For example,in the area between the Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault and the Kangningqiao Fault (Figures 1b and 9),formation of the Nanying anticline has resulted from thrusting on such a blind fault with an estimated
crustal
Figure 6.Topographic pro ?les crossing the fault scarps of the Minle-Damaying Fault.For each terrace,the vertical offset of the Minle-Damaying Fault is
estimated by calculating the arithmetic mean of three values based on the three topographic pro ?les.
shortening rate of 0.9±0.3mm/yr (Hu et al.,2015).Together with our
estimate of horizontal shortening rate of 0.83–1.91mm/yr on the
MDF,a total of 3–4mm/yr of crustal shortening inferred from active
tectonic studies occurs across the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front.
Taking into account the possibility of unrecognized blind thrusts that
accommodate the crustal shortening,the actual shortening rate across
the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front might be underestimated.On
the larger scale,it appears that the cumulative rate of NNE directed
shortening across the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front is higher
than that along the western Qilian Shan mountain front,where the
rate of crustal shortening has estimated to at most ~2mm/yr (Hetzel
et al.,2006).
6.2.Pattern of Active Deformation in the NE Tibetan Plateau
Crustal shortening in the NE Tibetan Plateau has successively
encroached into the Hexi Corridor.This outward migration of deforma-
tion has resulted in formations of a thrust fault system and fold-and-fault zones (e.g.,Li &Yang,1998;Tapponnier et al.,1990;Zheng et al.,2017;Zheng,Zhang,Ge,et al.,2013;Zheng,Zhang,Zhang,et al.,2013).A series of relatively small mountain ranges have thus devel-
oped,such as the Hei Shan,Jintanan Shan,Heli Shan,and Longshou Shan in the northern Hexi Corridor and the Yumu Shan and the
Laojunmiao anticline in the southern Hexi Corridor (Figure 9).Based
on detailed geologic and geomorphic investigations,the onset of mountain building in the Jintanan Shan and the Heli Shan in the northern side of the Hexi Corridor (Figure 9)has been constrained to ~1.5–1.6Ma and ~1to <3Ma,respectively (Zheng,Zhang,Ge,et al.,2013;Zheng,Zhang,Zhang,et al.,2013).These ages are younger than the formation age of 3.7±0.9Ma of the Yumu Shan (Palumbo et al.,2009)as well as the onset of deformation of the Laojunmiao anticline at ~4.9–3.6Ma (Fang et al.,2005;Zheng et al.,2017)in the southern Hexi Corridor (Figure 9).This difference in age suggests that the deformation front along the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau has reached the northern side of the Hexi Corridor (i.e.,the southern Gobi-Alashan Block)since about 2Ma (Figure 9)(Zheng,Zhang,Ge,et al.,2013).
When the deformation front migrated toward the north-northeast
(Zheng et al.,2017),some more proximal (southern)structures in the
NFT system at the Qilian Shan mountain front (such as the Red Sand
River Fault)have been proposed to become inactive (Hetzel et al.,
2004,2006).Along the western Qilian Shan mountain front,when the
deformation propagated northward into the southern Hexi Corridor,
the Yumen anticline developing above the Yumen Fault (near the
city of Yumen,Figure 9)became active,whereas the proximal basin-
mountain boundary thrust became inactive (Hetzel et al.,2006).
Along the central Qilian Shan mountain front,a similar history of defor-
mation has been documented,where the proximal Red Sand River
Fault became inactive when the Zhangye Fault to the north of the
Red Sand River Fault (near the city of Zhangye,Figure 9)was active
(Hetzel et al.,2004).
A different scenario is observed at the eastern Qilian Shan mountain front (Figure 9).Our new data show that the proximal fault (here it is the MDF)of the NFT system along the eastern Qilian Shan remains active,even though the distal structures of the NFT system (the Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault,the Fengle Fault,and the Kangningqiao Fault,Figures 1b,8,and 9)are tectonically active during the Holocene (e.g.,Ai et al.,2017;Champagnac et al.,2010;Chen,2003;Hu et al.,2015).A similar pattern of deformation has been
documented
Figure 8.I-I 0cross section with vertical exaggeration.Topography was extracted
from the ASTGTM2DEM with the resolution of 30m.See Figure 1b for location.
The vertical slip rates of the Fengle fault (Kangningqiao Fault),the Huangcheng-
Taerzhuang Fault,and the Lenglongling Fault are from Ai et al.(2017),Chen
(2003),and He et al.(2000),respectively.All these faults approximately dip
southward or southwestward,with dip angles that vary along strike and are
commonly estimated to ~40–70°(the Minle-Damaying Fault,IG,LERI,China
Earthquake Administration,1993),~40–80°(the Huangcheng-Taerzhuang
Fault,Chen,2003),and ~40–90°(the Fengle Fault and the Kangningqiao Fault,
Ai et al.,
2017).Figure 7.Long-term vertical slip rate of the Minle-Damaying Fault (MDF)estimated from the formation and abandonment ages of the terraces T 6,T 4,and T 3and the vertical offset recorded by these three terrace treads by a linear regression using Isoplot.The gray shaded envelope displays the uncertainty of
the regression.The data of terrace age and vertical offset are from Tables 1and 2and Figure 6.
in the southern Chaiwopu Basin,a piggyback basin in the easternmost part of the northern Chinese Tian Shan foreland (Lu et al.,2015).There,thrusting on the frontal thrust fault,the Banfanggou Fault,in the southern Chaiwopu Basin has driven continuous growth of the Saerqiaoke anticline during the late Quaternary (Lu et al.,2015).In contrast,?eld observations and measurements on bedding attitudes indicate late Quaternary activity of the proximal Junggar Frontal Thrust Fault (Lu et al.,2015),which separates the northern Chinese Tian Shan range to the south from the Chaiwopu Basin to the north.We propose that the spatial pattern of deformation,as observed along the Qilian Shan mountain front (Hetzel et al.,2004,2006;this study),could have been driven by the eastward migration of deformation along the NFT system in the NE Tibetan Plateau,but the detailed mechanism behind the spatial pattern of deformation on the NFT is unclear and needs further work.7.Conclusion At the mountain front of the eastern Qilian Shan,NE Tibetan Plateau,a ?ight of six strath terraces document the history of active deformation of the Minle-Damaying fault (MDF),where the fault is cut by the northeast-ward ?owing Xie River.Continuous thrusting of the MDF has faulted six Xie River terraces.Terrace pro ?les extracted from a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM)that was obtained by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)system are used to measure the accumulated vertical offset of the MDF.Together with the ter-race ages constrained by OSL and AMS 14C dating,we obtain an average vertical slip rate of 0.9±0.2mm/yr across the past 12.7±1.4ka.The estimated vertical slip rate of the MDF is comparable with the Pleistocene-Holocene rates from the other thrust faults in the NFT system along the eastern Qilian Shan.Our new data also show that the proximal fault of the NFT system along the eastern Qilian Shan,NE Tibetan Plateau,has remained active when the deformation propagated northeastward into the southern Hexi Corridor.References Ai,S.,Zhang,B.,Fan,C.,&Wang,Y.(2017).Surface tracks and slip rate of the fault along the southern margin of the Wuwei Basin in the late Quaternary.Seismology and Geology ,39(2),408–422.(in Chinese with English abstract).Aitken,M.J.(1998).An Introduction to Optical Dating .Oxford:Oxford University Press.Avouac,J.-P.,&Tapponnier,P.(1993).Kinematic model of active deformation in central Asia.Geophysical Research Letters ,20(10),895–898.
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Figure 9.Map showing slip rates on faults (white boxes)as well as constraints on the onset of mountain building (gray boxes)in the southern and northern Hexi Corridor.“(~10kyr,10Be)”shows the time interval of slip rate record and the corresponding dating method:10Be:10Be exposure dating;AMS 14C:AMS carbon-14dating;OSL:optically stimulated luminescence dating;TL:thermoluminescence dating.Numbers represent the names of the faults:1:Yumen Fault;2:Jiayuguan Fault;3:Zhangye Fault;4:Red Sand River Fault;5:Huangcheng-Taerzhuang Fault.
Acknowledgments
This study is ?nancially supported by
the Natural Science Foundation of China
(grants 41571001,41371031,41590861,
and 41661134011),the Special Funds
for Earthquake Research from China
Earthquake Administration (grant
201408023),and Guangdong Province
Introduced Innovative R&D Team of
Geological Processes and Natural
Disasters (grant 2016ZT06N331).The
DEM presented in this paper are
uploaded to the Baidu cloud disk
(https://https://www.wendangku.net/doc/082590369.html,/s/1hsjEqDe;this
link is permanently valid).Gong Zhijun,
Zhao Junxiang,and Zhang Jiafu (at
Peking University)are especially
thanked for their help on the OSL dating
and the data analysis.We also thank Yao
Yifan and Cheng Lu for their help on the
aerial image processing.Zheng Wenjun
(at Sun Yat-Sen University)is thanked
for thoughtful discussions.Aaron Bufe,
one anonymous reviewer,and the
Editor Nathan A.Niemi are especially
thanked for their constructive
comments and language improve-
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这儿真美作文描写美丽的校园5篇
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美丽的公园小学生作文
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四年级写校园作文400字左右-美丽的校园
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初中美丽的校园作文精选5篇优秀范文合集
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个个天气预报员，告诉大家要下雨了。牵牛花吹着紫色的小喇叭，吹得可起劲了! 秋天，榕树、芒果树的叶子变黄了。松柏还是那么苍翠，一阵风吹来，落叶随风飞舞，像一只只美丽的黄蝴蝶。花圃里，金桂树开花了，金桂飘香，沁人心脾。 冬天，四季常青的松柏在叶子落光的树中显得特别精神抖擞。梅花红艳艳的，枝头好像点燃了红红的火焰。 我爱美丽的小雾岗公园! 美丽的公园400字作文篇二 今天秋高气爽，妈妈带我去公园玩耍。 我和妈妈来到公园，进了大门后就能看见小池塘，池塘里的水清澈见底，水里有许多五彩缤纷的小金鱼在自由自在地游着。它们有红、有黄、有黑、有花......好美!池塘边的柳树枝条垂到水里，好像婀娜多姿的少女，把一头柔发垂到水里洗。 向前走，我们就来到了草坪，这片草坪就像一块绿油油的地毯，铺向远方。菊花儿五颜六色，争相开放。弯下腰闻一闻，一股股清香在你的身旁环绕。美丽的蝴蝶在菊花边跳起了轻盈的舞蹈，勤劳的蜜蜂一边在菊花里边“嗡嗡嗡”地演奏着美妙的歌曲，一边高高兴兴地采蜜。不远处，有一群孩子在家长的陪伴下，来到草坪上放风筝，草坪上空飘着各式各样的风筝和孩子们欢乐
写家乡景物的作文共8篇
写家乡景物的作文共8篇 【篇一：家乡的小河作文】我的家乡环境优美绿树成荫。西边的田野里有一条很清很清的小河。河里有鱼、有虾、有螃蟹。有的时候还能看见洁白的水鸟在河边捕鱼。妈妈和爸爸会在周末的时候带我去玩。 可是有一段时间，由于人们不爱护环境，不爱护小河，清清的河水不仅不清了，而且还散发出难闻的味道。河里的鱼、虾、螃蟹、都不知道跑哪去了，水鸟也不见了影子。人们都不喜欢小河的这个样子，于是决心要让小河重新漂亮起来。人们把小河里的垃圾捞了出来，小河里的水又变的和以前一样清了。人们又种上了荷花，荷花开出了许多红色、白色的花朵，可漂亮了。要是走在河边上，就可以闻到荷花的香味。小鱼、小虾又不知道从哪冒出来了，就连很久看不到的水鸟也回来了。 我可真高兴啊！因为我又可以去那玩了。 【篇二：我的家乡——微山作文】我的家乡在微山湖畔，这里是铁道游击队的故乡。这里还有微山湖---4A级的旅游景点。 微山湖很美，湖水碧绿，湖中央有座美丽的小岛，叫微山岛。远远望去，小岛就像一个点，微山湖就像一片绿地，美丽极了！夏天，万亩荷花开放了，有红的、粉的和白的，真是“接天莲叶无穷碧，映日荷花别样红”啊！要是这时候你撑着小船到湖里采莲蓬，准会采到许多又大又甜的莲蓬，让你吃个够。湖里的小鱼儿、鸭子在湖中嬉戏。 ————来源网络搜集整理，仅供个人学习查参考
鱼儿躲在荷叶下面，鸭子在湖面上游来游去，好像是在找小鱼填饱肚子。 太阳快要落山了，人们急忙赶去菜馆吃饭。大鲤鱼可好吃了！人们争着挑四个鼻孔的鲤鱼吃。“真好吃啊！我从来都没吃过那么好吃的鲤鱼！”一个小女孩说。“我也是。我也从来没吃过这么好吃的鲤鱼！”一个男孩大叫。人们吃完饭，在旅馆住了一夜。早晨，人们悄悄地对微山湖说：“再见了，美丽的微山湖！” 我的家乡那么美，你喜欢我的家乡吗？喜欢就来吧！热情好客的微山县人民等着你哦！ 【篇三：家乡的龙门石窟作文】回到老家，重温龙门！一进大门，展现在我们眼前的是一座喷泉。这座喷泉十分美丽，喷泉里还有许多美丽的荷花，为喷泉增添了几分光彩。听讲解员阿姨说，这里的泉水能给人们带来好运。所以，人们都拿瓶子接一点，有的洗了手……喷泉里还有很多的小鱼。 绕过喷泉，来到了一个名叫白马寺的寺庙，这座寺庙为中国第一古刹。里面有许多的佛像。白马寺前有一条大河，河上有许多龙船，十分壮观。 走出白马寺，沿着小桥来到了一座大山。这座大山满山都是洞，动力有许多佛像。有的佛像是在守护着他左手边的洞口，手里拿着一把尖刀。有的佛像盘腿坐在洞里，他的两旁有两座佛像，都是他的弟子。有的佛像头上面有很多小佛像，十分精致。有的佛像头上有一圈金光。在龙门石窟上，有上百个、上千个佛像在洞里。我看见了一座