Validation and Verification of Use Cases and Class Models
Validation and Veri?cation of Use Cases and Class Models Georg K?sters1, Hans-Werner Six2, and Mario Winter2
1 ISOW ARE GmbH, Feithstr. 142, TGZ, D-58097 Hagen, Germany
2 University of Hagen, Dept. of CS, Feithstr. 140, INF.Z, D-58084 Hagen, Germany
{hw.six | mario.winter}@fernuni-hagen.de
Abstract.The description of the functional,behavioral,and structural system
essentials form central components of any serious requirements speci?cation.In
the UML,for example,functional requirements are expressed by use cases,their
behavior modeled by e.g.activity graphs,and structural requirements are
captured by class models.Unfortunately,any software development method
dealing with different models faces dif?culties ensuring consistency of the
speci?cations and completeness with respect to each other.To overcome these
de?ciencies,we re?ne activity graphs to meet the needs of a suitable modeling
element for use case behavior.The re?nement in particular supports the proper
coupling of activity graphs and the class model.Granularity and semantics of the
approach allow for a seamless,traceable transition of use cases to domain
classes and for the veri?cation of the domain class model against the use case
model.The validation of the use case model and parts of the domain class model
is supported as well.
1INTRODUCTION
The speci?cation of software systems mainly addresses the functional,behavioral,and structural system essentials.In the UML[11],for example,functional requirements are expressed by use cases while structural requirements are captured by class models. For modeling behavioral aspects of use cases,interaction diagrams are mainly used. Unfortunately,an interaction diagram does not capture an entire use case but represents only one speci?c sequence of actions(a scenario)compatible with the use case.The attempt to specify an entire use case by a set of interaction diagrams also fails, as pointed out in e.g. [13][15].
Regnell et al.de?ne the semantics of use cases with message sequence charts,which can be hierarchically composed to higher structures[14][15].Because of the level of detail the approach seems to be more suitable for the speci?cation of human-computer or computer-computer interfaces,and the derivation of test cases for statistical usage testing.Glinz proposes an integrated formal model of scenarios based on hierarchical composed state charts[3].The approach aims at executable speci?cations and the generation of prototypes,thus focusing on system-internal information on a relatively low level of abstraction.
More recently,activity graphs have been considered as a better choice for modeling use case behavior.An activity graph is“a variation of a state machine in which the states represent the performance of actions or subactivities and the transitions are triggered by the completion of the actions or subactivities“[11].Unfortunately,up to now the semantics de?nition and the metamodel of activity graphs are in progress and desirable properties are still missing.Following Pohl and Haumer,a use case model should cover three types of information:the system internal information focusing on the system itself,interaction information concentrating on the direct interaction of the
system with its environment,and contextual information representing the system's environment[12].An activity graph describing the behavior of a use case should therefore capture all three types of information.Since an activity graph focuses on a single modeling element,e.g.an operation,a class,or an entire system,it cannot model the behavior of more than one interacting modeling elements,and in particular cannot cope with interaction information.
Concerning the speci?cation of structural system requirements,the UML provides the class model.The class model plays an important role in the system development process because it serves as a central basis for the main development activities [5][10][11].Summarizing our discussion,in order to capture functional system aspects,their behavior,and structural essentials,a requirements speci?cation deals with use cases,activity graphs,and class models.These different models,however,are based on different modeling techniques and aim at different levels of abstraction,such that serious consistency and completeness problems are induced.
In this paper,we propose a re?nement of activity graphs to meet the needs of a suitable modeling element for use case behavior.The re?nement in particular supports a proper coupling of activity graphs and class models.Granularity and semantics of the approach allow for a seamless,traceable transition of use cases(actually their related activity graphs)to domain classes thus providing the basis not only for consistency and completeness checks but also for the veri?cation of the domain class model against the use case model(comprising use cases and activity graphs).The validation of the use case model and parts of the domain class modelis supported as well.
2COUPLING USE CASES AND CLASS MODELS
2.1 Actors and Use Cases
According to the UML,actors represent the global business context the proposed system will?t in.Actors characterize roles played by external objects which interact with the system as part of a coherent work unit(a use case).An actor is speci?ed by a unique global name and an informal description characterizing its particular role in the problem domain.
A use case describes a coherent work unit or task to be carried by one or more actors with the help of the system.A use case is characterized by a unique global name,a set of actors being involved in the work unit,a description of actions being performed,and a pre-and a post-condition specifying the assumptions and the outcome of the use case.Pre-and post-conditions are used similar to contracts in object-oriented programming[10].They can be formulated using consistent prose and later re?ned and formalized using e.g. the Object Constraint Language (OCL) [11].
Running example:Throughout the paper we explain our approach using the automatic teller machine(ATM)case study[2][5].We identify three actors Customer,Bank Host and Operator,and?ve use cases:Identi?cation,Withdraw Money,Deposit Money, T ransfer Funds,and Supply Money.Fig.1shows the use case diagram of the ATM. Fig. 2 provides a textual description of the Identi?cation use case.
2.2 Activity Graphs and Actions
We exploit activity graphs to model the behavior of use cases.We start characterizing an action by a name that is unique among all actions of the entire use case,an informal description of the action,its type∈{contextual action,interaction,macro action},a
pre -and a post-condition specifying the assumptions and the result of the action,and a set of actors involved in the action.
An activity graph is characterized by a non-empty set S of vertices (i.e.actions),a set of directed edges E ?S ×S (transitions).Each edge e =(s ,s ')is annotated by a guard c (e );the control ?ow follows an edge e only if guard c (e )holds after the execution of action s ,a start vertex s 0∈S from which paths to all other vertices of the activity graph exist, a non-empty set of ?nal vertices SF ?S .
In order to use activity graphs for a proper modeling of use case behavior,we re?ne them in compliance with the UML extension mechanism [11].To model the executions of the three different types of actions in activity graphs,we de?ne suitable stereotypes for subclasses of the metaclasses State and ObjectFlowState .
The stereotypes ?contextual action ?,?interaction ?,and ?actor in action ?re?ect contextual and interaction information.The system internal information will be covered by so-called class scopes and interaction sequences (see Sect.2.3and 4).The ?macro action ?stereotype serves as an aid for carrying the ?include ?and ?extend ?associations between use cases over to activity graphs.Finally,an actor is individually connected to an action via an ObjectFlowState instance stereotyped ?actor in action ?.(For more details regarding our extensions see [6]and [8]).These four stereotypes are graphically depicted by the symbols shown in Fig. 3.
In the common use case terminology,a use case describes a set of “scenarios“[2]that
Fig. 1.ATM use case diagram Customer
Operator
Withdraw Money
Deposit Money
Supply Money T ransfer Funds
Bank Host
ATM
?include??include??include?Identi?cation Use Case Identi?cation in Model ATM
Description:When the card has been inserted,the ATM card reader reads the code and checks PIN and card (if the A TM is online, by the bank host, otherwise by its own algorithm). If the PIN is entered
3 times wrongly, the A TM marks the card as locked and ejects it, else the ATM panel shows
a menu and the A TM waits for the customer's selection.
Actors: Customer, Bank Host
Pre-Condition: CardReader ready, Panel shows logo
Post-Condition: Card in CardReader, CardReader locked, Card ok, PIN ok, Customer identi?ed,
Panel shows menu
or Card unreadable, Card retracted, CardReader ready, Panel shows logo
or PIN 3 times wrong, Card locked, Card ejected, CardReader ready, Panel shows logo
End Identi?cation
Fig. 2.Textual description of the use case Identi?cation
represent concrete executions of the corresponding work unit.A scenario corresponds to a path through the activity graph of the use case which starts at the start vertex,is guided by action post-conditions and edge guards,and ends up in a ?nal vertex.Such a scenario can be visualized as an UML sequence diagram.
Example:The activity diagram within the package Withdraw Money Description depicted in the left part of Fig.4re?nes use case Withdraw Money .For simplicity reasons,edge guards are omitted.Start vertex and ?nal vertices of the activity graph are illustrated by transitions from the start state,resp.to ?nal states,of the activity diagram.Note that the start vertex is a ?macro action ?which calls (the activity graph of)the use case Identi?cation .The start vertex is simultaneously a ?nal vertex,because a scenario of the use case Withdraw Money might end up with an unsuccessful identi?cation process,e.g.if the card is unreadable or a wrong PIN is entered.The right part of Fig.4illustrates a sequence diagram for the scenario Successful Withdrawal of the use case Withdraw Money .Textual descriptions of the action Check Amount and two of it‘s outgoing edges are provided by Fig. 5.
2.3 Class Scopes
According to the UML,use cases represent functional requirements of the system while the domain class model focuses on structural or “data“aspects.These aspects Contextual Action Interaction Macro Action ActorInAction
Fig. 3.Graphical symbols for the proposed stereotypes
Fig. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/096575036.html,e case Withdraw Money with activity diagram and scenario Successful Withdrawal Customer Bank Host
Get Selection Get Amount Check Amount Write Card
Eject Card
Retract Card Dispense Money
Take Money Identi?cation WithdrawMoney Description Withdraw Money ?re?ne?
?instanceOf?Bank Host
Customer
Take Card Customer Bank Host
:A TM Identi?cation
Get Selection
Get Amount
Check Amount Write Card
Eject Card
Take Card Dispense Money Take Money WithdrawMoney Scenarios
Interaction Check Amount in Activity Graph Withdraw Money
Description: The amount is checked; if the ATM is online, by the state and balance of the account, else by the of?ine-rules.
Actors: Bank Host
Pre-Condition: Card in CardReader, CardReader locked, Card ok, PIN ok, Customer identi?ed, (Amount read or Transaction canceled)
Post-Condition: Card in CardReader, CardReader locked, Card ok, PIN ok, Customer identi?ed, Amount ok or Transaction canceled or (not Amount ok,not Transaction canceled) End Check Amount
Transition Check Amount - Write Card in Activity Graph Withdraw Money
Guard Amount ok or Transaction canceled
End Check Amount - Write Card
Transition Check Amount - Get Amount in Activity Graph Withdraw Money
Guard not (Amount ok OR Transaction canceled)
End Check Amount - Get Amount
Fig. 5.Textual description of the ?interaction?Check Amount and two outgoing transitions are derived from key domain concepts when analysts work out a?rst,“entity-relationship-like“skeleton of the domain class model(e.g.[4][10]).For a proper coupling of activity graphs and the domain class model we further extend activity graphs by introducing the concept of a class scope.
For each use case,we determine the set of domain classes with instances involved in the execution of the work unit(i.e.which are created,retrieved,modi?ed,or deleted). The set of classes is called the class scope of the use case.The class scope is basically derived from the use case description and its pre-and post-condition and complies with the domain class model.It can be visualized by a UML collaboration diagram. Analogously,we derive the class scope for each action of the according activity graph. Furthermore,we balance the activity graphs and the class model such that for each ?interaction?(of an activity graph)an operation o exists that accomplishes the ?interaction?in the class model.Operation o belongs to a class C which is element of the class scope of the?interaction?.We call C the root class and o the root operation of the ?interaction?.
Example:In Fig.6on the next page the ATM domain class diagram is sketched. Classes Account,Cash and Card represent the core business objects,class T ransaction with it‘s subclasses Withdrawal,Deposit and TransferFunds the ATM transaction rules. The other classes re?ect the hardware components.Fig.7illustrates the class scope of the use case Identi?cation.
3VALIDATION
Concerning the validation of requirements speci?cations,we focus on inspections and walkthroughs proved as effective means for document based validation[1][2][13].We propose a phased[17](actually a two level)inspection process which comprises different techniques and assembles teams in a problem oriented manner.Stakeholders participating in validation activities are analysts, testers, domain experts, and users.?The?rst level is mainly devoted to the preparation of the second level activities.
Analysts and testers pre-inspect the use case model and the domain class model to detect violations of the UML syntax and our modeling rules.Since we share the opinion that business scenarios are an appropriate validation means[13][16],we construct business scenarios for each use case by deriving them from its pre-condi-
tion and activity graph.For each scenario,an initial domain object constellation is assembled from the class scope of the start action of the activity graph.For a better comprehension,analysts build up user-centered views of the scenarios and domain object constellations.To this end,they incorporate,for example,domain speci?c pictograms (see e.g.Fig.8)or so-called “real world scenes“captured by multime-dia sequences [9].?On the second level,a series of walks through business scenarios is jointly con-
ducted by all parties involved [7].First,domain experts and users check the initial domain object constellation and the (textual)precondition of the scenario to ensure that all necessary information is at hand.In the course of the walkthroughs,domain experts and users focus on the textual descriptions of the actions,check their cor-rectness and the related domain object constellations.When validating the domain object constellations, the domain class model is partly validated as well.
Example:Consider the activity diagram describing the use case Withdraw Money (Fig.Card
Number
IdentCode
BankCode
DateLastUse
NbrOfTrials
AmountAtDate
CreditLimit
checkPIN
CashSlot Printer printLine CardReader State ?
readCard
writeCard
awaitCard
ejectCard
retractCard Cash Dispenser Cash ? canDispense
dispense
TransferFunds Deposit Transaction Begin End Amount Ident Schedule State begin end commit rollback
doSchedule
offline
checkPIN Withdrawal checkAmount BankInterface
State ?
getAccount
checkPIN
Account Number Balance State Type CreditLimit BankCode open close deposit withdraw lock Panel getKey
showMenu
showLogo
readPIN
readAccountNbr
readAmount
0,N
0,N
0,N 0,N 1
0,N 0,N 0,N 0,N 11,N 10,N 0,N theAccount 0,N 110,N Fig. 6.ATM domain class diagram
Fig. 7.Class scope of the use case Identi?cation
Card Transaction BankInterface
Identi?cation
CardReader ?trace?Identi?cation participant participant
participant participant
Use Case Model
Class Model
4).Fig.8depicts a user centered view of the scenario Withdrawal Failed -Illegal Amount , which can be validated by users and domain experts.
4VERIFICATION
Based on the re?ned use case model and the class scopes,we are now going to verify the class model against the use cases and activity graphs.Validation and veri?cation of requirements speci?cations bear certain similarities,but the latter works on a more formal https://www.wendangku.net/doc/096575036.html,ers and domain experts in general are not able to contribute to veri?cation activities,such that analysts and testers remain the only parties involved.Similar to the validation,the veri?cation activities are performed in a two level process.
?On the ?rst level,the veri?cation starts with detailed inspections of the formal parts
of the use case model (e.g.pre-and post-conditions and edge-guards of the activity graphs).Then the (re?ned)class model is checked to detect incomplete,inconsis-tent,and/or ambiguous speci?cations and/or missing items.Finally,each ?interac-tion ?speci?cation of the activity graphs is examined concerning compliance with its class scope and the speci?cation of the root operation.
When these detailed inspections have been completed,the use case model is veri-?ed (and also validated,see Sect.3).The class model is now consistent and unam-biguous.It remains to check that the class model is correct and complete with Fig. 8.
User centered view of a scenario for use case Withdraw Money
Domain Objects:Withdraw
Deposit
Transfer
Cancel
1
234
567
89*0#Card
Panel (Selection)Panel (Numeric)
Card Reader
Failed Action
Domain Objects Actors Actions
Actors:Customer
Bank Host
Actions:
Identi?cation
Get Selection Check Amount
Write Card Eject Card Get Amount
T ake Card
123456789*0#Withdraw
Deposit
Transfer
Cancel Macro Action Bank Interface
Account Withdrawal
respect to the use case model.
?On the second veri?cation level,it must therefore be con?rmed that the class model is able to cope with each ?interaction ?of the activity graphs.To this end,analysts and testers walk through the scenarios (re-used from the validation)and investigate the thread of executions of operations in the class model triggered by the ?interac-tion ?vertices.Obviously,the operation which is invoked ?rst in a thread of execu-tions is a root operation.It serves as an entry point to the (operations of the)class model.Note that for every ?interaction ?initial and ?nal object constellations can be re-used from the validation process.
The simulation of a thread of executions in the class model which is prompted by an ?interaction ?is called an interaction sequence .Interaction sequences can be visualized by UML sequence diagrams (see e.g.Fig.9(b)).An interaction sequence depends on it‘s context,i.e.on the triggering ?interaction ?and the initial object constellation.Since this object constellation has already been validated,it satis?es the pre-condition of the root operation such that the interaction sequence can start.In the course of an interaction sequence,the current object constellation is changing.An error in the class model is detected,if the current object constella-tion does not meet the pre-condition of the operation to be performed next.The interaction sequence completes successfully,if no such error has been encountered and the ?nal object constellation satis?es the post-condition of the action (and the root operation).Elements of the class model,which have not been involved in some interaction sequence,indicate that the class model is overspeci?ed,or —less likely —the use case model is still incomplete.In the latter case,the validation of the use case model has not suf?ciently been accomplished.
The business scenarios which are re-used during the veri?cation and enriched by interaction sequences are called test scenarios .A test scenario can be regarded as a test case which tests the class model against an activity graph.Furthermore,test scenarios can be exploited for system and acceptance test cases [18].
Fig. 9.Test scenario Successful Off-Line Identi?cation (a) and two interaction sequences (b)(a)(b)
Insert
Card Customer
readCard :CardReader :Card new
checkPIN
manipulate checkPIN
checkPIN
offline
:Transaction
:Card :BankInterface
PIN Menu
:ATM Show Menu
Check PIN Get PIN
Read Card ?trace?Requirements Test Model
Analysis
Test Model Read Card Test Cases Check PIN Test Cases
?trace?Identification Test Cases
Scenarios Validation Model Verification Model
Example:Consider the test scenario Successful Off-Line Identi?cation in Fig.9(a) which assumes that the BankHost is unavailable,and the interaction sequence triggered by action Check PIN(Fig.9(b)).In this interaction sequence the A TM switches its state to off-line and performs the operation checkPIN de?ned in class Card.
5TOOL SUPPORT AND EXPERIENCES
We have developed a tool comprising modeling,validation,and veri?cation facilities, which support the application of our approach to real world problems.In the GIS (Geographical Information Systems)area,we have developed a retrieval system for naive users and domain experts and a tool for less skilled persons which supports collecting geometric information and feeding it into a GIS.For a software house,we have implemented an internet-based system for planning,collecting,computing,and evaluating project related efforts and costs.
Experiences from these projects have turned out that analysts do not encounter problems when modeling activity graphs and coupling them with class models.We share the common experiences that users(assisted by analysts)are able to understand and validate user-centered views of scenarios[2][9][16].In all projects,skilled testers and analysts have succeeded in performing the veri?cation activities.
On the other hand,all analysts and testers were more or less sceptical when the projects started,because they did not believe that the validation effort would really pay off.However,when they got aware of the high re-use of validation elements during veri?cation as well as system and acceptance testing,they judged our approach to be worthwhile.They found it especially useful when they observed that the software developed according to our method was signi?cantly less error prone than the software they have developed so far.
6FUTURE WORK
Our tool is currently re-implemented in Rational Rose?,a commercial CASE tool supporting the UML notation.The modeling elements are integrated into Rational Rose via the UML extension mechanism,while scripts implement the validation and veri?cation components.
One dif?cult problem of both validation and program testing is“knowing when to stop“.Due to the structural similarity of activity graphs and control?ow graphs of programs,we will adapt coverage criteria for program testing to yield quantitative measures for the planning and control of the validation (and veri?cation) activities. Our approach also provides a basis for the derivation of test cases for system and acceptance testing.At the moment,we are working on a component generating suitable test cases from the speci?cations.Furthermore,we are developing a tool that —based on the knowledge gained from the veri?cation of the class model against the use case model and in particular from the interaction sequences gathered for this purpose—supports the derivation of revealing“grey-box“system test cases which can be traced back to domain objects [18].
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初中语文古文赏析曹操《短歌行》赏析(林庚)
教育资料 《短歌行》 《短歌行》赏析(林庚) 曹操这一首《短歌行》是建安时代杰出的名作，它代表着人生的两面，一方面是人生的忧患，一方面是人生的欢乐。而所谓两面也就是人生的全面。整个的人生中自然含有一个生活的态度，这就具体地表现在成为《楚辞》与《诗经》传统的产儿。它一方面不失为《楚辞》中永恒的追求，一方面不失为一个平实的生活表现，因而也就为建安诗坛铺平了道路。 这首诗从“对酒当歌，人生几何”到“但为君故，沉吟至今”，充分表现着《楚辞》里的哀怨。一方面是人生的无常，一方面是永恒的渴望。而“呦呦鹿鸣”以下四句却是尽情的欢乐。你不晓得何以由哀怨这一端忽然会走到欢乐那一端去，转折得天衣无缝，仿佛本来就该是这么一回事似的。这才是真正的人生的感受。这一段如是，下一段也如是。“明明如月，何时可掇?忧从中来，不可断绝。越陌度阡，枉用相存。契阔谈宴，心念旧恩。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。绕树三匝，何枝可依。”缠绵的情调，把你又带回更深的哀怨中去。但“山不厌高，海不厌深”，终于走入“周公吐哺，天下归心”的结论。上下两段是一个章法，但是你并不觉得重复，你只觉得卷在悲哀与欢乐的旋涡中，不知道什么时候悲哀没有了，变成欢乐，也不知道什么时候欢乐没有了，又变成悲哀，这岂不是一个整个的人生吗?把整个的人生表现在一个刹那的感觉上，又都归于一个最实在的生活上。“我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙”，不正是当时的情景吗?“周公吐哺，天下归心”，不正是当时的信心吗? “青青子衿”到“鼓瑟吹笙”两段连贯之妙，古今无二。《诗经》中现成的句法一变而有了《楚辞》的精神，全在“沉吟至今”的点窜，那是“青青子衿”的更深的解释，《诗经》与《楚辞》因此才有了更深的默契，从《楚辞》又回到《诗经》，这样与《鹿鸣》之诗乃打成一片，这是一个完满的行程，也便是人生旅程的意义。“月明星稀”何以会变成“山不厌高，海不厌深”?几乎更不可解。莫非由于“明月出天山”，“海上生明月”吗?古辞说：“枯桑知天风，海水知天寒”，枯桑何以知天风，因为它高；海水何以知天寒，因为它深。唐人诗“一叶落知天下秋”，我们对于宇宙万有正应该有一个“知”字。然则既然是山，岂可不高?既然是海，岂可不深呢?“并刀如水，吴盐胜雪”，既是刀，就应该雪亮；既是盐，就应该雪白，那么就不必问山与海了。 山海之情，成为漫漫旅程的归宿，这不但是乌鹊南飞，且成为人生的思慕。山既尽其高，海既尽其深。人在其中乃有一颗赤子的心。孟子主尽性，因此养成他浩然之气。天下所以归心，我们乃不觉得是一个夸张。 .
The way常见用法
The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because
The use of force
孩子。 Does your throat hurt you? Added the mother to the child. 女孩的表情没有任何变化，而她的目光却一直没有从我的脸上移开。 But the little girl’s expression didn’t change nor did she move her eyes from my face. 你看过她的嗓子了吗？ Have you looked? 我想看，孩子的母亲说，但看不见。 I tried to, said the mother but II couldn’t see. 这个月碰巧她上学的那个学校已经有好几例白喉病。虽然到目前为止没有人说出这件事，但很显然，我们心里都想到了。 As it happens we had been having a number of cases of diphtheria in the school to which this child went during that month and we were all, quite apparently, thinking of that, though no one had as yet spoken of the thing. 好了，我说，我们先看看嗓子吧。 Well, I said, suppose we take a look at the throat first. 我以医生特有的职业方式微笑着，叫着孩子的名字。我说，来吧，玛蒂尔达，张开嘴，让我看一下你的嗓子。 I smiled in my best professional manner and asking for the child’s first name I said, come on, Mathilda, open your mouth and let’s take a look at your throat.没有任何反应。 Nothing doing. 哦，来吧，我劝道，张大你的嘴，让我看看。看，我说着把两只手伸开，我的手里没有东西，张大嘴，让我看看。 Aw, come on, I coaxed, just open your mouth wide and let me take a look. Look, I said opening both hands wide, I haven’t anything in my hands. Just open up and let me see.
高中语文文言文曹操《短歌行(对酒当歌)》原文、翻译、赏析
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翅，哪里才有它们栖身之 所？ 可依？ 高山不辞土石才见巍 峨，大海不弃涓流才见壮阔。（比喻用人要“唯才是举”，多多益善。）山不厌高，水不厌深。 只有像周公那样礼待贤 才（周公见到贤才，吐出口 中正在咀嚼的食物，马上接 待。《史记》载周公自谓： “一沐三握发，一饭三吐哺， 犹恐失天下之贤。”），才 能使天下人心都归向我。 周公吐哺，天 赏析 曹操是汉末杰出的政治家、军事家和文学家，他雅好诗章，好作乐府歌辞，今存诗22首，全是乐府诗。曹操的乐府诗多描写他本人的政治主张和统一天下的雄心壮志。如他的《短歌行》，充分表达了诗人求贤若渴以及统一天下的壮志。 《短歌行》是政治性很强的诗作，主要是为曹操当时所实行的政治路线和政策策略服务的，但是作者将政治内容和意义完全熔铸在浓郁的抒情意境之中，全诗充分发挥了诗歌创作的特长，准确而巧妙地运用了比兴手法，寓理于情，以情感人。诗歌无论在思想内容还是在艺术上都取得了极高的成就，语言质朴，立意深远，气势充沛。这首带有建安时代"志深比长""梗概多气"的时代特色的《短歌行》，读后不觉思接千载，荡气回肠，受到强烈的感染。 对酒当歌，人生几何？ 譬如朝露，去日苦多。 慨当以慷，幽思难忘。 何以解忧，唯有杜康。 青青子衿，悠悠我心。 但为君故，沈吟至今。 呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。 我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 明明如月，何时可掇？ 忧从中来，不可断绝。 越陌度阡，枉用相存。 契阔谈，心念旧恩。 月明星稀，乌鹊南飞， 绕树三匝，何枝可依？ 山不厌高，海不厌深， 周公吐哺，天下归心。 《短歌行》是汉乐府的旧题，属于《相和歌?平调曲》。这就是说它本来是一个乐曲的名称，这种乐曲怎么唱法，现在当然是不知道了。但乐府《相和歌?平调曲》中除了《短歌行》还有《长歌行》，唐代吴兢《乐府古题要解》引证古诗“长歌正激烈”，魏文帝曹丕《燕歌行》“短歌微吟不能长”和晋代傅玄《艳歌行》“咄来长歌续短歌”等句，认为“长歌”、“短
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The way的用法及其含义(二)
The way的用法及其含义（二） 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语： 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势，忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析 引导语：曹操(155—220)，字孟德，小名阿瞒，《短歌行 二首》 是曹操以乐府古题创作的两首诗， 第一首诗表达了作者求贤若渴的心 态，第二首诗主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心迹。 短歌行 其二 曹操 周西伯昌，怀此圣德。 三分天下，而有其二。 修奉贡献，臣节不隆。 崇侯谗之，是以拘系。 后见赦原，赐之斧钺，得使征伐。 为仲尼所称，达及德行， 犹奉事殷，论叙其美。 齐桓之功，为霸之首。 九合诸侯，一匡天下。 一匡天下，不以兵车。 正而不谲，其德传称。 孔子所叹，并称夷吾，民受其恩。 赐与庙胙，命无下拜。 小白不敢尔，天威在颜咫尺。 晋文亦霸，躬奉天王。 受赐圭瓒，钜鬯彤弓， 卢弓矢千，虎贲三百人。 威服诸侯，师之所尊。 八方闻之，名亚齐桓。 翻译 姬昌受封为西伯，具有神智和美德。殷朝土地为三份，他有其中两分。 整治贡品来进奉，不失臣子的职责。只因为崇侯进谗言，而受冤拘禁。 后因为送礼而赦免， 受赐斧钺征伐的权利。 他被孔丘称赞， 品德高尚地位显。 始终臣服殷朝帝王，美名后世流传遍。齐桓公拥周建立功业，存亡继绝为霸 首。
聚合诸侯捍卫中原，匡正天下功业千秋。号令诸侯以匡周室，主要靠的不是 武力。 行为磊落不欺诈，美德流传于身后。孔子赞美齐桓公，也称赞管仲。 百姓深受恩惠，天子赐肉与桓公，命其无拜来接受。桓公称小白不敢，天子 威严就在咫尺前。 晋文公继承来称霸，亲身尊奉周天王。周天子赏赐丰厚，仪式隆重。 接受玉器和美酒，弓矢武士三百名。晋文公声望镇诸侯，从其风者受尊重。 威名八方全传遍，名声仅次于齐桓公。佯称周王巡狩，招其天子到河阳，因 此大众议论纷纷。 赏析 《短歌行》 (“周西伯昌”)主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心 迹，当他翦灭群凶之际，功高震主之时，正所谓“君子终日乾乾，夕惕若 厉”者，但东吴孙权却瞅准时机竟上表大说天命而称臣，意在促曹操代汉 而使其失去“挟天子以令诸侯”之号召， 故曹操机敏地认识到“ 是儿欲据吾著炉上郁!”故曹操运筹谋略而赋此《短歌行 ·周西伯 昌》。 西伯姬昌在纣朝三分天下有其二的大好形势下， 犹能奉事殷纣， 故孔子盛称 “周之德， 其可谓至德也已矣。 ”但纣王亲信崇侯虎仍不免在纣王前 还要谗毁文王，并拘系于羑里。曹操举此史实，意在表明自己正在克心效法先圣 西伯姬昌，并肯定他的所作所为，谨慎惕惧，向来无愧于献帝之所赏。 并大谈西伯姬昌、齐桓公、晋文公皆曾受命“专使征伐”。而当 今天下时势与当年的西伯、齐桓、晋文之际颇相类似，天子如命他“专使 征伐”以讨不臣，乃英明之举。但他亦效西伯之德，重齐桓之功，戒晋文 之诈。然故作谦恭之辞耳，又谁知岂无更讨封赏之意乎 ?不然建安十八年(公元 213 年)五月献帝下诏曰《册魏公九锡文》，其文曰“朕闻先王并建明德， 胙之以土，分之以民，崇其宠章，备其礼物，所以藩卫王室、左右厥世也。其在 周成，管、蔡不静，惩难念功，乃使邵康公赐齐太公履，东至于海，西至于河， 南至于穆陵，北至于无棣，五侯九伯，实得征之。 世祚太师，以表东海。爰及襄王，亦有楚人不供王职，又命晋文登为侯伯， 锡以二辂、虎贲、斧钺、禾巨 鬯、弓矢，大启南阳，世作盟主。故周室之不坏， 系二国是赖。”又“今以冀州之河东、河内、魏郡、赵国、中山、常 山，巨鹿、安平、甘陵、平原凡十郡，封君为魏公。锡君玄土，苴以白茅，爰契 尔龟。”又“加君九锡，其敬听朕命。” 观汉献帝下诏《册魏公九锡文》全篇，尽叙其功，以为其功高于伊、周，而 其奖却低于齐、晋，故赐爵赐土，又加九锡，奖励空前。但曹操被奖愈高，心内 愈忧。故曹操在曾早在五十六岁写的《让县自明本志令》中谓“或者人见 孤强盛， 又性不信天命之事， 恐私心相评， 言有不逊之志， 妄相忖度， 每用耿耿。
2008年浙师大《外国文学名著鉴赏》期末考试答案
（一）文学常识 一、古希腊罗马 1．（1）宙斯(罗马神话称为朱庇特)，希腊神话中最高的天神，掌管雷电云雨，是人和神的主宰。 （2）阿波罗，希腊神话中宙斯的儿子，主管光明、青春、音乐、诗歌等，常以手持弓箭的少年形象出现。 （3）雅典那，希腊神话中的智慧女神，雅典城邦的保护神。 （4）潘多拉，希腊神话中的第一个女人，貌美性诈。私自打开了宙斯送她的一只盒子，里面装的疾病、疯狂、罪恶、嫉妒等祸患，一齐飞出，只有希望留在盒底，人间因此充满灾难。“潘多拉的盒子”成为“祸灾的来源”的同义语。 （5）普罗米修斯，希腊神话中造福人间的神。盗取天火带到人间，并传授给人类多种手艺，触怒宙斯，被锁在高加索山崖，受神鹰啄食，是一个反抗强暴、不惜为人类牺牲一切的英雄。 （6）斯芬克司，希腊神话中的狮身女怪。常叫过路行人猜谜，猜不出即将行人杀害；后因谜底被俄底浦斯道破，即自杀。后常喻“谜”一样的人物。与埃及狮身人面像同名。 2．荷马，古希腊盲诗人。主要作品有《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被称为荷马史诗。《伊利亚特》叙述十年特洛伊战争。《奥德赛》写特洛伊战争结束后，希腊英雄奥德赛历险回乡的故事。马克思称赞它“显示出永久的魅力”。 3．埃斯库罗斯，古希腊悲剧之父，代表作《被缚的普罗米修斯》。6．阿里斯托芬，古希腊“喜剧之父”代表作《阿卡奈人》。 4．索福克勒斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《俄狄浦斯王》。5．欧里庇得斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《美狄亚》。 二、中世纪文学 但丁，意大利人，伟大诗人，文艺复兴的先驱。恩格斯称他是“中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。主要作品有叙事长诗《神曲》，由地狱、炼狱、天堂三部分组成。《神曲》以幻想形式，写但丁迷路，被人导引神游三界。在地狱中见到贪官污吏等受着惩罚，在净界中见到贪色贪财等较轻罪人，在天堂里见到殉道者等高贵的灵魂。 三、文艺复兴时期 1．薄迦丘意大利人短篇小说家，著有《十日谈》拉伯雷，法国人，著《巨人传》塞万提斯，西班牙人,著《堂?吉诃德》。 2．莎士比亚，16-17世纪文艺复兴时期英国伟大的剧作家和诗人，主要作品有四大悲剧——《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》《麦克白》、《李尔王》，另有悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等，喜剧有《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》等，历史剧有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》等。马克思称之为“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”。 四、17世纪古典主义 9．笛福，17-18世纪英国著名小说家，被誉为“英国和欧洲小说之父”，主要作品《鲁滨逊漂流记》，是英国第一部现实主义长篇小说。10．弥尔顿，17世纪英国诗人，代表作：长诗《失乐园》，《失乐园》，表现了资产阶级清教徒的革命理想和英雄气概。 25．拉伯雷，16世纪法国作家，代表作：长篇小说《巨人传》。 26．莫里哀，法国17世纪古典主义文学最重要的作家，法国古典主义喜剧的创建者，主要作品为《伪君子》《悭吝人》（主人公叫阿巴公）等喜剧。 五、18世纪启蒙运动 1）歌德，德国文学最高成就的代表者。主要作品有书信体小说《少年维特之烦恼》，诗剧《浮士德》。 11．斯威夫特，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《格列佛游记》，以荒诞的情节讽刺了英国现实。 12．亨利·菲尔丁，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《汤姆·琼斯》。 六、19世纪浪漫主义 （1拜伦， 19世纪初期英国伟大的浪漫主义诗人，代表作为诗体小说《唐璜》通过青年贵族唐璜的种种经历，抨击欧洲反动的封建势力。《恰尔德。哈洛尔游记》 （2雨果，伟大作家，欧洲19世纪浪漫主义文学最卓越的代表。主要作品有长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》、《悲惨世界》、《笑面人》、《九三年》等。《悲惨世界》写的是失业短工冉阿让因偷吃一片面包被抓进监狱，后改名换姓，当上企业主和市长，但终不能摆脱迫害的故事。《巴黎圣母院》 弃儿伽西莫多，在一个偶然的场合被副主教克洛德.孚罗洛收养为义子，长大后有让他当上了巴黎圣母院的敲钟人。他虽然十分丑陋而且有多种残疾，心灵却异常高尚纯洁。 长年流浪街头的波希米亚姑娘拉.爱斯梅拉达，能歌善舞，天真貌美而心地淳厚。青年贫诗人尔比埃尔.甘果瓦偶然同她相遇，并在一个更偶然的场合成了她名义上的丈夫。很有名望的副教主本来一向专心于"圣职"，忽然有一天欣赏到波希米亚姑娘的歌舞，忧千方百计要把她据为己有，对她进行了种种威胁甚至陷害，同时还为此不惜玩弄卑鄙手段，去欺骗利用他的义子伽西莫多和学生甘果瓦。眼看无论如何也实现不了占有爱斯梅拉达的罪恶企图，最后竟亲手把那可爱的少女送上了绞刑架。 另一方面，伽西莫多私下也爱慕着波希米亚姑娘。她遭到陷害，被伽西莫多巧计救出，在圣母院一间密室里避难，敲钟人用十分纯朴和真诚的感情去安慰她，保护她。当她再次处于危急中时，敲钟人为了援助她，表现出非凡的英勇和机智。而当他无意中发现自己的"义父"和"恩人"远望着高挂在绞刑架上的波希米亚姑娘而发出恶魔般的狞笑时，伽西莫多立即对那个伪善者下了最后的判决，亲手把克洛德.孚罗洛从高耸入云的钟塔上推下，使他摔的粉身碎骨。 （3司汤达，批判现实主义作家。代表作《红与黑》，写的是不满封建制度的平民青年于连，千方百计向上爬，最终被送上断头台的故事。“红”是将军服色，指“入军界”的道路；“黑”是主教服色，指当神父、主教的道路。 14．雪莱，19世纪积极浪漫主义诗人，欧洲文学史上最早歌颂空想社会主义的诗人之一，主要作品为诗剧《解放了的普罗米修斯》，抒情诗《西风颂》等。 15．托马斯·哈代，19世纪英国作家，代表作：长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》。 16．萨克雷，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《名利场》 17．盖斯凯尔夫人，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《玛丽·巴顿》。 18．夏洛蒂?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，代表作：长篇小说《简?爱》19艾米丽?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，夏洛蒂?勃朗特之妹，代表作：长篇小说《呼啸山庄》。 20．狄更斯，19世纪英国批判现实主义文学的重要代表，主要作品为长篇小说《大卫?科波菲尔》、《艰难时世》《双城记》《雾都孤儿》。21．柯南道尔，19世纪英国著名侦探小说家，代表作品侦探小说集《福尔摩斯探案》是世界上最著名的侦探小说。 七、19世纪现实主义 1、巴尔扎克，19世纪上半叶法国和欧洲批判现实主义文学的杰出代表。主要作品有《人间喜剧》，包括《高老头》、《欧也妮·葛朗台》、《贝姨》、《邦斯舅舅》等。《人间喜剧》是世界文学中规模最宏伟的创作之一，也是人类思维劳动最辉煌的成果之一。马克思称其“提供了一部法国社会特别是巴黎上流社会的卓越的现实主义历史”。
(完整版)the的用法
定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...
The use of force
The use of force 大意: Mathilda had been ill for three days. Her mother had given her some medicine, but it didn’t do any good. So they had to ask the doctor to come. There had been a number of cases of diphtheria in Mathilda School and two of them had been dead. When the doctor arrived at Olson’s home, he wanted to examine Mathilda throat first. But no matter how he coaxed, She wouldn’t open her mouth. So the doctor had to get the tongue depressor into her mouth. But Mathilda reduced it to splinters. In orde r to protect Mathilda herself and other children, the doctor had to make sure whether she had diphtheria or not, so that he could treat her in time. Letting Mathilda‘s father hold her wrists he tried his best to open her mouth and found she really had diphtheria. This story made us can think such a question that something in life can’t only depend on self-willingness. Under some circumstances, certain force seems necessary. 对医生的评价:After the doctor arrived at the girl’s home, he wanted to see her throat. As there had been a number of cases of diphtheria in the school to which the girl went during that month, the doctor also thought that of the girl. So he smiled to the girl and asked her to open her mouth and let him have a look at her throat. No matter how the doctor coaxed, the girl shut her mouth firmly. Thinking that the girl might have diphtheria and possibly die of it, the doctor decided to use force to open her mouth. He had seen at least two children lying dead in bed of neglect in such cases. He felt that he must get a diagnosis now. So he grasped the girl’s head with his left hand and tried to get the wooden tongue depressor between her teeth. But when the doctor got the wooden spatula behind her last teeth. She gripped the blade between her molars and reduced it to splinters. In the final unreasoning assault the doctor outer powered the girl. He forced the heavy silver spoon back of her teeth and down her throat till she gagged. Her both tonsils were covered with membrane. From that the doctor had done, I thought he was a responsible person. In order to save the lives of the patients, especially those children who did not know how to co-operate with the doctor, he had to take some measure. Otherwise a good or suitable time of treatment would be missed. The doctor appears to be compassionate and keen to human behavior, characteristic of a good doctor, though he is also undeniably blunt and slightly prejudiced. 思想: Though there are reasons often justifiable, what compels the use of force against others isn't simply altruism alone. The overall theme of the story revolves around power and submission and the doctor's unnerved feeling following the forceful encounter. 作者如何写的: The story is narrated in first person by a doctor, who is answering a house visit to see a sick girl. Williams uses interior monologue as a "stream-of-consciousness" tool reflects the narrator's experience of dialogue and gives insight into the character and his appraisal of the situations he encounters. The story is written without the use of quotation marks, and the dialogue is not distinguished from the narrator's comments. The story is rendered from the subjective point of view of the doctor, and explores his subdued enjoyment of forcefully subduing the stubborn child in an attempt to acquire the throat sample.
外国名著赏析论文
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短歌行赏析介绍
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