化工专业英语翻译
吴宁，马丁答：哈伯，*奥兰多j的罗哈斯，并Sunkyu公园
The rate and extent of transport of macromolecules and other solutes 溶质的速度和程度等大分子和运输
into cellulosic materials and fibers have important applications in such 纤维素纤维为材料，具有重要的应用，例如
fields as papermaking, textiles, medicine, and chromatography. 医学领域的造纸，纺织，和层析。This 这
review considers how diffusion and flow affect permeation into wood, 审查认为，如何传播和流通的影响渗透到木材，
paper, and other lignocellulosic materials. 纸及其他木质纤维材料。Because pore sizes within 由于内孔尺寸
such materials can range from nanometers to millimeters, a broad 这种材料可以从纳米到毫米，广阔
perspective will be used, also considering some publications related to 观点将被使用，也考虑到一些相关的出版物
other porous materials. 其他多孔材料。Factors that limit the rate or extent of polymer or 因素，限制了利率或或程度聚合物
other solute transport into pores can involve thermodynamics (affecting 其他溶质运输毛孔可以涉及到热力学（影响
the driving motivation for permeation), kinetics (if there is insufficient time 为渗透驾驶动机），动力学（如果没有足够的时间
for the system to come to equilibrium), and physical barriers. 该系统来平衡）和无形壁垒。Molecular 分子
flow is also affected by the attributes of the solute, such as molecular 流动也受到溶质的属性，如分子
mass and charge, as well as those of the substrate, such as the pore 质量和电荷，以及那些为基质的，如孔
size, interconnectedness, restricted areas, and surface characteristics. 大小，相互联系，限制区和表面特性。
Published articles have helped to clarify which of these factors may have 发表的文章有帮助澄清哪些因素可能有
a controlling influence on molecular transport in different situations. 不同的交通情况控制在影响分子。
Keywords: Diffusion; Flow; Permeation; Porous materials; Cellulose; Polyelectrolytes; Solutes; Enablers关键词：扩散;流;渗透;多孔材料，纤维素，聚电解质，溶质;促成工具
Contact information: Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Campus Box联系方式：箱处森林生物材料，北卡罗莱纳州立大学校园
8005; Raleigh, NC 29695-8005.8005;罗利，北卡罗来纳29695-8005。* Corresponding author: hubbe@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0811370322.html,*通讯作者：hubbe@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0811370322.html,
INTRODUCTION引言
Permeation of macromolecules and other dissolved or suspended matter from 大分子的渗透和其他溶解或悬浮物从
aqueous solution into cellulosic material is important in the manufacture of paper, in the 纤维素水溶液为重要的是纸的制造，在
sizing of textile fibers, in filtration, in various types of absorption processes, and in the 浆纱纺织纤维，在过滤，吸收过程中不同类型的，而在
manufacture of cellulosic composites or nanocomposites. 制造纤维素复合材料或复合材料。In each of these domains it is 在每一个领域，这些是
important to understand factors that affect the degree to which molecules, ions, 重要的是了解因素影响的程度，分子，离子，
surfactants, polyelectrolytes, or colloids penetrate into the interior pores of lignocellulosic表面活性剂，聚电解质，或胶体渗透到毛孔内部木质纤维素
matter. 的问题。Polyelectrolytes are of particular interest. 聚电解质具有特别的兴趣。In papermaking, often it is considered 在造纸，往往被认为是
advantageous for polyelectrolytes to remain at or near to the outer surface of cellulosic聚电解质便于将保持或接近外表面的纤维素
fibers, thereby maximizing their contributions to various processes, such as fine-particle 纤维，从而最大限度地发挥自己的贡献，各个进程的粒子，如细
retention, dewatering, or the development of inter-fiber bonding. 保留，脱水，或结合发展跨纤维。In the textile industry 在纺织行业
surface-finishing with polymers and other additives is important for fiber processing and 表面精加工与聚合物添加剂和其他重要的是和纤维加工
use. 使用。In bioethanol production the diffusion of enzymes determines the efficiency with 在生产生物乙醇的酶的扩散决定了效率
which cellulose hydrolysis can take place. 其中水解纤维素可以进行。In the wood industry it is important to 在木材工业是重要的
understand the permeation of preservatives, components of surface finishes, and even of 了解防腐剂渗透，完成部件的表面，甚至
rot-related enzymes. 腐有关的酶。
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Wu et al. 吴等人。(2009). （2009年）。“Polyelectrolyte permeation in cellulose,”“聚电解质渗透在纤维素”
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In many applications there is an advantage if one can achieve faster penetration of 在许多应用中，如果有一个好处，可以实现更快的渗透
polymeric materials into the pores of cellulosic materials. 纤维素材料高分子材料进入毛孔。This is certainly true in the 这是千真万确的
case of glue penetration for wood-based construction (Kamke and Lee 2007). 案件胶）普及率为木质建筑（卡姆克和李2007。Material 材料
transport by convection and diffusion, as well as by fluid penetration are essential steps 运输由对
流和扩散，以及流体渗透是必不可少的步骤
for chemicals to interact with wood chips during production cellulosic pulps (Gustafson 化学品在生产过程中进行交互芯片与木材纤维纸浆（古斯塔夫森
et al.1997). 等人。1997年）。The interior part of the wood chips is not easily reached by chemicals.该木屑内部是不容易达成的化学品。Thus,因此，
short contact times of wood chips with reactive liquor may result in non-uniform cooking 木酒接触时间短的反应可能会导致芯片在非均匀烹调
of cellulose pulp. 纤维素纸浆。Polymer permeation phenomena also are important in fields such as 聚合物渗透现象也是一些重要领域，如
enhanced oil recovery; polymers may be used to influence the channeling of flow through 提高原油采收率;聚合物可用于输送流动影响通过
oil-containing strata (Babadagli 2007). 含油地层（巴巴达勒2007年）。
Publications considered in this review article provide evidence of factors and 刊物认为这条规定的审查和证据的因素
mechanisms that affect the rate or extent to which solute transport occurs into the fine 影响汇率机制或何种程度上发生溶质运输到细
pores of cellulosic materials. 毛孔的纤维素材料。The review takes advantage of the fact that relevant work 事实上，在审查时，利用了，有关工作
also has been carried out with such materials as silica gel, mineral beds, and plastic还进行了与病床等矿物材料如硅胶，塑胶
materials. 材料。Emphasis will be placed on charged polymers, especially in cases where 重点将放在收费聚合物，尤其是在情况
opposite charges contribute to a driving force favoring permeation. 相反电荷有助于建立一个有利于推动力量渗透。For completeness, 为求完整，
such situations will be contrasted with cases where adsorption may be favored by 这种情况将通过对比吸附的情况下可能会青睐
changes in entropy accompanying permeation and adsorption. 熵的变化伴随渗透和吸附。Both bulk transport by 由两个散货运输
convection and molecular diffusion will be considered. 对流和分子扩散将予以考虑。Aspects of the fine-scale 对部分优秀规模
porosity, pore sizes, and interconnectedness of pores within cellulosic materials 孔隙率，孔径，孔隙内和相互关联的纤维素材料
(tortuosity) also will be considered. （弯曲）也将予以考虑。
At the outset it is important to acknowledge several prior review articles, many of 在一开始就必须承认一些事先审查的文章，很多
which go deeper than the present article in different areas that may be of interest to 这比去更深的兴趣，目前在不同领域的文章，可能是
particular readers (Stamm 1953; Stone and Green 1958; Siau 1984; Robertson and 特定的读者（斯塔姆1953年石和绿1958;斯欧1984;罗伯逊和
L?nnberg 1991a,b; L?nnberg et al.1992; Muralidhar and Ramkrishna 1993; Sahimi L?nnberg 1991年a，B组; L?nnberg 等。1992年; Muralidhar和Ramkrishna 1993; Sahimi
1993; Starov 2004; Dechadilok and Deen 2006; Delgado 2006; Babadagli 2007; Johnson 1993年;斯塔罗夫2004年Dechadilok和德恩2006年;德尔加多2006;巴巴达勒2007;约翰逊
et al. 2007; Kamke and Lee 2007; Chavez-Rojo et al. 2008). 等人。2007;卡姆克和李2007;查韦
斯-罗乔等。2008年）。Also it is worth noting另外值得注意的是
several articles dealing with nonuniformities in transport rates through packed columns, 填充柱在几个不均匀性条款时，通过与运输费率，
which can result in “tails” in eluted solutes (Newman and Walker 1992; Kosakowski这可能导致“尾巴1992”和沃克在洗脱溶质（新民; Kosakowski
2004; Obi and Blunt 2004; Delgado 2006). 2004年，欧比2004年和布伦特;德尔加多2006年）。Organization of this Article组织本条
This article is organized into three main sections, the first of which deals with 本文分为三个主要部分，第一部分涉及
factors that can affect permeation. 因素会影响渗透。Emphasis is placed on publications reporting practical 报告重点放在实际的出版物
observations. 意见。Factors affecting permeation, relating to the nature of the pores, the fluids, 渗透的影响因素，涉及到流体性质的毛孔，，
and interactions at interfaces, tend to apply for a broad range of applications; therefore 在互动和接口，往往申请应用领域非常广泛，因此
citations will be considered from diverse fields. 引用将被视为由不同领域。
The next main section considers mechanisms of permeation, with emphasis on 接下来的主要部分审议渗透机制，重点是
flow and diffusion. Flow can be defined as movement of a fluid phase relative to its 流动和扩散。流程可以被定义为相流体运动相对于其
surroundings. Diffusion can be defined as a mechanism by which transport is driven by a 周围的环境。扩散可被界定为一种机制，其中运输驱动
gradient in concentration. 梯度浓度。In many practical situations transport of solutes will result from 在许多实际情况溶质运输将产生
a combination of diffusion and fluid motion. 一项议案，结合扩散和流体。Flow is important in cases where liquid 流是其中重要的案件液体
moves either into or through a porous material; in such cases the moving fluid may or 材料或移动到或通过多孔，在这种情况下，流体运动可能会或
may not be able to carry along various dissolved or entrained substances. 可能不能随身携带或夹带各种溶解物质。As will be 由于将
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Wu et al. 吴等人。(2009). （2009年）。“Polyelectrolyte permeation in cellulose,”“聚电解质渗透在纤维素”
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esources 4(3), 1222-1262. 如果资源4（3），1222年至1262年。
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discussed, barriers related to entropy, charge, or physical inaccessibility may tend to 讨论，障碍与熵，收费，或身体不便可能倾向于
exclude the polymeric material in some instances. 排除某些情况下高分子材料研究。Realizing that certain readers may have an interest in promoting access of 认识到某些读者可能有兴趣在促进获取
polyelectrolytes, enzymes, or other solutes into the interior spaces of cellulosic materials, 聚电解质，酶，或其他溶质成纤维素材料的内部空间，
a third section of this article will be devoted to “ enablers” of permeation. 1本文的第三部分将专门为“ 引擎渗透”的。An enabler is是一个推动者
defined here as anything that promotes either more rapid or more complete penetration, 此处定义为任何东西，以促进更快速或更完整的渗透，
either by flow or by diffusion through aqueous solution. 无论是流量或通过水溶液扩散。OVERVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION AND FLOW IN PORES综述扩散因素影响和流动毛孔
V arious factors can affect the progress of dissolved or very finely suspended 多种因素可影响溶解或悬浮的进展非常细
substances into porous media. 物质进入多孔介质。These factors generally can be grouped into the pore 这些因素一般可分为孔隙
attributes, the nature of the fluid (carrier), and the interactions between the fluid medium 属性，承运人流体性质（），和流体介质的相互作用
and the solids, including any dispersed substances (soluble, colloidal, or particulate) 和固体，包括任何分散的物质（水溶性，胶体，或微粒）
(L?nnberg et al. 1992; Lebon et al. 2006). （L?nnberg 等。1992年;莱等人。2006年）。The complexity of diffusion and flow in pores复杂的扩散和流动的毛孔
involves many branches of science, of which thermodynamics deserves special attention. 特别注意涉及许多分支科学，其中热力学值得。
V ariables of interest for diffusion and flow in pores include the set of classical variables, 在变量流的扩散和利益，毛孔包括变量集古典，
eg mass, momentum, and heat, as well as the corresponding fluxes of these quantities. 如质量，动量和热量，以及这些量的相应通量。
Pore Attributes: Case of Cellulosic Materials孔属性：材料案例纤维素
Cellulose is a porous material, especially when it is wet with water. 纤维素是一种多孔材料，尤其是当它被水沾湿的。Many 许多
applications of cellulose involve its interaction with fluids that flow or diffuse into its纤维素酶的应用涉及其流体相互作用的流动或扩散到其
porous structure. 多孔结构。Knowing the physical-chemical structures and attributes of these pores 知道了物理，化学结构及这些属性的毛孔
helps to understand associated interactions of cellulose' surface with fluids and provides 有助于了解相关的流体相互作用的纤维素的表面，并提供
guidance for related applications. 指导相关的应用程序。For instance, Kamke and Lee (2007) have considered 例如，卡姆克和Lee（2007）曾考虑
many such factors in their review of adhesive penetration into wood. 渗入木材胶粘剂等许多因素在其审查。
Pore size and size distribution (morphology)孔径大小和分布（形态）
Permeability of cellulosic materials can be expected to increase with increasing 材料透气性的纤维素可以预期升高而增加
pore size or with the removal of obstructions from pores. 孔径或与障碍物去除毛孔。For instance, alkaline 例如，碱性
conditions tend to promote more rapid penetration into cellulosic materials (Scallan 条件有助于促进材料（斯卡伦更迅速渗透到纤维
1983); this has been attributed to increased swelling, an effect that can increase the sizes 1983年），这已被归因于增加肿胀，效果，可以增加的大小
of pores. 毛孔。
There are at least two classes of pores within different types of cellulosic 至少有两类不同类型的孔隙内纤维素
materials. 材料。Relatively large pores, often in the range of 0.1 to 100 μm, may exist either 毛孔较大，往往在0.1微米至100范围内，或者可能存在
between the fibers (as in the case of paper products) or inside the fibers ( ie the 纸制品之间的纤维（如在案件）或纤维内（即
uncollapsed lumens of fibers in wood). 木材uncollapsed纤维流明的）。Relatively small pores will be present within the 相对较小的孔隙内将目前的
cell walls of the fibers. 纤维细胞壁的。The sizes of the latter pores have been the subject of considerable 后者的大小的孔洞，一直是受到相当大的
interest and discussion. 兴趣和讨论。Elegant work by means of the solute exclusion principle was 优雅的工作原则，通过这一手段排斥溶质是
used as evidence for pores in the cell walls of never-dried sulfite fibers having widths 对作为证据使用的毛孔在细胞壁永不干涸后纤维宽度亚硫酸盐
generally in the range of 2 to 20 nm (Stone and Scallan 1968). 一般在2至20纳米范围（石和斯卡伦1968年）。However, these estimates 然而，这些估计数字
were later disputed as being too low, since the analysis was said not to take into account 后来有争议的过低，因为分析说，不要顾及
various entropic factors (Alince and van de V en 1997). 各1997）熵因素（阿林切和德万。Based on adsorption of 基于吸附
polyelectrolytes, the latter authors concluded that the pores in never-dried chemical pulps 聚电解质，后者的作者得出结论认为，在没有毛孔浆干化学
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Wu et al. 吴等人。(2009). （2009年）。“Polyelectrolyte permeation in cellulose,”“聚电解质渗透在纤维素”
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io印务局
R?
esources 4(3), 1222-1262. 如果资源4（3），1222年至1262年。
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should mostly be larger, possibly 40 to 100 nm. 应该大部分会更大，可能40到100纳米。Analyses of penetration into cellulosic 渗透进入纤维素分析
materials also need to take into account the effects that the diffusing solution may have 材料还需
要考虑到的扩散效应，可能有解决方案
on the swelling, and thus the pore sizes within the material. 在膨胀，从而在材料的孔隙大小。Senden et al.(2000) studied the effects of pore morphology on penetration rates 塞登等人。（2000）研究普及率的形态对影响孔隙
for ink vehicles. 用于油墨车辆。In printing operations the setting of inks often involves the passing of a 在印刷油墨设置的操作往往涉及到一个合格的
vehicle though a surface of a paper. 车辆虽然是纸张表面的一个。In such cases a higher amount of micro-pores near 在这样的微孔隙近例较高额
the surface of paper may allow more ink pigments to be held near the paper surface, and 在纸张表面的油墨可以让更多的颜料将举行近纸张表面，
this would be expected to result in a higher density of the printed image. 这将是预期会导致在印刷图像密度较高的。It was noted 有人指出
that different micro-pore systems imbibe liquids at different rates, depending on their 不同的微孔隙系统吸收率在不同的液体，根据其
geometries. 几何图形。For instance, converging pore features can promote more rapid permeation, 例如，可以收敛毛孔功能促进更快速渗透，
whereas sharply diverging features, as one passes toward the interior of a porous 而尖锐分歧的特征之一，因此，通过对内部的多孔
material, can act as blocks to capillary penetration. 材料，可作为毛细渗透块。
Pore Volume孔容
The fractional porosity can be defined as the ratio of the voids volume to the total 孔隙度的分数可以被定义为空洞的体积比的总
volume of that material. 数量方面的资料。In other words, porosity represents the storage capacity. 换句话说，孔隙度代表了存储容量。
However, a high porosity doesn't necessarily mean that the material has a high 不过，高孔隙率并不一定意味着该材料具有较高的
permeability, since the void spaces may be either interconnected or isolated. 透气性，因为空隙可以是相互关联的，孤立的。To give an 为了让一
example from geology, shales tend to have high porosity but very low permeability due 例如，从地质，页岩往往具有很高的孔隙度非常低，但由于渗透率
to the poorly interconnected voids. 对不良互联空隙。By contrast, sandstones generally can have both high 相比之下，一般可以有两种砂岩高
porosity and high permeability. 孔隙度和高渗透性。
In the case of cellulosic materials, the pores may be between fibers, within the 在材料的案件纤维素，毛孔纤维之间可能，在
fiber walls, or consisting of the fiber lumens and their connections at pit openings 纤维墙，或流明组成的纤维，在进站口的连接
(Stamm 1953). （斯塔姆1953年）。During wood's growth, pores can serve as a medium for transport of 在木材的增长，毛孔可以作为中型运输
water and other nutrients. 水和其他营养物质。Pits can become narrowed due to drying, and they also can 窖可以成为缩小由于干燥，而且还可以
become choked to various degrees by wood resins. 成为哽咽木不同程度的树脂。They also enable chemical diffusion 它们还使化学扩散
and penetration during pulping. 在制浆和渗透。In the case of hardwood pulps flow through
vessels is 此案是硬木纸浆流过的船只
expected to be more important than flow through fiber lumens and pits (Stone and Green 预计将更加重要，比绿色流经纤维流明和坑（石
1958). 1958年）。
Flow also can occur through the cell walls of cellulosic materials, especially when 流也可以通过材料的出现，尤其是细胞壁的纤维素时
the material is water-saturated. 该材料是水饱和。The mesopores within cellulosic material tend to become 纤维素材料的孔内趋于
somewhat enlarged during pulping operations due to the combined influences of swelling 在制浆业务有所扩大的影响，由于合并后的肿胀
of the material and removal of lignin-rich domains, leaving behind the spaces once 材料和域去除木质素的丰富，曾经留下的空间
occupied by these domains (Berthold and Salmén 1997). 占领这些领域（贝特霍尔德和索尔梅1997年）。The shapes and connections 的形状和连接
within the pore structure can be expected to change also as a result of mechanical refining 内孔结构可以预期也改变炼油机械1结果
of cellulosic pulps. 纤维素纸浆。When the pulp has been dried, some of pores will be irreversibly 当纸浆已经干涸，部分毛孔将不可逆转
closed (Stone and Scallan 1966). 关闭（石和斯卡伦1966年）。
Dimensions of the substrate基板尺寸
Much can be learned about the porosity of wood by considering the dimensions of 可以学到很多东西对孔隙尺寸的木材考虑
a typical wood chip used in pulping operations (Gustafson et al. 1997; Maattanen and 一个典型的木片（用于制浆行动古斯塔夫森等。1997年;梅泰宁和
Tikka 2008) or in a dilute acid pretreatment step in the production of cellulosic biofuels Tikka 2008）或在稀酸预处理纤维素生物燃料的生产步骤
(Kim and Lee 2002). （李和金2002）。A wood chip for use in pulping often has a thickness in the range of 利用木材制浆的一个芯片往往有一个厚度范围
2-10 mm, whereas the length and breadth will be much larger (Schultz et al. 1999). 2-10毫米的宽度，长度，而将更大（舒尔茨等人。1999年）。The该
thinness of chips is intended so that pulping reagents can more-or-less completely 薄芯片的目的是使试剂能更制浆或无完全
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penetrate the wood material before the onset of rapid chemical reaction. 快速渗透化学反应的物质的木材前发病。The thickness of 的厚度
chips has to be small enough so that diffusion in not the rate-limiting factor. 芯片要小到足以使不扩散速率的限制因素。Over-thick 过厚
chips can be rechipped in order to overcome such problems (Maattanen and Tikka 2008). 芯片可以rechipped为了克服2008年）等问题（梅泰宁和Tikka。
Tortuosity曲折
Tortuosity can be loosely defined as the ratio between the average distance that 曲折可以大致定义为之间的距离比平均水平
fluid has to travel to get through a material, compared to an imaginary straight-line 流体已前往度过一个材料，而假想直线
distance. 距离。One way to quantify tortuosity of a non-conductive porous solid is by 量化的方法之一固体曲折一个非导电孔是由
measuring the net conductivity when it is saturated with a salt solution of known bulk 电导率测量的净体积饱和时，与知名的盐溶液
conductivity (Barrande et al.2007). 电导率（Barrande 等。2007年）。There also have been attempts at numerical此外，还有已在数值尝试
simulation of tortuous pathways through a compact bed of particles (Ito et al. 2003). 模拟通过曲折途径颗粒紧凑床（伊藤等人。2003年）。
High tortuosity generally means that there are many twists and turns within the pore 高弯曲通常意味着有许多曲折和孔隙内转
spaces. 空格。
In the case of pine and aspen wood, Jacobson and Banerjee (2006) estimated a 在班纳吉案件松树和白杨木材，雅各布森和（2006）估计
tortuosity of 1.6, relative to the diffusion of the same aqueous solution in the absence of 弯曲的1.6，相对于扩散的情况下相同的水溶液中
wood. 木材。A somewhat higher value for aspen, relative to pine was attributed to a finer fiber 阿值白杨略高，相对松是由于一个细小纤维
structure. 结构。Leyvaramos and Geankoplis (1994) obtained a tortuosity value of 3.5 for Leyvaramos和Geankoplis（1994年）获得了价值3.5曲折
activated carbon, a material that can retain various structural features related to its origin 活性炭，这种材料可以保留它的起源有关的各种结构性特征
as wood. 作为木材。
The effective tortuosity of a material can be strongly dependent on what one 该物质可以有效曲折的强烈依赖于什么1
chooses as a probe to measure tortuosity. 选择作为探针测量曲折。For instance, in one case Olson et al. (2005) 例如，在一个案件奥尔森等人。（2005）
observed that the tortuosity of a packed bed was about 40 times greater for bacteria, in 指出，在床上曲折的一个拥挤的约40倍的细菌，在
comparison with the suspending medium. 比较悬媒介。Though these observations might have other 虽然这些意见可能有其他
contributing explanations, it is reasonable to expect that relatively large particles or cells 有助于解释，它是合理的预期比较大粒子或细胞
in a fluid medium might not be able to take advantage of the most direct routes through a 在流体
介质可能无法采取利用最直接的路线，通过
porous material, depending on the dimensions of the most constricted passageways. 多孔材料，取决于收缩通道的尺寸最。
T?rnqvist et al . 等TORNQVIST投入。(2001, 2004) measured the progress of HS （2001年，2004年）测量了房协进展
- -
ions through individual wood 2006年全国个体木材
chips, when pulping liquor was placed on one side of the chip and deionized water was 芯片，在制浆酒是水放在一边去离子的芯片，并于
placed on the other. 放在其他。Though the movement of the front of ions (the drift speed) was 虽然是运动的正面离子（漂移速度）
similar to what was predicted by ion diffusions rates, there also was evidence that the 类似对于利率预测离子扩散过程，也有证据表明，
nature of the pulping chemicals changed to degree of swelling of the pores in the chip. 大自然在晶片的化学制浆孔隙度变化的膨胀。
Pore orientation孔定位
Liquid diffusion through porous material may also be related to the orientation of 液体通过多孔材料的扩散也可能涉及到的方向
pores. 毛孔。This is particularly true for wood materials. 这是特别真实材料的木材。Thus, Ra et al. (2001) studied the 因此，镭等人。（2001年）研究
unsteady-state diffusion of boron through southern pine ( Pinus spp.) at various moisture 非稳态扩散硼通过南方松（松属。）各水分
contents, temperatures, and treatment conditions. 内容，温度和治疗情况。The fastest rates of diffusion were 扩散率最快的是
observed in the longitudinal direction, followed by the radial and the tangential 观察方向的纵向，径向，其次是切向
directions. 方向。They reported longitudinal diffusion coefficients 10 to 20 times larger than 他们报告纵向扩散系数大于10至20倍
the radial diffusion coefficients, and radial diffusion coefficients two to four times larger 径向扩散系数，径向扩散系数2至4倍
than the tangential diffusion coefficients. 比切向扩散系数。The diffusion rate increased with time in all 扩散率随着时间的所有
directions. 方向。The longitudinal diffusion rate increased rapidly with moisture content (MC), 纵向扩散率上升迅速，水分含量（MC）的，
while a slow increase in the radial diffusion rate was observed at MCs above 90%. 而扩散速度缓慢增加，径向，观察到90％以上的市政局。
Temperature was found to have a more pronounced effect than MC. 温度是发现有比MC的效果更为显着。In later work by the 在后来的工作
same authors Ra et al. (2002) investigated constant radial diffusion coefficients of boron 同一作家RA等人。（2002）调查不断径向扩散系数的硼
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through southern pine ( Pinus spp.). 通过南方松（松属。）。The concentration profile (the total amount of boron该浓度分布（总金额的硼
diffusing through wood and the amount of boron remaining on the wood surface after 在木材和扩散硼表面剩余的金额后的木材
different diffusion periods) of the treated samples was measured using a slicing 不同扩散阶段的样品）经处理后的测量使用切片
technique. 技术。
Directional dependencies have been observed also in the case of pressure-induced 定向依存关系也一直在观察诱导案件压力
flows through wood material. 流经木质材料。Stamm (1953) cited studies showing that flow in the 斯塔姆（1953）列举的研究显示，流
direction of fibers can be 50 to 200 times greater than flow perpendicular to the fiber 纤维方向可以是50到200倍流量大于纤维垂直的
orientation under matched conditions. 定位匹配的条件下。Sernek et al . Sernek 等。(1999) studied the penetration of a （1999年）研究了一渗透
liquid urea-formaldehyde adhesive (UF) into beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) wood. 液体脲醛胶（脲醛）到山毛榉（山毛榉属sylvatica）的木材。They他们
found that penetration in the tangential direction was greater than in the radial direction. 发现，在切线方向渗透的方向是大于径向。
They also concluded that external pressure can expedite penetration. 他们还认为，外部压力可以加速渗透。
Another factor that can affect permeability of a porous material in different 另一个因素是可以影响不同渗透率的多孔材料
directions is the presence of channels, cracks, or fractures (Wallstrom and Lindberg 1999; 方向是，在场的渠道，裂纹或骨折（瓦尔斯特伦和林贝尔1999年;
Zvikelksy and Weisbrod 2006; Maatinen and Tikka 2008). Zvikelksy和韦斯伯勒德2006年Maatinen和Tikka 2008）。It has been shown that a 它已被证明是一
disproportionate amount of fluid may pass through such favorable routes, especially 不成比例的液体可能通过这种有利的路线，特别是
when one is concerned with colloidal matter (Kjaergaard et al . 2004a). 当一个人关注的是胶体物质（Kjaergaard 等。2004年a）。
Interconnectedness相互关联
Pores can exist individually, or they may be interconnected to various extents. 毛孔可以单独存在，也可能是相互关联的不同程度的冲击。
Interconnectedness makes it more difficult to interpret or simulate various consequences 相互关联，使之更难以解释或模拟各种后果
of porosity. 孔隙率。Researchers often begin their analysis of diffusion or penetration within 研究人员通常首先分析其渗透扩散或在
pores by making various simplifying assumptions, which may involve selecting an 多孔作出各种简化假设，这可能涉及选择一
arbitrary degree of interconnectedness. 任意程度的相互联系。As noted by Stamm (1953) a bubble of air in a 正如所指出的斯塔姆（1953）一中空气泡沫
pore sometimes can be just as effective in impeding flow as a physical blockage. 孔有时也会同样有效地堵塞物理阻碍流为。
To predict effects of interconnectedness on diffusion of polymers in solution, 为了预测聚合物溶液对相互关联的上扩散，
Gauthier and Slater (2008) proposed a new one-dimensional lattice Monte Carlo Gauthier和斯莱特（2008）提出了新的一维晶格蒙特卡罗
algorithm that considered the polymer as single Brownian diffusing particle. 算法考虑了聚合物单粒子布朗扩散。They 他们
integrated various effects such as the entropic forces acting on the polymer segments that 聚合物段综合各方面的力量行事熵效应，如认为
are outside the channel, the external forces that are pulling the polymer through the pore, 以外的渠道，外部势力的孔隙聚合物通过的拉动，
and the frictional effects (inside and outside the pores) involving the polymer chains and 和摩擦的影响（内部和外部的毛孔）涉及高分子链
their environment. 他们的环境。
Pinch-points平奇点
The velocity of an incompressible Newtonian fluid passing through a smooth 通过速度不可压缩牛顿流体传递顺利
cylindrical pore under a specified pressure, assuming laminar flow, is proportional to the 圆柱孔指定的压力下，假定层流，是成正比的
square of the radius. 平方米的半径。It follows that if a channel contains portions in which the radius is 因此，如果一个通道包含在这部分的半径是
smaller, such restricted areas will have a disproportionate effect on the overall resistance 体积更小，这种限制区将有一个总体性的不成比例的影响
to flow. 流动。For permeation in solid wood, one of the best examples of a pinch-point consists 渗透在包括实木，点一悲情最好的例子为
of the pit junctions that join fiber lumens (Meyer 1974). 坑路口的人加入纤维流明（迈耶1974年）。It has been shown that 它已被证明
pretreatment with cellulase enzymes can break down the pit membranes that obstruct 纤维素酶预处理可以打破阻碍坑膜
flow through the lumen network within wood (Jacobs-Y oung et al . 1998); such treatment 流经木材管腔内网（雅各布，杨等人。1998年）;这样的待遇
was found to greatly increase the penetration rates of pulping liquors, especially in the 发现大大增加，特别是在酒类的制浆的渗透率
direction of the fibers within a chip. 纤维方向的一个芯片内。
The relative permeability is even more affected in cases where the fluid contains 相对渗透率影响的案件更是在流体中含有
dispersed or macromolecular substances with dimensions similar to those of the pores. 分散或大
分子物质的孔隙与尺寸的类似。
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For example, if a polyelectrolyte molecule needs to adopt a compromised conformation 例如，如果一个聚电解质分子需要采取一个妥协的构象
( eg elongated or stretched) in order to pass through the pore, then one can expect an （如拉长或伸展），以便通过毛孔，那么我们可以预期一
additional contribution to flow resistance (Andrews et al. 1998; Odell and Haward 2008). 额外的贡献，流动性（安德鲁斯等人。1998年;奥德尔和霍沃德2008）。
If a pinch-point is small enough to effectively prevent a polyelectrolyte molecular from 如果夹点是小到足以有效地防止电解质分子从
passing through, then the molecule may have to take a more circuitous path, effectively 穿过，然后在分子可能要采取更迂回曲折的道路，有力地
increasing the tortuosity in terms of that substance (Olson et al . 2005). 增加曲折等人的奥尔森在该条款的实质内容（。2005年）。
Wettability润湿性
Wettability is the tendency for a liquid to spread on a solid surface. 润湿性液体的蔓延趋势，在固体表面。Relative to 相对于
permeation into porous materials, such considerations can be important w hen there are 渗透到多孔材料，这种考虑也很重要当有
two or more fluid phases present, eg, polar (water), non polar (oil), or gaseous (air). 两个或两个以上流体目前阶段，如极性（水），非极性（油），或气体（空气）。For为
example, wettability of paper plays an important role relative to the penetration of 例如，纸张湿润起着重要的作用相对于渗透
coatings and inks (Bousfield and Karles 2004). 涂料和油墨（鲍斯菲尔德和Karles 2004年）。The wettability of paper can be 该文件的可润湿性
influenced by the fluid properties, surface forces, and complex pore geometry. 受流体性质，表面的力量，和复杂的孔隙几何形状。Iveson et艾弗森等
al. (2001) showed that wetting can be successfully included in a model of permeation of a 人。（2001年）表明，润湿可以成功地纳入了一个渗透模型
liquid into initially dry porous particles that are submerged in a fluid. 最初干成液体流体多孔颗粒所淹没。Factors affecting 影响因素
such permeation include capillary forces, viscous resistance of the liquid as it passes 这些包括毛细血管渗透力，液体粘性阻力，因为它传递
through narrow channels, and the pressure of any air that may be trapped within the 通过狭窄的通道，而压力的空气，被困在任何可能
particles. 粒子。Because it may take a long time for such trapped air to dissolve into the 因为它可能需要一到长的时间，这些被困空气解散
adjacent fluid and eventually diffuse away, there can be a significant delay in achieving 相邻的流体，并最终漫走，可以有一个实现重大延误
complete wetting. 完全湿透。Cellulose pulp manufacturers often attempt to overcome such 纤维素纸浆制造商常常会试图克服这些
problems by pre-steaming of wood chips, so that the interior spaces are filled with water 芯片问题预木蒸，使室内空间是充满了水
vapor rather than air before introduction of cooking liquors (Stamm 1953; Paranyi and 蒸气比空气，而1953年以前引进的烹调酒（斯塔姆;保拉尼和
Rabinovitch 1958; Malkov et al. 2003; T?rnqvist et al. 2004). 拉宾诺维奇1958年Malkov 等。2003年; TORNQVIST投入等。2004年）。In principle, the same原则上，同
effect could be achieved by applying vacuum to wood before addition of a penetrating 效果可达到除采用真空之前，木一探
liquid (Stamm 1953). 液体（斯塔姆1953年）。
The surface free energy of cellulosic surfaces can be expected to have a major 纤维素表面的表面自由能可望有重大
impact on permeability of liquids into initially dry material. 影响液体渗透到最初对干材料。Dourado et al . 杜拉多等。(1998) （1998年）
showed that rates of wicking can be used as a sensitive means of determining the free 表明，吸湿排汗率，可用于敏感的决定意味着，作为一个自由的
energy of microcrystalline cellulose. 能源微晶纤维素。The system's capillary force can be basically 该系统的毛管力基本可以
described in terms of two variables, the radius (or an equivalent radius) of the capillary, 毛细管条款中描述两个变量，半径（或等值半径）的，
and the interfacial surface energies of the solid-liquid-gas interfaces. 和气体接口界面表面能的固体液体。When the 当
interfacial surface energies change, the contact angle (meniscus shape) and consequently 界面表面能的变化，接触角（弯月形），因此
the pressure difference across a liquid-gas interface will change to reestablish 气体通过一个接口压差液体将变更为重建
equilibrium. 平衡。
Papermakers employ internal sizing chemicals, eg alkylketene dimer and rosin 造纸工人聘用内部施胶化学品，如alkylketene二聚体，松香
products, to hydrophobize many paper products, an effect that reduces water wettability 产品，hydrophobize许多纸制品，可降低水的润湿作用
of cellulosic surfaces (see Hubbe 2007). 纤维素表面（见哈伯2007年）。Sarmadi et al. (1993) studied the effects of 萨尔马迪等人。（1993）研究了影响
fluorochemical repellant finishes on the wettability of nonwoven fabrics. 非织造布润湿剂含氟化合物的完成。Capillary flow 毛细管流
rates were estimated from analysis of the water contact angles in combination with the 率估计从组合分析的接触角在水中的
fabric pore radius. 织物孔隙半径。These predictions were then compared with experimental results 这些预言都与实验结果进行比较
obtained from demand wettability and static absorption tests. 从需求得到吸收润湿性和静态测试。The highest rate of water 水的比率最高
penetration was found in a fabric type that exhibited the lowest contact angle and the 被发现在渗透织物类型，展示了最低的接触角，
largest pore radius. 最大的孔隙半径。Water repellency was found to be influenced more by the structure of 拒水被发现是影响更多的结构
a fabric than by the finish applied. 一磨毛面料比应用。Lin and Jorge (2005) modeled the wicking of liquid 林和Jorge（2005）为蓝本的液体毛细
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through paperboard, taking into account various properties of both the liquid and the solid 通过纸板，考虑到不同性质的固体，液体和两
surfaces. 表面。
Ershov et al.(2003) showed that polyelectrolytes can have a subtle effect on 叶尔绍夫等人。（2003年）表明，聚电解质可以有一个微妙的影响
wettability when their solutions are allowed to flow into quartz capillaries. 润湿时他们的解决方案允许流入石英毛细血管。The 该
polyelectrolytes did not affect the surface tension at the air-liquid interface. 聚电解质没有影响液界面的表面张力在空中。However, 然而，
large hysteresis effects were observed when comparing advancing vs. receding contact 大滞后效应，观察比较时主场迎战前进后退接触
angles; these effects were attributed to the formation of a polyelectrolyte film on the 角度，这些影响是由于形成了聚电解质膜
quartz surfaces. 石英表面。
Fluid Attributes流体属性
Properties of the fluid phase also can be expected to affect the diffusion and flow 相流体的性质也可以预期影响的扩散和流动
in pores. 在毛孔。Important variables include fluid rheological behavior, fluid chemical composi- 重要的变量包括流体流变行为，流体化学复合，
tion, solute component dimensions, interfacial tension, wettability, and diffusion coeffi- 和灰，溶质组件尺寸，界面张力，润湿，扩散coeffi -
cients. cients。If a fluid solution or suspension is sufficiently dilute, often one can neglect the 如
果一个解决方案或悬浮液是充分稀释，通常可以忽略
interactions among the solute molecules or suspended particles. 分子之间的相互作用溶质或悬浮颗粒。As the concentration 由于浓度
becomes higher, the apparent viscosity may become a function of the shear rate and shear 变高，表观粘度剪切作用可能成为对剪切速率和
history. 历史。Increases in a dissolved polymer's molecular mass or concentration generally 增加一个溶解聚合物的分子质量或浓度一般
increase the apparent viscosity of the solution. 增加溶液粘度的影响。The Mark-Houwink equation (Hiemenz 马克- Houwink方程（希门茨
and Lodge 2007) provides a means of predicting how these factors influence the intrinsic洛奇和2007年）提供了一种手段预测如何影响这些因素的内在
polymer solution viscosity and can help to elucidate their contributions to fluid diffusion 聚合物溶液粘度，有助于澄清流体扩散的贡献
in porous structure. 多孔结构。
Flow fields can affect the conformation of an adsorbed polyelectrolyte, depending 流场可以影响不同形态的吸附聚电解质，
on the flow and shear rate relative to the wall of a pore (Fleer et al . 1993). 对流动和剪切率相对人墙一孔（弗尔等。1993）。Adsorbed吸附
chains can be either deformed by the fluid field (compressed against the substrate, or 链可以是变形的流场，或（压缩对基板
stretched in the flow direction) or desorbed from the substrate. 在流动方向伸展），或从基板脱附。This is especially 这是特别
important if the flow rate is sufficiently high and the polymer used has high molecular 重要的是，如果流量足够高，具有较高的使用聚合物分子
mass or is strongly swollen. 质量或强烈肿胀。Under some conditions in which adsorption is relatively 在某些条件，使吸附比较
weak, it is expected that polymer chains that first are stretched by a flow field would 弱，预计聚合物领域的第一链，流程会被拉长
subsequently become adsorbed in higher amounts and adhere the substrate more 后来成为在更高的吸附量，坚持基板更多
tenaciously. 顽强。Experiments have shown that hydrodynamic thickness can depend on flow- 实验表明，水动力厚度可以依靠的流
rate. 率。Similarly, it is reasonable to expect that flow-induced changes to conformation may 同样，它是合理的预期，流动引起的构象变化可能
have an effect on pore penetration. 有渗透作用孔隙。
Viscosity粘性
One way that polyelectrolytes affect fluid flow is by raising the viscosity of a 聚电解质影响的方法之一是通过提高流体粘度的一
solution. 解决方案。Thus, Andersson and Jarnstr?m (2006) studied the controlled penetration of 因此，安德森和Jarnstr?m（2006）研究了渗透控制
starch during the surface-sizing of paper and board. 淀粉在表面施胶的纸和董事会。The colloidal stability of surface size 胶体稳定性的表面大小
dispersions affected the location of components in the final sized substrate. 分散影响底物的最终大小的位置成分的研究。Results 结果
showed that salt-induced flocculation lowered the penetration of amphoteric starch into 表明盐诱导絮凝降低了淀粉渗透到两性
the porous substrate, while the opposite effect was observed in the case of the anionic多孔基体，而相反的效果是在个案的观察阴离子
starch, probably due to screening-reduced adsorption. 淀粉，可能是由于筛选，降低吸附。Viscosity was shown to affect the 结果表明粘度影响
diffusion of sizing agents. 扩散上浆剂。It was found that the location of surface sizing components 结果发现，表面施胶组件的位置
could be controlled by tuning of colloidal interactions in the dispersion. 可通过交互调节控制胶体的分散性。
REVIEW ARTICLE 回顾第
bioresources.生物资源。
com的COM
Wu et al. 吴等人。(2009). （2009年）。“Polyelectrolyte permeation in cellulose,”“聚电解质渗透在纤维素”
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esources 4(3), 1222-1262. 如果资源4（3），1222年至1262年。
1230 1230
Dissolved polymer attributes that can affect permeation溶解聚合物的属性，可以影响渗透The adsorbed amount of polyelectrolytes within cellulosic fibers or other porous 吸附量的聚电解质在多孔纤维或其他纤维
media depends on the molecular mass of the polyelectrolyte. 媒体取决于分子量的聚电解质。A decrease in molecular 下降的分子
mass tends to increase the adsorbed amount. 群众往往以增加吸附量。This rule holds true for many cationic water- 此规则适用于许多阳离子水
soluble polyelectrolytes, such as polyethyleneimine, cationic dextran, and polydiallyl- 水溶性聚电解质，如聚乙烯，阳离子葡聚糖和polydiallyl -
dimethylammonium chloride (W?gberg 2000). 二甲基氯化铵（W?gberg 2000年）。By contrast, earlier work by Tatsumi and 相比之下，早先的工作，并通过巽
Y amauchi (1997) showed that a high-mass cationic copolymer of acrylamide remained 山内（1997年）表明，高量的丙烯酰胺阳离子共聚物仍
mostly on the outer surfaces of cellulose fibers in solution. 主要是对纤维在溶液中的纤维素外表面。A distribution of molecular 阿分子分布
mass of the polyelectrolyte implies that some of the material can reach different sites 聚电解质的质量意味着一些材料的可以达到不同的地点
within the fine-scale porous structure of a cellulosic substrate. 在精细化纤维素基质多孔结构的一个。However, because 但是，由于
polyelectrolyte diffusion into porous media involves conformational changes, in addition 多孔聚电解质扩散到包括媒体，除了构象变化
to the strength of interaction with substrate surfaces, it is possibly misleading to attribute 基板的
表面强度的相互作用，它可能是误导属性
such effects to size considerations alone. 仅考虑这种影响的大小。
Important new information relative to cationic polyelectrolyte diffusion into 相对重要的新信息阳离子聚电解质扩散到
cellulosic fibers has been provided by Horvath et al. (2008). 纤维素纤维已经提供了霍瓦斯等人。（2008）。Using fluorescent-labeled用荧光标记
polyelectrolytes and confocal microscopy, they showed dependencies of the rate and 聚电解质和共聚焦显微镜，他们表现出的速度和依赖关系
extent of permeation on polyelectrolyte charge density and salt concentration. 聚电解质渗透程度上电荷密度和盐的浓度。High- 高
charge-density polyelectrolytes, such as poly-diallyldimethylammonium chloride, 电荷密度的聚电解质，例如聚二烯丙基二甲基氯化铵，
required months to fully diffuse into the cellulose, whereas lower-charge cationic dextran 需要几个月充分扩散到纤维素负责，而低阳离子葡聚糖
molecules diffused into the cell walls in a matter of hours. 分子扩散进入细胞在1小时内墙壁的。Diffusion from salt-free 扩散的无盐
solution did not proceed very far, appearing to be mainly restricted to the surface regions. 解决方案没有进行很远，看起来似乎主要限于表面区域。
By contrast, increased diffusion into cellulose fiber cell walls was observed with 相比之下，增加墙扩散到纤维素纤维细胞观察
increasing salt content of the solution. 盐溶液的含量增加了。The adsorbed amount increased roughly in 吸附量增加大约在
proportion to the logarithm of elapsed time in contact with the polyelectrolyte solution. 对数的比例，对电解质溶液经过的时间接触。
One of the most intriguing findings of the cited work was that cationic工作的一个研究结果指出，最耐人寻味的是，阳离子
polyelectrolytes adsorbing near to the surface of the cellulosic fibers did not appear to 聚电解质吸附到纤维表面附近的纤维素似乎没有
progress further into the cellulose with the passage of time (Horvath et al. 2008). 进一步进展成阿尔纤维素的通过时间（霍瓦斯等。2008）。Rather,相反，
the initial adsorbing macromolecules became more or less fixed in location, and later- 初始吸附大分子变成或多或少位置固定，后来，
arriving macromolecules had to diffuse past the already-adsorbed molecules. 抵达大分子不得不漫过去本已吸附分子。
Another event that can arrest the flow of polyelectrolyte-containing solution 另一个事件是可以拘捕聚电解质溶液流含
through the channels of a packed bed is the formation of polyelectrolyte complexes (De 通过填充床的渠道一个是德形成聚电解质复合物（
et al.1997). 等人。1997年）。The cited authors found that because the complexes required sufficient所引用的作者发现，由于需要足够的配合物
space in which to form, they tended to precipitate within relatively large pores of a 空间中形成，他们往往沉淀在毛孔较大的一
packed bed, leaving the smaller channels in the bed relatively free of obstructions to flow. 填料床，使流动阻力较小的渠道，在相对自由的床上。
In this way, the formation of polyelectrolyte complexes could be used as a means of 这样，形成聚电解质复合物可以作为一种手段
directing more of the flow towards smaller channels. 指导渠道更小的流向。
Interactions that Affect Flow and Diffusion into Pores相互作用影响流动和扩散到毛孔Three kinds of interactions between the penetrating solution and the cellulosic 三相互作用种解决方案之间的渗透和纤维素
substrate are of prime interest. 基材是最令人关注。First, various interactions can affect the angle of contact 首先，各种相互作用可以接触角的影响
between the solid and liquid phases, thus affecting the capillary pressure that often 固体和液体之间的阶段，从而影响毛细管压力，往往
provides the main driving force for wetting to take place. 提供润湿要发生的主要驱动力量。Such changes in contact angle 在接触这种变化角
can be critical during flow into initially dry cellulose. 可关键在纤维素流入初步干燥。Second, the aqueous solution may 第二，水溶液可
affect the swelling of the material, thus affecting pores size. 影响材料肿胀，从而影响毛孔的大小。And third, the solute may 第三，溶质可
either be attracted or repelled from the surfaces; the strength of adsorption of solute 既可以吸引或排斥的表面，溶质的吸附强度
REVIEW ARTICLE 回顾第
bioresources.生物资源。
com的COM
Wu et al. 吴等人。(2009). （2009年）。“Polyelectrolyte permeation in cellulose,”“聚电解质渗透在纤维素”
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esources 4(3), 1222-1262. 如果资源4（3），1222年至1262年。
1231 1231
molecules onto the pore walls can be expected to affect surface charge, and in some cases 墙壁上的孔分子可以预期影响表面电荷，在某些情况下
adsorption can have a significant effect on the remaining open area for solution and 吸附能有一个解决方案和重大影响的地区，其余开放
solutes to pass through constricted areas of the pore network. 溶质通过网络收缩毛孔的领域。The work of Sekine and Nakatani (2002) provides a good example of how the 该工作的关根和中谷（2002）提供了一个很好的例子如何
charged nature of a solute can promote its permeation into porous material. 收费性质的溶质能促进其渗透到多孔材料。The role of 的
化学专业英语翻译1
01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数，或质子数，卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z，总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数，这个数的原子中的中子，中子数，给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of
新视野大学英语翻译答案
汉译英 Unit1 1.无论你是多么富有经验的演说家，无论你做了多么充足的准备，你都很难在这样嘈杂的招待会上发表演讲。（no matter how） No matter how experienced a speaker you are, and how well you have prepared your speech ，you will have difficulty making a speech at such a noisy reception. 2.就像吉米妹妹的朋友都关系吉米一样，吉米也关系他们（just as） Just as all his sister ’ s friends cared about him, Jimmy cared about them 3.汽车生产商在新车的几处都印有汽车识别号码，以便帮助找回被盗的车辆。（track down）Car manufacturers stamp a vehicle identification number at several places on new cars to help track down stolen vehicles. 4.老师回来时你敢告我状的话，我就不再和你说话了。（tell on） If you dare tell on me when the teacher gets back I won’t say a word to you any more. 5.有些老年人愿意独自过日子，但大多数老人选择和儿女一起生活。（on one’s own） Some elderly people prefer to live on their own while the great majority choose to live with their children. 6.现在需要面对的事情是：如何筹集创建公司所需的资金。（reckon with） Here is something that needs to be reckoned with: how to get the necessary finances to establish the company. Unit2 1.被告是位年仅30岁的女子，她坚持称自己无罪 The defendant, a woman of only 30, kept insisting on her own innocence. 2.总体看来，枣、豆类以及一些多叶的绿色蔬菜是最好的铁质来源。 All tings considered, dates, beans and some leafy green vegetables are the best sources of iron . 3正餐时不供应饮料，饮料会影响消化。 No beverages are served with meals because they interfere with digestion. 4.考虑到那个地区受欢迎的程度，提前订旅馆是明智的。 Taking the popularity of the region into consideration, it is advisable to book hotels in advance. 5.服药后若有呕吐感，请立即停止服用并立刻咨询医生。 If you have a feeling of wanting to throw up after taking this drug, stop taking it immediately and consult your doctors as soon as possible. 6.总结这次讨论时，他说双方都要好好考虑怎样以最有效的方法来解决这一问题。 Summing up the discussion, he said both parties should consider the most effective way to solve the problem. Unit3 1.在思维方面，与他的行为一样，他是非常传统的。 In his thinking, as in his behavior, he is very traditional. 2..教师一旦同意接受新的教学计划，他们就得面对新计划所带给他们的压力。 Once the teachers agree to accept the new teaching program, they have to face the strain it puts on them. 3.从长远看，大学毕业后继续深造而不是直接参加工作是值得的。 In the long run, it is worthwhile to pursue one ’ s study after graduatin g from university instead of going to work directly. 4.由于这所学校的办学宗旨是品德第一，所以道德观和学习成绩受到同样的重视。 As the school operates on the Character First principle, moral values and academic achievements are stressed equally. 5.据说，原定于这个月召开的会议将推迟到下个月召开。
大学各专业名称英文翻译—— 文科方面 ARTS
大学各专业名称英文翻译——文科方面ARTS 澳门历史研究Study of the History of Macao 办公管理Office Management 办公设备运用Using Desktop Publishing in Business 比较管理学Comparative Management 比较诗学Comparative Poetics 比较文化学Comparative Cult urology 比较文学研究Study of Comparative Literature 必修课4－10学分Restricted (4-10 Credits needed) 病理生理学Pathological Physiology 财务报告介绍An Introduction to Financial Accounting Statements 财务报告运用Using Financial Accounting Statements 财务管理学Financial Management 财务会计学Financial Accounting 财务理论与方法Finance Theory & Methods 财政与金融Finance 财政与金融学研究Study of Finance 财政预算Preparing Financial Forecasts 产业经济学Industrial Economics 传统文化与现代化Tradition Culture and Modernization 当代国际关系研究Contemporary International Relations Studies 当代世界发展研究Contemporary World Development Studies 当代中国外交与侨务专题研究Monographic Studies of Diplomacy and Overseas C hinese Affairs of Contemporary China
新视野大学英语第三版第一册课后翻译答案.doc
新视野大学第三版book1英语课后翻译答案 Unit1 苏格拉底是古希腊哲学家，被誉为现代西方哲学的奠基人。他是一个谜一般的人物，人们主要通过后来的一些古典作家的叙述，尤其是他最著名的学生柏拉图的作品去了解他。苏格拉底以他对伦理学的贡献而闻名。他的教学法亦称为苏格拉底法，即通过提问和回答来激发批判性思维以及阐述观点。该方法在各种讨论中仍被普遍使用。他还在认识论和逻辑领域作出了重大而深远的贡献。他的思想和方法所带来的影响一直是后来的西方哲学的坚实基础。苏格拉底是古代哲学史上最丰富多彩的人物。他在他那个时代已威名远扬。虽然他未曾建立什么哲学体系，未曾设立什么学派，也未曾创立什么宗派，但他的名字很快就变得家喻户晓了。 Confucius was a great thinker and educator in Chinese history. He was the founder of Confucianism and was respectfully referred to as an ancient “sage”. His words and life story were recorded in The Analects. An enduring classic of ancient Chinese culture, The Analectshas had a great influence on the thinkers, writers, and statesmen that came after Confucius. Without studying this book, one could hardly truly understand the thousands-of-years’traditional Chinese culture. Much of Confucius’thought, especially his thought on education, has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the 21st century, Confucian thought not only retains the attention of the Chinese, but it also wins an increasing attention from the international community. Unit2 圣诞节是一个被广泛庆祝的文化节日，全世界有许许多多的人在12月25日庆祝这一节日。它是为了纪念耶稣基督的诞辰。该节日最早可追溯到公元336年。渐渐地，这一节日演变为一个既是宗教又是非宗教的节日，越来越多的非基督徒也庆祝圣诞节。如今，圣诞节在全球被作为一个重大的节日和公共假日来庆祝。不同国家的圣诞节风俗也各不相同。现代流行的圣诞接风俗包括交换圣诞贺卡和圣诞礼物、唱圣诞歌曲、参加教堂活动、摆放各种圣诞装饰品和圣诞树、举行家庭聚会以及准备一顿特别的大餐。对小孩子们来说，这个节日充满了幻想和惊喜。据传说，圣诞老人会在圣诞夜从烟囱进入每户人家，给乖巧听话的孩子带来礼物。由于圣诞节送礼物以及许多其他方面推动了基督徒和非基督徒的经济活动，圣诞节也因此成为商家的一个重大活动和主要销售季。 According to the Chinese lunar calendar, August 15 of every year is a traditional Chinese festival-the Mid-Autumn Festival. This day is the middle of autumn, so it is called Mid-Autumn. One of the important Mid-Autumn Festival activities is to enjoy the moon. On that night, people gather together to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival, looking up at the bright moon and eating moon cakes. The festival is also a time for family reunion. People living far away from home will express their feelings of missing their hometowns and families at this festival, all expressing people’s love and hope for a happy life. Since 2008, the Mid-Autumn Festival has become an official national holiday in China.
上海海洋大学专业英语期末翻译
Analog computers are analog devices.That is,they have continuous states rather than discrete numbered states.An analog computer can represent fractional or irrational values exactly, with no round-off.Analog computers are almost never used outside of experimental settings.模拟计算机是模拟设备。也就是说，他们是连续状态而不是离散的有限状态。一个模拟计算机可以精确代表小数或无理数，没有舍入。模拟计算机几乎从不被使用在实验设置以外。 A processor typically contains an arithmetic/logic unit(ALU),control unit(including processor flags,flag register,or status register),internal buses,and sometimes special function units(the most common special function unit being a floating point unit for floating point arithmetic). 一个处理器通常包含一个算术/逻辑单元（运算器），控制单元(包括处理器标志，标志寄存器，或状态寄存器)，内部总线，有时特殊功能单元(最常见的特殊功能单元作为一个浮点单元用于浮点运算)。 CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer.Mainframe computers and minicomputers were CISC processors,with manufacturers competing to offer the most useful instruction sets.Many of the first two generations of microprocessors were also CISC. CISC代表复杂指令集计算机。大型计算机和小型计算机是CISC处理器，与制造商竞争提供最有用的指令集。微处理器的前两代中许多也是CISC。 Lesson2 Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense mounts of mathematical calculations(number crunching). 超级计算机是一个广泛的术语，因为它是目前可用的最快的计算机之一。超级计算机是非常昂贵的，并且它被用于需要大量的数学计算（数字运算）的专门应用。 It is a midsize computer.In the past decade,the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred,however,as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstation.But in general,a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting up to200users simultaneously. 它是一个中型计算机。在过去的十年中，大的小型机和小的大型机之间的区别已经模糊，然而，有小的小型机和工作站之间的区别。但在一般情况下，一个小型机是一个能够同时支持多达200个用户的多处理系统。 Workstations generally come with a large,high-resolution graphics screen,a large amount of RAM,built-in network support,and a graphical user interface.Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as disk drive,but a special type of workstation,called a diskless workstation,comes without a disk drive. 工作站一般都配有一个大的，高分辨率的图形屏幕，大量的内存，内置网络支持以及一个图形用户界面。大多数工作站也有一个大容量存储设备如磁盘驱动器，但是一种特殊类型的工作站，被称为无盘工作站，是不带磁盘驱动器的。
化学专业英语翻译4
04.GROUPS IIIB—VIIIB ELEMENTS Group I-B includes the elements scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium1, and the two rare-earth series of fourteen elements each2—the lanthanide and actinide series. The principal source of these elements is the high gravity river and beach sands built up by a water-sorting process during long periods of geologic time. Monazite sand, which contains a mixture of rare earth phosphates, and an yttrium silicate in a heavy sand are now commercial sources of a number of these scarce elements. B组包括元素钪，钇，镧，和actinium1，和2稀土系列十四each2镧系和锕系元素的系列。这些元素的主要来源是重力高与海滩砂建立起来的water-sorting过程在漫长的地质年代。独居石砂，其中包含一个混合稀土磷酸盐，和一个钇硅酸盐在沉沙现在商业来源的一些这些稀有元素。 Separation of the elements is a difficult chemical operation. The solubilities of their compounds are so nearly alike that a separation by fractional crystallization is laborious and time-consuming. In recent years, ion exchange resins in high columns have proved effective. When certain acids are allowed to flow down slowly through a column containing a resin to which ions of Group III B metals are adsorbed, ions are successively released from the resin3. The resulting solution is removed from the bottom of the column or tower in bands or sections. Successive
大学英语翻译答案
Unit1 1. 背离传统需要极大的勇气。(departure, enormous) {It takes an enormous amount of courage to make a departure from the tradition.} 2. 汤姆过去很腼腆，但这次却非常勇敢能在大庭广众面前上台表演了。(performance, bold) {Tom used to be very shy, but this time he was bold enough to give a performance in front of a large audience.} 3. 很多教育家认为从小培养孩子的创新精神是很可取的。 (creative, desirable) {Many educators think it desirable to foster the creative spirit in the child at an early age.} 4. 假设（assume）那幅画确实是名作（masterpiece），你觉得值得购买吗？(worthwhile) {Assuming (that) this painting really is a masterpiece, do you think it's worthwhile to buy / purchase it?} 5. 如果这些数据统计上是站得住脚的，那它将会帮助我们认识正在调查的问题。(throw light on , investigate, valid) {If the data is statistically valid, it will throw light on the problem we are investigating.} Unit2 1) 该公司否认其捐款有商业目的。(deny, commercial) {The company denied that its donations had a commercial purpose.} 2) 每当他生气的时候，他说话就有一点结巴。(stammer) {Whenever he was angry, he would begin to stammer slightly.} 3) 教育是我们家庭最看重的传统，这就是为什么我父母从不带我到昂贵的饭店吃饭，却送我到最好的私立学校上学。(cherish) {Education is the most cherished tradition in our family. That’s why my parents never took me to dinner at expensive restaurants, but sent me to the best private school.} 4) 手术康复后不久，他失业了，因此经历了人生的又一个困难阶段。(shortly after, go through) {Shortly after he recovered from the surgery, he lost his job and thus had to go through another difficult phase of his life.} 5) 与我们的富裕邻居相比，我们的父母就相当穷了，但是他们总是努力满足我们最起码的需求。(affluent, minimal) {In contrast to our affluent neighbors, my parents are rather poor, but they have always tried hard to meet our minimal needs.} Unit3 1) 科学家们找到火星上有水的证据了吗？(proof) {Have scientists found proof of water on Mars?} 2) 计划委员会已经将建核电厂的可能地点缩小到了两个沿海城镇。(location, narrow down) {The planning committee has narrowed down the possible locations for the nuclear power plant to two coastal towns.} 3) 任何一个有尊严的人都不会一辈子依靠社会救济过活。(welfare)
【艺术类院校大学英语第二册】课文翻译及课后答案
南京艺术学院第二册英语课文翻译（1~10） 第一单元 你去过古玩店吗？如果你能像买家那样博学，你就有可能买到不同凡响但又很便宜的东西。 幸运的发现 古玩店对许多人来说有一种特殊的魅力。高档一点的古玩店为了防尘，把文物漂亮地陈列在玻璃柜子里，那里往往令人望而却步。而对不太装腔作势的古玩店，无论是谁都不用壮着胆子才敢往里进。人们还常常有希望在发霉，阴暗，杂乱无章，迷宫般的店堂里，从杂乱地摆放在地面上的，一堆堆各式各样的破烂货里找到一件稀世珍品。 无论是谁都不会一下子就发现一件珍品。一个到处找便宜货买的人必须具有耐心，而且最重要的是看到珍品时要有鉴别珍品的能力。要做到这一点，他至少要像古董商一样懂行。他必须像一个专心致志进行探索的科学家一样抱有这样的希望，即终有一天，他的努力会取得丰硕的成果。 我的老朋友弗兰克哈利戴正是这样一个人。他多次向我详细讲他如何只花50英镑便买到一位名家的杰作。一个星期六的上午，弗兰克去了我家附近的一家古玩店。由于他从未去过那儿，结果他发现了许多有趣的东西。上午很快过去了，弗兰克正准备离去，突然看见地板上放着一只体积很大的货箱。古董商告诉他那只货箱刚到不久，但他嫌麻烦不想把它打开。经弗兰克恳求，古董商才勉强把货箱撬开了。箱内东西令人失望。除了一柄式样别致、雕有花纹的匕首外，货箱内装满了陶器，而且大部分都已破碎。弗兰克轻轻地把陶器拿出箱子，突然发现在箱底有一幅微型画，画面构图与线条使他想起了一幅他所熟悉的意大利画，于是他决定将画买下来。古董商漫不经心看了一眼那幅画，告诉弗兰克那画值50英镑。弗兰克几乎无法掩饰自己兴奋的心情，因为他明白自己发现了一件珍品。那幅不大的画原来是柯勒乔的一幅未被发现的杰作，价值几十万英镑。 第二单元 无论是男人、女人还是儿童，都可以从他们的衣着和外表的其他方面感受到时尚的影响。 时装流行的原理 时尚一直在变化和发展。时尚的五条基本原理是识别时尚及其流行趋势的基础。这些时尚原理保持不变。尽管时尚在变，但是这些原理却不变。他们是识别和预测时尚流行趋势的坚实基础。时尚流行的基本原理包括以下几条： 1．时尚的流行一般采取渐进的方式，很少采取突变的方式。时尚通常从一种风格逐渐地向另一种风格进化，是进化式的，而不是快速地变化。这一点经常可以从女裙长度的变化中得到体现。在一个季节中人们不希望裙子的长度有较大的变化。一般裙长要在几个季节甚至几年时间里缓慢地增加或减少。在20世纪50年代后期以及以后的10年里，裙子的长度开始以每年约1英寸的速度缩短，直至变成20世纪60年代后期的超短式样。在整个70年代，裙子的长度又逐渐增加。 2．消费者创造时尚。是消费者通过接受一种款式而抛弃另一种款式来决定流行的时尚，而不是设计师或制造商。尽管设计师、制造商、销售商可以促进或减缓新时尚的流行，但最终对时尚的接受与否还要取决于消费者。 3．价格不会影响时尚的流行。时尚的流行与否并不取决于价格。尽管一个新款式推出的价格会很高，但很快会有各种价格变化。一件向设计师定做的服装售价可能会高达几千美元，但是一旦此款式被仿制并以成衣批量生产，就会出现不同的价格以适合不同层次消费者的要
化工专业英语lesson4翻译资料
仅供参考 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 1. Sources of Organic Compounds The major sources of organic chemicals are coal, petroleum, and agricultural products. Both coal and petroleum were formed through the geologic processes of changing animal and plant remains into carbon-containing residues. About one-third of all organic chemicals are derived from coal and about one-half from the petroleum industry 有机化合物的来源 有机化学药品的主要来源是煤、石油和农产品。动植物的遗体通过地质作用变成含碳残基然后形成煤和石油。三分之一的所有有机化合物品是从煤中得到的，一般来自于石油工业。 2. The Methods and Objectives of Organic Chemistry Because of the tremendous number of organic compounds known, and of the many more being synthesized daily, the study of organic chemistry is not the study of individual compounds, it is the study of groups or families of compounds all closely related to each other. Obviously, the former approach would be prohibitive[prE5hibitiv]. Once the structural relationships of certain typical members of a particular group or family of compounds are understood, these structural features are understood for any one of the many members of the family, even though some may not be known compounds. 因为已知的有机化合物的数目庞大，而且还在逐日合成更多的品种，所以有机化学不是研究单个的化合物，而是把彼此密切相关的化合物按类或族来研究。显然，以前的方法是不可取的，一旦典型的一类特殊化合物被认识，这些结构特征将适用于这类化合物，甚至是一些未知的化合物， For each group or family of compounds often called homologous series of compounds, structural features are important. In studying organic chemistry, it is not enough to know the identities of the elements and how many atoms of each element are present in a given molecule. More importantly, the order in which these atoms are linked together to form
(完整版)大学英语翻译答案-1
大学英语（B）1翻译练习参考译文 1、元宵节是春节后的第一个重要节日。元宵节的习俗在全国各地不尽相同，其 中赏花灯（lanterns exhibits）、猜灯谜、吃元宵等是几项最常见的民间习俗。据说， 吃元宵的习俗起源于汉代，唐宋时期开始盛行。如今，元宵已成为人们的日常饮 食之一，在超市一年四季都可以买到。 The Yuanxiao Festival is the first important festival after the Spring Festival. Although customs of the festival vary from region to region, the most common ones include appreciating lantern exhibits, trying to solve riddles written on lanterns, and eating yuanxiao. It is said that the custom of eating yuanxiao originated from the Han Dynasty and became popular during the Tang and Song periods. Nowadays, yuanxiao has become a food in people’s daily life, which is available in supermarkets a ll the year round. 8、如今，越来越多的大学生抱怨很难找到好的工作。造成这一现象的原因如下： 首先，大学生把在校的大多数时间都用在了专业学科的学习上，只有当他们开始 找工作的时候，才意识到自己缺乏必要的专业培训。其次，大学生之间的竞争也 越来越激烈，这导致任何一名大学生找到工作的机会都变小了。 Nowadays, more and more university students complain about having great difficulties in finding a good job. The reasons f or this phenomenon are as follows: First, college students spend most of their time at school studying academic subjects and it is only when they start looking for a job that they realize they lack necessary job training. Second, competition among graduates has become more and more fierce. And this results in a decreased chance for any individual graduate to find a job. 7、杭州是中国著名的六大古都之一，已有两千多年的历史。这个城市不仅以自 然美闻名于世，而且有着传统的文化魅力。不仅有历代文人墨客（men of letters） 的题咏，而且有美味佳肴和漂亮的工艺品。一般来说，游览杭州西湖及其周边景 点花上两天较为合适。到杭州旅游，既令人愉快，又能得到文化享受。 Hangzhou, one of China’s six ancient capital cities, has a history of more than 2,000 years. It is famous not only for its natural beauty but also for its charm of cultural traditions. Besides many poems and inscriptions by men of letters through the dynasties, it also boasts local delicacies and pretty handicrafts. Generally speaking, a two-day tour of West Lake and scenic spots around it is advisable for a tourist. As a tourist, you will find it a pleasant and culturally rewarding trip to Hangzhou. 6、说到中国古代的科技文明（civilization），人们自然就会想到“四大发明”，即 指南针、火药、造纸术和印刷术。这四种发明是古代先进科技的象征，具有重大 的历史意义。它们对中国古代政治、经济、文化的发展产生了巨大的推动作用， 也对世界的文明进程产生了巨大影响。 Speaking of ancient Chinese civilization in science and technology, people will naturally think of the Four Great Inventions, namely the compass, gunpowder, paper-making and printing. These four inventions are symbols of ancient China’s
大学各个专业名称的英文翻译
中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称哲学Philosophy 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism xx 哲学Chinese Philosophy xx 哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic
西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学(含税收学) Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学(含保险学) Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics
化工专业英语课文翻译
Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助 Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins. 1940年以来，化学工业一直以引人注目的速度飞速发展。尽管这种发展的速度近年来已大大减慢。化学工业的发展由于1950年以来石油化学领域的研究和开发大部分在有机化学方面取得。石油