词汇学复习提纲

English Lexicology

Chapter 1 Introduction

1. V ocabulary

(1) The total number of words that make up a language.

(2) All the words used in a particular historical period.

(3) All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

2. Importance of V ocabulary

(1) An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.

(2) V ocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.

(3) Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.

(4) A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.

3. Lexicology

The literal meaning is the “science of the word”. It is a branch of linguistics which deals with English words, their origin, meaning, historical development, morphological structures, semantic structures, sense relations, idioms, formation and application.

4. Word

A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. (TB:p2)

5. Sound and Meaning (TB:p3)

There is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional.

6. Sound and Form

The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. What causes the differences between sound and form?

(1)The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not employ the

system of one single letter to stand for one sound.

(2) The early scribes deliberately changed spelling of words for easier recognition.

(3) Dictionaries help to fix the spelling of words, which means the stabilization of spelling, meanwhile, sounds continue to change.

(4) English has borrowed many words from other languages, which may not have been assimilated. Some borrowings do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, such as:

7. Classification of Words

(1)Criterion : by use frequency: Basic word stock ＆Non-basic vocabulary

(2) Criterion: by notion: Content words ＆Functional words

(3) Criterion : by origin: Native words ＆Borrowed words

(4) Criterion: by morphology: Simple words, Compounds ＆Derived words, etc. 8. Features of Basic Word Stock

(1)All national character (2) Stability (3) Productivity (4) Polysemy

(5)Collocability

9. Content and Functional Words

Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary and the number is ever growing, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. Functional words are stable and take a very small part of the vocabulary, i.e. prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles

10. Native and Borrowed Words

Native words are not native, but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words.

Chapter 2 Development of English Vocabulary

1. Indo-European Language Family

There are main three branches in Indo-European language family: Germantic branch, Latin branch and Slavic branch.

2. Historical Influence

(1) Britons: The early inhabitants of the island we now call Britain were Britons, a tribe of Celts. Their language were dialects of a small branch of the Indo-European language family— Celtic.

(2) The Roman conquest: In BC 55-54 Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror, Julius Caesar. During the 400 years of Roman occupation, the official language of government was Latin.

(3) The English conquest: At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.

Historical Influence

(4) The Danish invasion: King Alfred the Great (849-901) succeeded in driving the Danes off with force. Laying down his sword, Alfred set himself to the task of encouraging education and literature.

(5) The Norman Conquest: The French-speaking Normans Duke William came in 1066. When Norman and English intermingled, many terms emloyed by Normans were adopted into English language.

3. Historical Phases

(1) Old English (450-1160): Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowels

changes or both, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.

Historical Phases

(2)Middle English (1150-1500): The Middle English period was one of great changes,

changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since.

(3)Modern English (1500 up to now): This period may be divided into two parts: the Early Modern English (1500-1700) and the Late Modern English (1700- now).

Early Modern English: The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek on English was great.

Late Modern English: With the rapid development of modern science and technology; social economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages, new words today sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time.

4. Foreign Elements in English V ocabulary

English vocabulary owns most of its words from foreign language, in which Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors. Other languages have also done their part, such as Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and Celtic, etc.

5. Characteristics of English Language

(1) Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity

(2) Simplicity of inflection

(3)Relatively Fixed Word-order

6. Modes of V ocabulary Development: Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change and borrowing.

Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words

1. Morpheme

It is the smallest meaningful unit of language, consisting of a word or part of a word that can?t be divided without losing its meaning.

2. Morphology

It is the study of the morphemes of a language and of the way in which they are joined together to make words.

3. Types of Morphemes

(1) Free and Bound Morphemes

Morphemes that can exist as individual words are free morphemes. Others which function only as a word part are bound morphemes.

(2) Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes

Morphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.

(TB:P47)Inflectional morphemes, in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.

4. Morpheme and Word-formation

In morphology, words can be analyzed into morphemes, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix in word-formation.

5. Root, Stem and Base: What are the differences within them?

Root is a basic form of a wor d which can?t be f urther analyzed without total loss of identity. Root cannot be further divided and carries the fundamental meaning.

Stem refers to the part after moving inflectional markers.

Base is the part that can take affix of any kinds (derivational and inflectional). Chapter 4 Word Formation

1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. The most productive are affixation(30%-40%), compounding(28%-30%) and conversion(26%). The rest of the new words come from shortening(8%-10%), blending(1%-5%) and other means.(P54)

2. Affixation (or derivation) is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to roots to supply grammatical or lexical information. The morphological structure of an English word: (prefix) + root + (suffix)

3. Prefixation: The process of adding a prefix to the root is called prefixation. English prefixes usually do not change the word class. Types of Prefix (TB:P55)

4. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the tail end of a stem, which usually changes the lexical category of the stem. Types of Suffix. Similar to the exception to the prefixes, some suffixes do change or modify the meaning without changing the lexical categories.

5. Compounds: The process of combining two or more than two existing words together to form new lexical items is called compounding.

6. Characteristics of Compounds

(1) According to orthographic criterion, compounds are written in three ways:

1) solid 2) hyphenated 3) open

(2) Phonologically, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.

(3) Semantically, compoun ds can often be identified as “having a meaning which may be related to but can not simply be inferred from the meaning of its parts.

7. Conversion is a main type of word-formation shifting the base to a different word class with no change of form. Converted words are often short, vivid and expressive,

8. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.

9. Clipping refers to a word-formation process which involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.

10. Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase, and initialisms are pronounced letter by letter.

11. Acronymy: The process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.

12. Words From Proper Name

It refers to the coinage of common words from proper names. They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen, trademarks, names of places, literature, TV films, movies, book titles etc.

13. Analogy: A new word or a new phrase is coined by an analogy between a newly created one and an existing corresponding one.

Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis

1. Word Meaning

Generally speaking, a word is the combination of word-formation and its meaning. …Form? refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. …Meaning? is what the form stands for. Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between form and referent.

2. Semantic Triangle

Concept is the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a person?s mind.Reference is the relationship between language and the world. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.

3. Motivation of Meaning

Motivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning, which is divided into 4 types. They are phonetic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation.

(1) Phonetic Motivation (or Onomatopoeic motivation) explains the words whose sounds suggest their meaning, because these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noise.

(2) Morphological motivation (or grammatical motivation) concerns the words whose morphological structures suggest the meaning, such as, the meaning of a derived word

or a compound is based on the meaning of the word-building.

(3) Semantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word, i.e. the figurative sense of a word suggested by the literal sense.

(4) Etymological motivation explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words suggested by their sources.

(5) Motivation by Analogy: Words are created in imitation of other words

4. Types of Meaning

(1) Grammatical & Lexical Meaning

Grammatical meaning indicates all the inflectional forms of words, such as singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and so on. Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.

(2) Conceptual & Associative Meaning

Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Associative meaning is a supplement to the conceptual meaning, which is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc.

(3) Connotative Meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.

(4)Stylistic Meaning: Apart from conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles.

(5) Affective Meaning expresses the speaker?s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.

Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.

5. Word Meaning and Context

Word meaning depends upon context. The context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings is to be attached to the word. Generally speaking, when used literally, words have their original meaning; when used figuratively, words have symbolic meaning.

6. Components of word meaning

All lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA), such as:

horse, cat, machine, chair [+/-animate]

water, gas, stone, tree [+/-count]

sit, cry, read, give [+/-transitive]

road, house, thought, philosophy [+/-concrete]

Chapter 6 Sense Relations

1. Sense Relations

Words are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as spelling and pronunciation are concerned. Sense relations means all words are related in one way or another. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.

2. Types of Sense Relations

(1)Polysemy

(2) Hyponymy---semantic inclusion

(3) Synonymy---semantic similarity

(4) Antonymy---semantic opposition

(5) Homonymy

3. Polysemy

When a word is first coined, it is always the case that it has only one meaning (monosemic). But in the course of development, the same symbol may be used to express new meanings. The result is polysemy, which shows the economy and efficiency of human languages.

4. Meanings of Polysemy

(1) A word has two or more meanings in which one is the basic, original meaning (Primary meaning), and the others are derived from the basic meaning (Secondary meaning).

(2) It is possible that a word is endowed with different word classes, such as noun, adj., verb.

5. Diachronic and Synchronic

Diachronic approach is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one word. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in one historical period of time.

6. Concatenation is a process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually from its primary meaning by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the meaning that is finally developed and the primary meaning.

7. Radiation is a process in which the primary meaning stands in the center, and the derived meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. All the derived meanings can be traced back to the primary meaning.

8. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the general lexical item (superordinate) and the specific lexical items (subordinate). (TB:p137)

9. Function of Hyponymy

The hyponyms (or specific words) can make our speech and writing more vivid and expressive, while using too much general terms can result in vagueness and triteness. In reading comprehension, cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.

10. Synonymy is a relationship of …sameness of meaning? that may hold between two words. And synonym refers to a word that means the same as another.

11. Discrimination of Synonyms

(1) Difference in denotation

(2) Difference in connotation

(3) Difference in collocation

(4) Difference in distribution

12. Antonymy is a relationship of …meaning opposition? that may hold between two words. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.

13. Types of Antonyms

(1) Contraries: Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes

Characteristics of Contraries

1) The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.

2) They can be modified by very and have comparative and superlative forms.

3) The cover term is often used in daily life.

(2)Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.

(3)Converses: This third type consists of relational opposites, which indicate a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.

(4) Semantic Incompatible is a relationship of …meaning opposition? that may hold among several words.

14. Function of Antonymy

Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, and many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purposes.

15. Homonymy is the relation between two words that are spelled or pronounced in the same way but differ in meaning. Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.

16. Semantic Field refers to the phenomenon that vocabulary is an integrated system interrelated in sense and can be divided semantically into related sets or fields. Most languages share same semantic fields, such as time, space, age, kinship, food, color, emotion…

17. Application of Semantic Field

(1) A very large number of lexemes can be grouped together into fields and subfields in a fairly clear-cut way.

(2) It has proved helpful to present learners with sets of related lexemes, rather than with a series of randomly chosen items.

(3) Psychology has also shown that young children learn much of their vocabulary by bringing lexemes together in this way.

Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning

1. Types of Change

(1) Extension of Meaning (2) Narrowing of Meaning

(3) Elevation of Meaning (4) Degradation of Meaning

(5) Transference of Meaning (6) Euphemism

2. Extension of Meaning

It is also called generalization. It?s a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.

3. Narrowing of Meaning

It is the opposite of widening, is a process by which a word or wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.

4. Elevation of Meaning

Elevation is the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.

5. Degradation of Meaning

A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill manner or non-affective words come to used in pejorative sense.

6. Transference of Meaning

Words which were used to refer to one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.

7. Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation, such as death, toilet etc.

8. Causes of Change

(1)Extra-linguistic Factors

1) Historical reason 2) Social reason 3) Psychological reason

(2) Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system, which occurs mainly in two ways: Ellipsis, Analogy Chapter 8 Meaning and Context

1. Context

In a narrow sense, it consists of the lexical items that come immediately before and after any word in an act of communication. In a broad sense, it refers to the whole passage, whole book, entire social or cultural setting.

2. Types of Context

(1) Linguistic Context refers to words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which a word appears.

1) Lexical context refers to the items combined with a given polysemous word.

2) Grammatical context: In some cases, the meaning of a polysemous word may be determined by the grammatical structure (not specific words) in which it occurs. (2) Extra-linguistic Context refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word appears.

1) Situational context: the actual situation in which communication occurs.

2) Cultural context: the social and cultural background.

3. The Role of Context

(1) Elimination of ambiguity: condition whereby any linguistic form has two or more interpretations.

1) Lexical ambiguity: caused by polysemy. 2) Structural ambiguity

3) Implied meaning 4) Meaning of the omitted parts

(2) Indication of referents

(3) Providing clues for inference of meaning: In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints, which might help the readers to grasp the concept or comprehend the idea.

《英语词汇学》教学大纲

a t i m e a n d A l l t h 《英语词汇学》教学大纲 一、课程名称：英语词汇学 二、课程类别：英语专业限选课 三、教学时数与学分：本课程为34学时, 总学分为2分四、开课时间：本课程安排在第6学期进行五、教学对象：英语专业一年级学生六、教学目的： 通过学习，学生能够了解英语词汇学的基本理论知识，并能用所学的知识去独立思考、分析问题和解决问题。 七、教学内容： 教师授课与学生自学相结合。学生需在教师的指导下阅读有关词汇学书籍。检查学生的阅读质量主要采取由学生复述阅读内容，并对阅读内容中的思想和观点作出个人的评价。教师重点讲解学生在阅读中所遇到的重点和难点。 学生完成基础词汇学理论的学习后，应根据所学词汇学理论知识，在教师的指导下设计、完成自己的学期论文。 Chapter I A General Survey of English Vocabulary Chapter II Morphological Structure of English Words Chapter III Word-Formation (I)Chapter IV Word-Formation (II) Chapter V Word Meaning and Semantic Features Chapter VI Polysemy and Homonymy Chapter VII Sense Relations Between Words Chapter VIII Meaning and Context Chapter IX Changes in Word Meaning Chapter X English Idioms Chapter XI American English Chapter XII English Dictionaries and How to Use Them 八、时间安排：本学期6－13周进行课程的讲授，14周组织学生复习，15周考试。详见下表。 周次日期 星期/节次 讲授内容 备注 第一周月 日 第二周第三周第四周第五周第六周 10.1310.13周五.3.4周五.7.8General survey of English vocabulary; morphological structure of English words 第七周10.20周五.3.4Word-formation(I)第八周 10.2710.27 周五.3.4周五.7.8 Word-formation(II)

词汇学的基本知识

词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。

词汇学复习整理

Chapter 1 LEXICOLOGY: Lexicology is the science of words, which is concerned with the study of vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, the origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. Chapter 2 1.The history of English language History of English language can be divided into Old English(450AD-1150AD), Middle English (1150AD-1500AD), and Modern English (1500AD-present). 2.Classification of English words English words can be divided into different groups in terms of the origin, the level of usage and the notion. By origin Native words (Anglo-Saxon/ old English) Loan words (borrowed) By level of usage: 5 categories Standard/ popular word/ common words Literary words Colloquial words Slang words Technical words By notion Content words: They have the independent lexical meaning, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb. Function words: They are determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and grammatical signals, functional makers. Pick up the slang words and explain. 1.Father said nix to our plan, so we couldn’t go to the museum. (nothing, no) 2.When the buck leads, the world suffers. (money, dollars) 3.He says he’ll be a great writer but that’s a lot of boloney; he’ll never be. (nonsense) 4.I’ll clobber you if you don’t do what you’re told, said the angry father. (beat sb. repeatedly) 5.I think I’m just a hick at heart. (a foolish person from the country) 6.He thought his idea was wonderful, but in fact, it was complete rot. (nonsense) Chapter 3 Compounding: refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words, e.g. schoolboy. Derivation: derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. Conversion: the creation of word from an existing word without any change in form, e.g. the adjective clean becomes the verb clean.

英语教学大纲对词汇量的要求

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和各种各样的原因也不断在变化。这些数字上的变化详见下面的几个表。解放前大学中没有现在的这种大学英语（原称公共英语）性质的课程。故表二无解放前大学英语教学大纲的要求。 表一: 中学教学大纲对词汇量的要求

表二: 大学英语教学大纲对词汇量的要求

表三: 中国英语专业教学大纲词汇量的要求

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