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Biofortification of Pearl Millet with Iron and Zinc in a Randomized Controlled Trial Increases

The Journal of

Nutrition

Community and International Nutrition

Bioforti?cation of Pearl Millet with Iron and Zinc in a Randomized Controlled Trial Increases Absorption of These Minerals above Physiologic Requirements in Young Children 1–3

Bhalchandra S.Kodkany,4Roopa M.Bellad,4Niranjana S.Mahantshetti,4Jamie E.Westcott,5Nancy F.Krebs,5Jennifer F.Kemp,5and K.Michael Hambidge 5*

Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College,KLE University,Belgaum,Karnataka,India;and 5University of Colorado Denver,Department of Pediatrics,Section of Nutrition,Aurora,CO

Abstract

Millet is unusually drought resistant and consequently there is a progressive increase in the use of these grains as a human food staple,especially in large areas of India and sub-Saharan Africa.The purpose of this study was to determine the absorption of iron and zinc from pearl millet bioforti?ed with 2micronutrients that are typically de?cient in nonforti?ed,plant-based diets globally.The study was undertaken in 40children aged 2y in Karnataka,India (n =21test/19controls).Three test meals providing ~84617g dry pearl millet ?our were fed on a single day for zinc and 2d for iron between 0900and 1600h.The quantities of zinc and iron absorbed were measured with established stable isotope extrinsic labeling techniques and analyses of duplicate diets.The mean (6SD)quantities of iron absorbed from test and control groups were 0.6760.48and 0.2360.15mg/d,respectively (P <0.001).The quantities of zinc absorbed were 0.9560.47and 0.6760.24mg/d,respectively (P =0.03).These data did not include absorption of the modest quantities of iron and zinc contained in snacks eaten before and after the 3test meals.In conclusion,quantities of both iron and zinc absorbed when iron and zinc bioforti?ed pearl millet is fed to children aged 2y as the major food staple is more than adequate to meet the physiological requirements for these micronutrients.J.Nutr.

doi:10.3945/jn.113.176677.

Introduction

Though not one of the world ?s most abundant or widely consumed grains,pearl millet does provide a major food staple for millions of people in the western parts of India and in Africa,notably in the Sahel countries currently threatened by the advancing Sahara desert.Pearl millet and other millet grains survive in arid,hot environments in which more widely used cereal grains would not thrive.Hence,its production and importance is growing concurrently with global warming.Already,it accounts for >50%of total cereal grain consumption in some communities in India,especially in Mahara-shtra,Gujarat,and Rajasthan,where the rural poor heavily depend on this crop (1).Pearl millet is also widely used in Northern Karnataka,where this study was undertaken,in Belgaum.

The bioavailability of zinc and iron from pearl millet was compared with that of other important grain food staples in India in a carefully designed trial reported in 1999(2).Ab-sorption and liver amounts of both micronutrients from pearl millet and wheat were superior to those from sorghum and rice.Weight gain was highest in the pearl millet group.This study was undertaken in mice before a human trial,which appeared not to have been undertaken by this group.An in vitro study simulating intestinal digestion (3)showed that iron and zinc bioavailability from whole pearl millet ?our were signi?cantly improved by phytate degradation,but the authors cautioned that tannins chelate a high proportion of iron and zinc in the grain hulls.The authors could ?nd no published evidence of human studies of bioavailability of iron or zinc from pearl millet.

Bioforti?cation can still be regarded as a new tool in the reduction of micronutrient malnutrition (4),which is more univer-sally acceptable if achieved by traditional plant breeding techniques.The primary speci?c objective of this study was to compare the quantity of zinc and iron absorbed from iron-and zinc-bioforti?ed pearl millet with that of control grain in young children who were receiving one of these grains as their primary food and the only grain for an entire day.The quantities absorbed were also compared with the physiological requirements for zinc and iron in this age group (5).

Supported by HarvestPlus nos.8207and 8208and NIH K24DK083772.The grain used in this study was provided by HarvestPlus.The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)provided partial support (IAEA no.15205)of the human ?eld studies in India as part of a collaborative research program.2

Author disclosures:B.S.Kodkany,R.M.Bellad,N.S.Mahantshetti,J.E.Westcott,N.F.Krebs,J.F.Kemp,and K.M.Hambidge,no con?icts of interest.3

This trial is registered at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/015847244.html, as NCT01783067.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed.E-mail:Michael.Hambidge@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/015847244.html,.

?2013American Society for Nutrition.

Manuscript received March 1,2013.Initial review completed May 9,2013.Revision accepted June 13,2013.1of 5

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Experimental Design and Methods

Study design.This was a collaborative study between Jawaharlal Nehru Medical Center(JNMC)6,Belgaum,India and the Section of Nutrition,Department of Pediatrics,University of Colorado Denver (UCD).Collaborators in Colorado were responsible for isotope prepara-tion,project training and site visits,and all laboratory analyses except for the hematological assays performed at JNMC.The research team at JNMC was responsible for all aspects of the integrity of the human studies and data collection.

The study was a double-blinded,randomized,controlled investiga-tion of iron and zinc absorption from3test meals/d in which either iron-and zinc-bioforti?ed or control pearl millet comprised the only source of grain and virtually the only source of iron and zinc.HarvestPlus provided the grain for the study in4color-coded bags;2colors were assigned to each type of millet and investigators were unaware of the code throughout the study.Participants were randomized in a single block to1of4color codes using a parallel manner with a1:1allocation ratio.The randomization list was generated at UCD and provided to the study investigators at JNMC. As each participant was enrolled,the study investigators consulted the list and assigned the next available randomization from the list to the participant.

Fractional absorption of these minerals was determined with stable isotope labels of zinc and iron(6–8).The total iron and zinc intakes from the meals were determined by mineral analyses of duplicate meals.Total absorption of zinc and iron from the meals was calculated by multiplying the fractional absorption by the amount of total iron and zinc in du-plicate meals.The meals were fed by the mothers under staff supervision after accurate weighing of every step in food preparation and consump-tion.These3meals were fed in the large kitchen of JNMC community student quarters between0900and1600h.The participants ate small snacks at home before and after the study period;the food intake from the pre-breakfast and post-dinner snacks were recorded and duplicate diets were collected and analyzed,but these foods were not labeled with stable isotopes;they were generally low in zinc and iron content.

Test meals extrinsically labeled(9)with a zinc stable isotope were given for1d(study day1)and with an iron stable isotope for2d(study days1and2).Pearl millet was fed daily for a week prior to the metabolic studies,but intake quantities were not recorded.

Participants.All participants were recruited from the poor rural community of Kineye,Belgaum,in Northern Karnataka between February 2011and January2012.The age of the children ranged between22 and35mo.The community is strictly vegetarian,but the usual diet does include buffalo milk,other dairy products,and eggs.Breast feeding extends through the second year in this population,but none of the participants were breast feeding at the time of enrollment.Mothers of young children were identi?ed through the records of the Primary Health Center and recruited by the project https://www.wendangku.net/doc/015847244.html,rmed consent was obtained from all mothers pursuant to the ethical guidelines of the JNMC internal review board before undergoing any study procedures.

Participants were apparently healthy at enrollment,for the week before,and during the metabolic study.However,iron de?ciency and iron de?ciency anemia are common at this age and thalassemia is present in the community.To determine study eligibility,potential participants were?rst screened for anemia by measuring hemoglobin(Hb)with a Hemocue Hb301system.If Hb results were>8g/dL,participants proceeded to a secondary screening to measure ferritin and thalasse-mia Hb.Participants with ferritin<12mg/L,negative for thalassemia, and with birth weight>2500g were enrolled in the study,randomized to1of4color groups(2colors for control and2for bioforti?ed pearl millet),and assigned a study participant number.

Power and sample size.Group sample sizes of20and20provided 90%power to detect an effect size of20.2between the2groups assuming SDs of0.2and an a of0.05using a2-sided,2-sample t test.Preparation and administration of iron and zinc stable isotopes. 67Zn and70Zn isotope dose solutions were prepared from enriched zinc oxide(Trace Sciences International)as previously described(10).

Enriched58Fe in the form of elemental iron were also obtained from Trace Sciences International.The iron(;50mg)was dissolved in4mL of0.4mol/L H2SO4and the solution was heated at80°C on a heating block until dissolved.Ten m L of concentrated H2SO4was then added while the solution continued to be heated until the solution turned red. The isotope solution was then diluted to600m g Fe/mL using triply deionized water.To prevent the formation of ferric hydroxide,6.25mL of2mol/L H2SO4H was added and the solution left at RT overnight. Individual doses of~2mL of isotope solution were then dispensed into sealed empty vials.Solution was tested for iron concentration,pyrogens, and sterility as above.

Oral administration of accurately measured concentrations of tracer solutions was initiated at approximately the mid-point of each of the pearl millet meals on study days1and2.The zinc label was;150m g 70Zn(accurately measured)administered by research staff with each of3main pearl millet meals on d1.Approximately;1200m g58Fe (accurately measured)was equally divided and administered with all 3meals on study days1and2.Iron doses were administered for2d to maintain the labeled iron at<10%of intrinsic iron in the food.

During the afternoon of d2,a sterile,accurately measured quantity (;0.8mg)of67Zn was i.v.administered into an antecubital vein using a 3-way stop cock for normal saline rinses.

Description of test meals:preparation,administration,and collection of duplicate test meals.Test meals were prepared on site for each individual using an accurately weighed quantity of;70g(35g for feeding and35g for duplicate diet)of recently ground pearl millet ?our from the color-coded container to which the participant had been randomized.Meals were provided as sweetened porridge(sheera,primarily breakfast),savory porridge(uppama),or?at breads(roti).Savory spices added to the uppama and roti were zinc and iron free;these foods were primarily eaten at lunch or dinner and the recipes were modeled after local, commonly consumed foods.The weighed dry millet was added to water in a preweighed saucepan and the whole was reweighed after cooking.An aliquot was transferred to the child?s preweighed bowl,reweighed,and then weighed again to determine plate waste at the conclusion of each test meal.Meals were fed by the participants?mothers and the family would stay in the ample study quarters for the test days.On each of the2test meal days,a duplicate aliquot equal to the amount of the3test meals eaten by the child was transferred to a metal-free container and frozen at220°C until further processing and analyses.Likewise on each day,a duplicate aliquot of any additional foods consumed before or after the test meals was combined in a second container.

Sample collections.Research staff assisted mothers in collecting a clean,baseline,spot urine sample on d1prior to any isotope administration. Mothers continued to collect morning and evening spot urine samples in their homes on d5–9;these samples were picked up by research staff on a daily basis and stored at220°C at JNMC until shipment to UCD for analyses.

A5-mL heparinized blood sample was collected at screening and on d 16.Plasma was removed within30min of collection and the RBCs were washed twice with normal saline and frozen at220°C at JNMC until shipment to UCD for measurement of58Fe erythrocyte incorporation.At the time of the i.v.zinc stable isotope infusion on d2,a drop of blood was collected via the infusion for Hb assay using a Hemocue system. Sample analyses.Duplicate dietary samples were homogenized in a preweighed blender with additional water added as necessary to make a smooth puree.The blender and homogenate were weighed to determine the total weight of the homogenate and then the sample was divided into3weighed aliquots,which were shipped to UCD for zinc and iron analyses.Duplicate aliquots were wet-and dry-digested prior to reconsti-tution in0.1mol/L HCl for total zinc and iron analyses determined by ?ame atomic absorption spectrophotometry.Dietary zinc and iron intakes from the test meals for each day were calculated using the duplicate diet homogenate weights.The phytate content in the whole grain was measured using HPLC.

6Abbreviations used:FAZ,fractional absorption of zinc;Hb,hemoglobin;JNMC, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical Center;UCD,University of Colorado Denver.

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Urine samples were digested using a MARs microwave digestion system(CEM)(11)prior to performing a chelation procedure to purify the zinc for isotope analyses(10,12).Zinc isotope ratios(67Zn:66Zn, 70Zn:66Zn)were measured using inductively coupled plasma MS(10) and were converted to percent enrichment(de?ned as isotopic zinc/total zinc).

Erythrocyte samples were digested and iron was separated from other minerals by column chromatography.The ratio of58Fe:54Fe was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.For each participant,the erythrocyte sample collected on d16was analyzed immediately next to its baseline sample.The58Fe:54Fe ratio for each baseline erythrocyte sample was compared with the ratio derived from representative isotopic composition(13)of elemental iron to calculate a correction factor,which was then used to correct the58Fe:54Fe ratio of the corresponding d16 sample.Enrichment was calculated from the corrected iron isotope ratios, taking into account the contribution to each individual isotope measure-ment from all sources of iron,enriched and natural,in the sample. Enrichment is de?ned as for zinc.

Data processing.Fractional absorption of zinc(FAZ)was determined by a dual isotope tracer technique based on isotopic enrichments in urine from orally and i.v.administered isotopes(6,8).Total absorbed zinc

(mg/d)from the test meals was calculated by multiplying total intake of zinc in the test meals by FAZ.

The single iron isotope technique was used to measure fractional absorption of iron(7).The quantity of administered enriched58Fe incorporated into the erythrocytes was calculated using58Fe enrichment of the RBCs on d16and the following equation:

58FeeincT?58En3FeecircT;

where Fe(circ)is the quantity of total circulating Fe(mg)on d16estimated as:

FeecircT?Vol blood3Hb3á3:47

and Vol blood is the blood volume estimated by:

logVol blood??0:64593logekg wtT t?0:0027433cm ht

t2:0324T

FIA,assuming80%of absorbed iron is incorporated into erythrocytes, was estimated as:58Fe(inc)/(amount of58Fe enriched dose30.8).The total absorbed iron(mg/d)from the test meals was calculated by multiplying total intake of iron in the test meals by FIA.

Data analyses.The means for dietary intakes and total absorbed zinc and iron were compared across groups using t tests using GraphPad Prism version 5.00for Windows(GraphPad Software).Data are presented as means6SDs unless otherwise noted.All comparisons were considered signi?cant at P<0.05.

Results

Forty-four children(21male,23female)with a mean age of 28.863.5mo enrolled in the study.Four participants withdrew consent prior to the?rst day of the study.Sample collection was incomplete in2participants from each group,leading to missing data for fractional absorption of iron(n=3)and FAZ(n=1). Demographic characteristics did not signi?cantly differ between the2groups(Table1).Only one participant had received any vitamin and/or mineral supplement prior to the study.

All of the children were iron de?cient(de?ned as ferritin<12 m g/L)with a mean ferritin concentration of5.863.0m g/L and Hb of9.961.0g/L(Table2).Mean plasma zinc concentrations did not differ between groups;6participants had values<65m g/ dL.Mean C-reactive protein(CRP)and a-1-glycoprotein(AGP) were not different between groups(Table2);no participants had CRP values>5mg/L and only2had slightly elevated AGP values

(>120mg/dL).Presence of thalassemia was an exclusionary criteria;hence,no participants had this condition.No adverse effects were observed during this study.

The mean quantity of peal millet?our consumed was84617

g/d,with no signi?cant difference between d1and2.The quantity of iron in this pearl millet exceeded the EAR for iron

at this age of3.0mg Fe/d(5)despite the intake of grain being

less than the intended100g dry grain/d.

The grain concentrations of iron,zinc,and phytate are given

in Table3.The quantity of iron absorbed from the iron-and

zinc-bioforti?ed pearl millet test meals fed in1d was signi?cantly

and substantially greater than that from the control nonbioforti-

?ed grain(Table3).The absorption of iron from the test meals exceeded the physiological requirement of0.54mg/d for this age group(5).The quantity of zinc absorbed from the3bioforti?ed

test meals on study day1was also signi?cantly and substantially greater than that from identical meals prepared from the control nonbioforti?ed pearl millet grain(Table3).The absorption of zinc from the test meals also exceeded the estimated physiological requirement of2.5mg/d zinc(5).

Additional iron and zinc was ingested from early-morning

and late-evening snacks(Table3).These additional foods increased

the total daily zinc intake by1366%and22613%in the bioforti?ed and control groups,respectively.Likewise,the daily iron intakes were increased by21613%and32623%,respectively.

The absorption of iron and zinc from these snacks was not measured.

TABLE1Characteristics of the study population1

Biofortified(n=21)Control2(n=19)

Age,mo28642963

Birth weight,kg 2.560.6 2.660.5 Gender,M/F12/98/11

Weight,kg10.760.910.861.4

Height,cm79.9620.484.062.8

HAZ21.6761.0922.1061.30

WAZ21.4760.8321.5061.11

WHZ20.7060.8420.5761.32

BMI14.463.915.361.9

Maternal education,y 2.360.8 2.760.5

Paternal education,y 2.660.7 2.460.78 Household income,INR/mo323761456392962503

1HAZ,height-for-age Z-score;INR,Indian rupees;WAZ,weight-for-age Z-score;WHZ, weight-for-height Z-score.

TABLE2Biochemical data in children assigned to received

either bioforti?ed or control pearl millet as a staple grain in

test meals1

Biofortified(n=21)Control(n=19)P value2

Hb,g/dL10.061.09.961.00.73

Ferritin,m g/L 5.963.3 5.662.80.78

CRP,mg/L 2.360.5 2.460.80.68

AGP,mg/dL79.4624.975.9615.50.62

Plasma zinc,m g/dL78.5617.475.6611.50.55

1Values are means6SDs.AGP,a-1-glycoprotein;CRP,C-reactive protein;Hb, hemoglobin.

22-tailed Student?s t test.

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Discussion

Dietary factors have major effects on the ef?ciency of absorption of iron from vegetarian meals(14).Notable inhibitory factors are phytate and polyphenols.The major dietary inhibitory factor for zinc is phytate,which is present in the husk but also after decortication.Phytate also inhibits iron absorption.The inhib-itory effect of tannins is more clearly de?ned with iron(15)and it appears debatable(3,15)whether tannins have a signi?cant effect on zinc absorption.The husk of this small grain is notable for its high content of tannin,which is responsible for its purple coloration.Traditionally,the grain is vigorously shaken in a sieve and to the extent possible separated husks are removed by hand. Fermentation and cooking,but not other food preparation procedures,reduce the anti-nutrient effects of pearl millet. Ascorbate enhances iron absorption in the presence of tannins not only by its reducing properties but by decreasing the chelating properties of tannins.The phytate:zinc molar ratio declined from 24:1in the control grain to9:1in the bioforti?ed grain.The corresponding?gures for iron were19:1and5:1,respectively. Reliable measurements of phytate in the test meals were not available due to sample deterioration during transit.

The mean plasma zinc concentration of the participants was not indicative of moderate or severe zinc de?ciency.However, plasma zinc is not a sensitive biomarker of zinc status(16).The regular inclusion of buffalo milk in the diet of these children is expected to have had a favorable impact on their zinc(but not iron)status.However,the mean zinc absorption was less than the estimated physiological requirements,indicating an intake of bioavailable zinc that was less than optimal and could have contributed to the very poor linear growth of these children(17).

Much remains to be learned about the quantitative effects of these factors,especially in young children.These considerations emphasize the value of absorption measurements as a?rst stage in the evaluation of the potential bene?ts of bioforti?cation of a grain that provides a major food staple.The results of this study indicate that,in contrast to control grain,the absorption of iron from this bioforti?ed pearl millet is adequate to meet the estimated physiological requirements for iron at this age.For zinc,absorption increased from less than that required to match physiological requirements to a comfortable excess beyond this requirement.The quantities of pearl millet consumed were readily accepted by children in India at the age of2y.These results are even more encouraging when taking into consideration that these data were derived from only3of the5meals/snacks typically consumed.Although the other meals(in early morning and before retiring)were typically relatively low in iron and zinc,this was not always so and it is reasonable to conclude that if it had been feasible to label and quantitatively collect duplicates of these additional meals that the daily absorption of iron and zinc would have been even more favorable.

These results and the ready acceptance of quantities of pearl millet adequate to meet physiological requirements by very young rural children in Karnataka hold excellent promise for poor,rural-based families and merit priority attention to studies of their effectiveness in populations both in India and Africa for whom pearl millet is currently a food staple,with the potential for its use to expand,especially in drought-threatened areas.

In conclusion,the enhanced concentrations of iron and zinc in pearl millet resulting from bioforti?cation,primarily with the goal of increasing iron concentration,are bioavailable and are suf?cient to meet the physiological requirements for these2 important micronutrients in very young children when con-sumed as a primary food staple.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Kedar N.Rai,ICRISAT,for providing the bioforti?ed and control grain.K.M.H.,N.F.K.,J.E.W.,and B.S.K. designed research;R.M.B.and N.S.M.conducted research;J.F.K. analyzed data;K.M.H.wrote the paper;and K.M.H.had primary responsibility for?nal content.All authors read and approved the ?nal manuscript.

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中英文对照版合同翻译样本

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