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Unit 11 Least-Squares Adjustment (最小二乘平差)

Whenever the surveyor conducts a field survey, no matter how simple or complex, he invariably makes more measurements than are absolutely necessary to locate the points in the survey.(无论何时测量人员进行【conduct操作、管理】外业测量,不管【no matter 不论】怎样简单或是复杂,他总是【invariably总是】进行多于绝对必要的观测来定位点在测量中)

A line taped in two directions introduces one measurement more than is necessary to establish the length of the line.(一条线由两个方向丈量,产生一个观测值,要多于确定【establish确定】直线长度所需的观测值)

Measuring all three angles of a triangle introduces one superfluous measurement.(测量一个三角形中所有三个内角产生一个多余【superfluous多余的】观测值)

These extra measurements are termed redundant measurements.(这些额外的【extra】观测值被称为多余【redundant多余的】观测值)

Least-squares adjustment is a mathematical and statistical technique for dealing with the optimal combination of redundant measurements together with the estimation of unknown parameters.(最小二乘平差是一个数学的和统计学的技术用以处理多余观测值的最优【optimal最佳的】联合,和【together with】未知参数的估计)

The least-squares adjustment is rigorously based on the theory of mathematical probability, whereas in general, the other methods do not have this rigorous base.(最小二乘平差严格地【rigorously严格地】基于数学概率理论,然而【whereas】通常【in general】,其它方法并没有这样严格的基础)

In a least-squares adjustment, the following condition of mathematical probability is enforced: the sum of the square of the errors times their respective weights are minimized.(在最小二乘平差中,下列数学概率的条件被要求【enforce强迫、坚持】:误差平方与其各自的权的乘积【time 乘v.】的和最小)

In surveying, errors in measurements conform to the laws of probability, and they follow the normal distribution theory.(测量中,测量误差遵照【conform to】概率的法则,它们遵循正态分布【normal distribution】的理论)

Thus they should be adjusted in a manner that follows these mathematical laws.(这样,它们将以这些数学法则的方式被平差)

A mathematical model for adjustment is composed of two parts: a functional model and a stochastic model.(一个平差的数学模型由两个部分组成【be composed of由...组成】:函数模型【functional model】和随机模型【stochastic model】)。

Mathematical Model (数学模型)

A functional model describes the geometric or physical characteristics of the survey problem.(一个函数模型描述了测量问题的几何或是物理特征)

In adjustment computations a functional model is an equation that represents or defines an adjustment condition.(在平差计算中一个函数模型是一个方程,表现或定义了一个平差条件【condition】)

It must either be known, or assumed.(它或者是已知或者是假定的)

If the functional model represents the physical situation adequately, the observation errors can be expected to conform to the normal distribution curves.(如果函数模型充分【adequately充分地】表现了物理情形【situation】,观测误差可以被认为【be expected】遵照【conform to】正态

分布曲线【normal distribution curve】)

For example suppose that we are interested in the shape of a plane triangle.(例如假如【suppose that】我们对一个平面三角形的形状感兴趣【be interested in对...感兴趣】)

All that is required for this operation is to measure two of its angles, and the shape of the triangle will be uniquely determined.(所有所需的操作只是测量两个角,该三角形的形状就会唯一地【uniquely唯一地】确定了)

However, if we were to decide, for safety’s sake, to measure all three angles, any attempt to construct such a triangle will immediately show inconsistencies among the three observed angles.(然而,如果我们决定,为了安全的缘故【sake原因、缘故】,测了所有三个角,任何试图【attampt】建立【construct】这样一个三角形将立即在三个观测角之间出现矛盾【inconsistency 矛盾】)

In this case the model simply is that the sum of the three angles must equal 180o.(这种情况下,这个模型仅仅是三个内角之和必需为180度)

If three observations are used in this model, it is highly unlikely that the sum will equal exactly 180.(如果三个观测值在这个模型里使用,非常【highly】不可能【unlikely未必的、不可能的】其和正好等于180)

Therefore, when redundant observations, or more observations than are absolutely necessary, are acquired, these observations will rarely fit the model exactly.(因此,当多余观测,或者多于绝对必要观测,被获得【acquire获得】,这些观测将很少【rarely】与模型完全【exactly完全地】吻合)

Intuitively, this results from something characteristic to the observations and makes them inconsistent in the case of redundancy.(直观地,这是由观测的某些特性【characteristic特性n.;特性的】产生的【result from由……产生】,并使得它们在冗余【redundancy】情况下【in the case of在……情况下】不一致【inconsistent不一致的】)

Of course, we first need to be sure of the adequacy of the model (it is a plane triangle and not spherical or spheroidal, for example).(当然,我们首先需要确认模型的适当【adequacy适当n.】(这是个平面三角形而不是球面或类球面,例如))

Then, we need to express the quality of the measurements before we seek to adjust the observations to fit the model.(然后,我们需要表示【express】出观测值的质量,在我们试图【seek试图;寻找】平差观测数据以适合模型之前)

So from above, a well-known mathematical model states that the sum of angles in a plane triangle is 180.(这样由以上,一个众所周知的数学模型规定【state声明、规定v. 当然翻译时可以灵活些】,平面三角形内角和为180)

This model is adequate if the survey is limited to a small region such as the plane survey.(这个模型是适当的【adequate】如果测量局限于一个小范围内就如同平面测量一样)

The determination of variances, and subsequently the weights of the observations, is known as the stochastic model in a least-squares adjustment which describes the statistical properties of all the elements or represents a way to enter information about the precision of the observations involved in the functional model.(方差的测定【determination决定、测定】和其后【subsequently其后、接下来】的观测值的权,被认为是【is known as】最小二乘平差中的随机模型【stochastic model】,描述了所有元素的统计特性【statistical property】或者表达【represent表达】了将关于观测值精度的信息加入进函数模型的一个方法)

The importance of the stochastic model is often overlooked and undervalued.(随机模型的重要性经常被高估和低估)

As a general rule, if the stochastic model contains misleading information, the adjustment and conclusions drawn from the adjustment can be unreliable.(作为一个一般的惯例,如果随机模型包括误导信息,平差和平差的结果会是不可靠的【unreliable不可靠的】)

The stochastic model is represented by the variance-covariance matrix (weighting matrix) of the observations.(随机模型由观测值的方差-协方差矩阵(权阵)表现)

It is crucial to the adjustment to select a proper stochastic (weighting) model since the weight of an observation controls the amount of correction it receives during the adjustment.(选择一个适当的【proper】随机(加权)模型对平差来说是至关重要的【crucial至关重要的】,因为一个观测值的权控制了它在平差时【during the adjustment】所能收到的改正值的大小【amount 原意为数量,这里只能译为大小】

However, development of the stochastic model is important not only to the weighted adjustment.(然而,随机模型的发展不只对加权平差有重要意义)

When doing an unweighted adjustment, all observations are assumed to be of equal weight, and thus the stochastic model is created implicitly.(当做一个未加权平差时,所有观测值被假定为等权,因而随机模型暗含地【implicitly含蓄地、暗中地】被创建)

Adjustment Methods(平差方法)

There are two adjustment methods: the conditional and parametric adjustments.(平差方法有两种:条件平差和参数【parametric参数的】平差)

In the conditional adjustment, geometric conditions are enforced, upon the observations and their residuals.(条件平差中,在观测值和它们的余差【residual剩余的、残留的;这里的意思是余差可以理解为改正值或误差】上,对几何条件【geometric condition】提出了要求)

So the conditional adjustment is called direct adjustment.(因此,条件平差被称为直接平差)Examples of conditional adjustment are: ⑴the sum of angles in a polygon is (n- 2)*180, where n is the number of angles in the polygon; ⑵the sum of the angles in the horizon at any station equals 360; ⑶in a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the departures should equal the difference between the X coordinates at the beginning and the ending stations of the traverse, similarly, the algebraic sum of the latitudes should equal the difference between the Y coordinates at the beginning and the ending stations of the traverse.(条件平差的例子是:⑴一个多边形的内角和为(n- 2)*180, 当n是多边形的内角数;⑵每一站水平方向上的角度和等于360【指三角网中】;⑶在闭路导线中,横距【departure横距,还有离开、启程的意思,这里是指东西横距】的代数【algebraic代数的】和应该等于导线起点和终点之间X坐标的差值【difference】,同样地【similarly】,纵距【latitudes纬度方向、南北距】代数和应该等于导线起点和终点之间Y坐标的差值)

When performing a parametric adjustment, observations are expressed in items of unknown parameters that were never measured directly.(当进行【perform执行】参数平差时,观测值由永远不能直接测出的未知参数表示【express】)

So the parametric adjustment is sometimes called indirection adjustment, in which the corrections are stated as functions of indirectly determined values of parameters of the measurements.(因此参数平差有时被称为间接平差【indirection adjustment】,改正值描述为【state陈述、描述】测量值参数的间接确定值的函数)

For example, the well-known coordinate equations are used to model the measured angles, direction and distances in a traverse.(例如,众所周知的坐标方程被用来建立导线里被观测的角度、方向和距离的模型【model建模v.】)【这里以坐标方程式建立xy坐标与观测值之间

参数方程为例解释参数平差的模型建立】

The adjustment yields the most probable values for the coordinates (parameters), which in turn enable the most probable values for the adjusted observations to be computed.(平差生成【yield 生产、生成】坐标(参数)的最或是值【most probable value】,【which修饰最或是值】使得最或是值能够轮流【in turn】计算平差后的观测值)

A primary objective in an adjustment is to ensure that all observation used to find the most probable values for the unknowns in the model.(平差的主要目的【objective目标、目的】是确保所有观测值找到模型中未知量的最或是值)

In the least-squares adjustment, no matter conditional or parametric, the geometric checks at the end of the adjustment are satisfied and the same adjusted observations are obtained.(在最小二乘平差中,无论是条件平差还是参数平差,在平差的最后,几何检查应该被满足,并且获得同样被平差的观测值)

In complicated networks, it is often difficult and time consuming to write the equations to express all the conditions that must be met for a conditional adjustment.(在复杂网中,写出必需适合【meet】条件平差的能表达所有条件的方程,经常非常困难和耗时的【time consuming耗时的】)

Therefore parametric adjustment is becoming very popular, which generally leads to larger systems of equations but is straightforward in its development and solution and, as a result, is well suited to computers.(因此,参数平差就变得非常流行的,一般会导致【lead to导致】较大的方程系统,但是它的推导【development推导】和解答【solution】却是简单的,作为结果,适于计算机)

Unit 12 Geodesy Concepts(大地测量学概念)

As we know, surveying is divided into two major categories: geodetic surveying and plane surveying.(我们知道,测量分为两个主要范畴【category种类、范畴】:大地测量和平面测量)

Geodetic surveying takes into account the true shape of the earth whereas plane surveying treats the earth as a flat surface.(大地测量要考虑【take into account考虑】地球的真实形状,而【whereas然而、可是】平面测量把地球视为【treat】一个平面)

The subject of this text aims at the study of the size and shape of the earth which refers to Geodesy.(这篇文章的主题【subject】针对【aim at】的就是涉及【refer to】大地测量学的地球的大小和形状的研究)

The expression “the size and shape of the earth”has various meanings in geodesy according to the way it is used and the precision with which the earth’s size and shape is to be defined.(依照【according to】定义地球大小和形状所使用的方法和精度,“地球的大小和形状”的表达在大地测量学中有各种各样的【various】含义)

The actual topographic surface is most apparent with its variety of landforms and water areas.(实际的地表【topographic地形的、地形学的surface表面这里直接译为地表】大多表现为地形【landform】和水域的多样性【variety】)【is most apparent with 副词短语做表语】

This is, in fact, the surface on which actual earth measurements are made.(事实上【in fact】,事实上,这就是所做的地球实际表面测量。)

It is not suitable, however, for exact mathematical computations because the formulas which would be required to take the irregularities into account would necessitate a prohibitive amount of computations.(然而,对于精确的【exact】数学计算这并不合适,因为需要考虑到【take into

account】不规则【irregularity】的公式【formula】将需要【necessitate需要、被需要】大量的【prohibitive非常高的、受抑止的、禁止的】计算)

The concept of geodesy should be mentioned first.(首先应该说一下【mention提及】大地测量学的概念)

From the Concise Oxford Dictionary: geodesy. n. The branch of mathematics dealing with the figures and areas of the earth or large portions of it.(简明【Concise简明的】牛津词典:大地测量学n.名词. 数学的一个分支,用来处理地球或其一大部分【portion一部分】的形状和区域)Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2001 edition, Academic Press, 2000: Geodesy is a science, the oldest earth (geo-) science, in fact.(科学与技术百科全书【Encyclopedia百科全书】,2001版,学术出版社【Academic Press】,2000:大地测量学是一门科学,事实上,是最古老的地球科学)

It was born of fear and curiosity, driven by a to predict natural happenings and calls for the understanding of these happenings.(受预知【predict】自然事件【现象】和要求理解这些事件【现象】的愿望所驱动,由恐惧和好奇而生。)

The classical definition, according to one of the “fathers of geodesy”reads: “geodesy is the science of measuring and portraying the earth’s surface”[Helmert, 1880, p.3].(经典【classical 经典的、古典的】定义,依照“大地测量学之父”的其中一位的说法:“大地测量学是测量和描绘【portray】地球表面的科学”[Helmert, 1880, p.3] )【Helmert德国人赫尔默特(F.R.Helmert,1843—1917 )首创海上重力测定】

Nowadays, we understand the scope of geodesy to be somewhat wider.(如今,我们理解大地测量学的范围【scope范围】就有些【somewhat有些】宽了)

It is captured by the following definition [Vanicek and Krakiwsky, 1986, p. 45]: “geodesy is the discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, including its gravity field, in a three-dimensional time varying space.”(从下列定义就可以得知【capture俘获、获得,这里指可由下面的定义所了解】[Vanicek and Krakiwsky, 1986, p. 45]:“大地测量学是涉及【deal with】,在一个三维的时空中,测量和描述包括重力场在内的地球的一门学科【discipline学科】)

According to the classical definition of Helmert, geodesy is the “science of the measurement and mapping of the earth’s surface”.(依照赫尔默特的经典定义,大地测量学是“测量和绘制地球表面的科学”)

This definition has to this day retained its validity; it includes the determination of the earth’s external gravity field, as well as the surface of the ocean floor.(这个定义时至今日【to this day 至今】还保留着【retain保留】它的有效性【validity有效性、正确性】;它包括地球的外部【external外部、外部的】重力场、也包括了海洋底部的表面的测定【determination这里翻译成测定】。)

With this definition, which as to be extended to include temporal variations of the earth and its gravity field, geodesy may be included in the geosciences, and also in engineering sciences, e.g., National Academy of Sciences (1978).(依照这个定义——关于【as to】被扩展包括时间变量【temporal时间的;variation变量】的地球和它的重力场,大地测量学可以被包括进地球科学、也可以被包括进工程学,例如【e.g.注意读音i:dgi】,国家科学院(1978))

So, we’ve learned that Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the measurement a nd representation of the earth, its gravity field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, earth tides, and crustal motion) in three-dimensionaltime varying space.(这样【so】,我们已经知道了大地测量学是关于在三维时空中测量和表述地球本身、它的重力场和地球动力学【geodynamic】

现象(极移【motion移动】,固体潮,和地壳【crustal】运动)的学科【discipline】)Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations.(大地测量学主要涉及它们的时间变量【temporal 时间的;variation 变量】的位置、重力场和几何外表)

Triggered by the development of space exploration, geodesy turned in collaboration with other sciences toward the determination of the surfaces of other celestial bodies (moon, other planets).(由于空间探索的发展的触发【Trigger】,大地测量学转而与其它科学合作【in collaboration with与……合作】,来【toward为了、向】确定其它天体【celestial body】(月球、其它行星)的表面)

The corresponding disciplines are called selenodesy and planetary geodesy.(其相应的学科被称为月面测量学【selenodesy】和行星大地测量学【planetary geodesy】)

Geodesy may be divided into three basic subdisciplines: geometric geodesy, physical geodesy, and space geodesy.(大地测量学可以分成三个基本分支:几何大地测量学、物理大地测量学、和空间大地测量学)

Geometric geodesy (also called astro-geodesy) concerns with determination ofthe size and shape of the earth as well as the position on the earth surface.(几何大地测量学(也称为天文大地测量学【astro-geodesy】)涉及确定地球大小和形状,还有地球表面上的位置的确定。)

For the purpose of deducing the size and shape of the earth and the precise location of specific positions on the earth’s surface, geometric geodesy considers the geoid through the use of astrogeodetic methods.(为了【For the purpose of】推出【deduce】地球的大小和形状,还有地球表面上的明确【specific明确的】位置的精确定位【location位置、点位n.】,几何大地测量学考虑的是大地水准面,通过几何大地测量的方法)

This aspect of the science is involved with the basic principles of the establishment of the national geodetic networks which include both horizontal and vertical controls and strictly geometrical relationships measured in various ways: astronomic positioning, triangulation, trilateration, and traverse are four traditional surveying techniques in general use for determining the exact positions of points on the earth’s surface.(该学科【the science】的这个方面【aspect】涉及建立国家大地网的基本原理【basic principle】,包括水平和高程控制,并以不同方式【in various ways】严格测定几何关系:天文定位、三角测量、三边测量、导线测量是在确定地表点精确位置时通常的四种传统测量技术)

In recent years, modern technological developments have added several new methods utilizing artificial earth satellites. (近年来,现代科技的发展增加了几种利用【utilize利用】人造地球卫星【artificial人造的】的新方法。)

Other methods relevant to geodetic surveying are being developed.(其它相关的【relevant相关的】大地测量方法也得到发展)

Physical geodesy utilizes measurements and characteristics of the earth’s gravity field as well as theories regarding this field to deduce the shape of the geoid and in combination with arc measurements, the earth’s size.(物理大地测量学利用【utilize利用】测量和地球重力场特征还有关于重力场的理论,来推出大地水准面的形状;与弧度测量【arc measurement】相结合【in combination with与……结合】推出地球的大小)

With sufficient information regarding the earth’s gravity field, it is possible to determine geoidal undulations, gravimetric deflections, and the earth’s flattening.(利用涉及地球重力场充分的【sufficient】信息【regarding涉及,介词prep.】,就可以确定大地水准面波动【undulations】、重力偏差【gravimetric deflection】、和地球扁率)

Space geodesy (Satellite geodesy) uses satellites for geodetic purposes which were advocated and published as early as 1956.(空间大地测量学(卫星大地测量学)把卫星用于大地测量的目的,早在【as early as早在】1956年就被提出【advocate】和发表【publish发表、出版】了)With the constant growth of space technology, the development of electronic distance measuring devices, and the perfection of electronic data processing equipment, satellites specifically equipped for geodetic purposes have beendeveloped, launched, observed and the data utilized.(随着空间技术的不断发展,电子测距仪的发展,和电子数据处理【electronic data processing电子数据处理】装置的完善【perfection】,特为【specifically特别地】大地测量目的装备的卫星已经被发展、发射、观测和数据利用了【或译为:已经发展、发射、观测并其数据已得到应用了】)

Several observational systems, geodetic cameras, electronic ranging and Doppler Satellite Surveys were developed and improved.(几种观测系统,大地测量摄像机,电子测距和多普勒卫星测量被发展和改善了)

Some of the areas of new geodetic developments are: satellite laser ranging, lunar laser ranging, very long baseline interferometry, satellite radar altimetry, the Global Positioning System, satellite-to-satellite tracking, and inertial surveying.(一些新的大地测量发展的领域是:卫星激光测距,激光测月【lunar laser ranging】,甚长基线干涉测量【very long baseline interferometry】,卫星雷达测高【satellite altimetry卫星测高】,全球定位系统,卫星跟踪卫星技术【satellite-to-satellite tracking卫星跟踪卫星技术】,惯性测量【inertial surveying】)

The major goals of geodesy can be summarized as follows [Vanicek and Krakiwsky, 1986]: (大地测量学的主要目的可以概述为如下:[Vanicek and Krakiwsky, 1986])

1. Establishment and maintenance of national and global three-dimensional geodetic control networks on land, recognizing the time-variant aspects of these networks. (陆地上国家和全球三维大地测量控制网的建立和维护,这些控制网的时间变量【time-variant】方面的认知。)

2. Measurements and representation of geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, earth tides, and crustal motion).(地球动力学现象(极移、固体潮、地壳运动)的测量和表述)

3. Determination of the gravity field of the earth including temporal variations.

(含时间变量的地球重力场的测定)

Unit 13 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid(大地水准面和参考椭球)

The Earth?s physical surface is a reality upon which the surveying observations are made and points are located.(地球物理表面【或者说,地球自然表面】是一个实体,测量工作【observation 观测】在其上进行,点位在其上进行定位。)

However, due to its variable topographic surface and overall shape, it cannot be defined mathematically and so position cannot be computed on its surface.(然而,由于【due to】它的起伏不定的【variable可变的、不定的,这里按中文习惯译为起伏不定的】地形表面和总的【overall】形状,它不能被数学的定义,因此点位也不能在其上进行计算。)

It is for this reason that in surveys of limited extent, the Earth is treated as flat and plane trigonometry used to define position.(正是因为这个原因,在有限范围内的测量中,地球被当成平的,并用平面三角学【trigonometry三角学】来确定位置。)

If the area under consideration is of limited extent, orthogonal projection of this area onto a plane surface may result in negligible distortion.(如果在考虑中的【under consideration在考虑中的】区域是有限范围的,该区域在一个平面【plane surface】上的正交投影【orthogonal projection】导致的【直译为导致,可以意译为:其结果】是可以忽略的【negligible可以忽略的】变形

【distortion】)

Plane surveying techniques could be used to capture field data and plane trigonometry used to compute position.(平面测量技术可以被用来获取外业数据,平面三角学用来计算位置坐标)However, if the area extended to a large area beyond limitation and treated as a flat surface the effect of the Earth?s curvature will produce unacceptable distortion.(然而,如果该区域延伸【extend】为一个大的区域超过了限度,把它当成一个平面,地球的曲率影响【effect】将产生不可被接收的【unacceptable】变形)

It can also be clearly seen that the use of a plane surface as a reference datum for the elevations of points is totally unacceptable.(同样可以明显的【clearly】看到,用平面作点的高程的参考基准是完全【totally完全地】不可被接受的【不可以的】。)

Therefore, to represent horizontal positions and elevations on maps and charts, we need a mathematical model of the Earth which includes a set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth.(因此,为了在地图和海图【chart海图、图表】上表示【represent】出水平和高程位置,我们需要一个地球的数学模型,它包括一系列地球大小和形状的参数【number这里译为参数parameter参数】)

We will define a mathematical surface that approximates to the shape of the area under consideration and t hen fit and orientate it to the Earth?s surface.(我们将定义一个数学表面接近【approximates接近v.】于被考虑的【under consideration】区域的形状,然后使之与地球表面相符合【fit and orientate:fit是适合的意思;orientate是定向的意思】)Such a surface is referred in surveying as a …reference ellipsoid?.(这样一个表面在测量里被称为【refer提到、涉及】“参考椭球”)

The Geoid (大地水准面)

Since the physical surface of the Earth can?t be used as a computational surface, a mean sea level surface is instinctively taken into consideration.(由于【既然】地球的自然表面不能被当作一个计算面来用,平均海平面自然的【instinctively本能地、自然地】被考虑【被考虑作计算面】)

Mean sea level (MSL) is defined as the average level of the ocean surface for all stages of the tide after long periods of observations.(平均海平面被定义为在经过长时间的海潮的观测后得到的整个时期【stage阶段、时期】的海洋表面的平均水平面)

We use MSL as a plane upon which we can reference or describe the heights of features on, above or below the ground.(我们用平均海平面当作一个平面,在上面我们可以定位【reference原意为名词,这里词性改变——动词:定位、参考】或描述高于、低于或在地面上特征的高度)By extending the earth?s MSL through the land areas, an equipotential surface approximately at MSL would be formed.(将地球的平均海平面延伸穿过陆地,一个近似【approximately近似地】于平均海平面的等位面【equipotential surface等位面】形成了)

Such a surface is called the “geoid”. Thus by definition, the geoid is an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field that most closely approximates the mean sea surface.(这样一个面被称为“打的水准面”。这样,依照定义,大地水准面是一个地球重力场的等位面【equipotential surface】,非常近似于平均海平面)

The geoid is only a theoretical surface, which is perpendicular at every point to the direction of gravity.(大地水准面仅仅是一个理论的曲面,在每个点上都垂直【perpendicular垂直的】指向重力方向)

You can’t see it, touch it o r even dig down to find it. The shape of geoid can be actually measured

which is based on gravity data collected worldwide.(你看不到它,摸不到它,更不能下挖来找到它。大地水准面的形状事实上可以被测出——基于世界范围的重力数据采集)

Although the gravity potential is everywhere the same and the surface is smoother than physical surface of the Earth, it still contains many irregularities which render it unsuitable mathematical location of planimetric position.(尽管重力位【gravity potential,potential位、电压、潜能】是处处相等的【指的是大地水准面的】,并且该曲面必地球自然表面药平滑的多,它依然包含了许多不规则之处【irregularity】,使得【render】它不适于平面位置【planimetric position】的精确定位【mathematical除有‘数学的’意思,也有‘精确的’意思】

These irregularities are thought to be due to mass anomalies throughout the Earth.(这种不规则被认为是由于【due to由于due应当的】遍及地球【throughout介词:遍及】的质量【mass这里是质量的意思】分布不规则【anomaly异常、不规则】)

The geoid remains important to the surveyor, as it is the surface to which all terrestrial measurements are related.(由于它是对于所有有关的陆地测量的参考面【surface这里译为参考面】,对测量者来说大地水准面依然【remain】重要)

As the direction of the gravity vector (termed the vertical) is everywhere normal to the geoid, it defines the direction of the surveyor’s plumb-bob line.(由于重力矢量(称之为【term称为】垂线【vertical垂线n.、垂直的adj.】)的方向在各处都垂直【normal垂直的、正交的、垂线、法线】于大地水准面,由测量者的铅垂线【plumb-bob line】方向就可以表示【define明确表示】)

Thus any instrument which is horizontalized by means of a spirit bubble will be referenced to the local equipotential surface.(因而任何依赖【by means of依赖】水准气泡【spirit bubble】整平【horizontalize】的仪器都参考的是局域等位面)

Elevations are related to the equipotential surface passing through MSL.(高程就是关于通过平均海平面的等位面的数据)【或者翻译为:高程与过平均海平面的等位面有关or高程参考的是过平均海平面的等位面】

Such elevations or heights are called orthometric heights (H) and are the linear distances measured along the gravity vector from a point to the equipotential surface as a reference datum.(这样的高程或高度被称为正高(H),沿着重力矢量从一个点到作为参考基准的等位面的直线【linear 直线的】距离)

As such, the geoid is the equipotential surface that best fits MSL and heights in question, referred to as heights above or below MSL.(同样地,大地水准面是最符合MSL的等位面;正被讨论的【in question正在讨论的、正在讨论】高度,指的是【refer to提到;as当作合起来可以译为指的是】高于或低于MSL的高度)

It can be seen from this that orthormetric heights are datum dependent.(由此可以看出,正高由其基准面决定【dependent由……决定的、依靠的】)

The Reference Ellipsoid(参考椭球)

The ellipsoid is a mathematical surface which provides a convenient model of the size and shape of the Earth.(参考椭球是一个数学曲面,可以提供一个关于地球的大小及形状的方便的【convenient】模型)

It is represented by an ellipse rotated about its minor axis and is defined by its semi-major axis a or the flattening f.(由一个椭圆绕它的短轴【minor axis】旋转【rotate】表示,用它的长半轴a和扁率f来定义)

The ellipsoid is chosen to best meet the needs of a particular geodetic datum system design.(这个

椭球被选择来最满足特定大地基准系统设计的需要【meet one?s need满足……的需要】)【即在设计一套特定的大地基准系统前首先选择一个满足系统设计的椭球】

Although the ellipsoid is a concept and not a physical reality, it represents a smooth surface for which formulas can be developed to compute ellipsoidal distance, azimuth and ellipsoidal coordinates.(尽管参考椭球是一个概念,不是一个物理实体,它却表现出一个光滑的表面,由此公式可以被发展来计算椭球距离,方位和椭球坐标。)

Due to the variable shape of the geoid, it is not possible to have a global ellipsoid of reference for use by all countries.(由于【due to】大地水准面的起伏不定的形状,不可能有一个适用于所有国家的全球【global】参考椭球)

The best-fitting global geocentric ellipsoid is the Geodetic Reference System 1980(GRS80), which has the following dimensions: semi-major axis is 6378137.0 m and semi-minor axis is 6356752.314 m.(最适合的全球地心【geocentric地心的】椭球是1980大地坐标参考系统【80椭球,注意:我国使用的80坐标系使用的是75椭球】,尺寸【dimension尺寸、元】如下:长半轴为6378137.0 m,短半轴为6356752.314 m)

The relationship of all three surfaces which are terrain, geoid and ellipsoid is illustrated in this Figure. (所有三个面:地表、大地水准面和椭球面的关系,由这个图图解说明【illustrate 图例说明】)

We note that the orthometric height H is the height with reference to the MSL, whereas the geodetic height h is the height of anything above the reference ellipsoid.(我们注意到,正高H 是参考MSL的高度,而【whereas】大地高h是参考椭球面的高度)

The relation between the two kinds of heights is shown in the Figure, where the quantity N, the height of the geoid above the reference ellipsoid or the perpendicular distance between the geoid and the reference ellipsoid at a point, is usually called the geoidal height (geoid undulation).(这两种高度之间的关系如图所示,N这个量【quantity】,某个点上大地水准面高于参考椭球面或者说大地水准面和参考椭球面之间的垂直距离【perpendicular distance垂直距离】,通常被称为大地水准面高【geoidal height】(大地水准面差距【geoid undulation;undulation波动】)Thus, the knowledge of the geoid is necessary for transforming the geodetic to orthometric heights and vice versa. (这样,把大地高转换为正高,大地水准面的知识就是必需的,反之亦然【vice versa反之亦然】)

Once we determine the geoid, we can compute the difference between the two surfaces, the ellipsoid and the geoid anywhere in the country.(一旦我们确定了大地水准面,我们就可以计算这两个面的差距——国家的无论何处的椭球面和大地水准面)

The expression “ellipsoidal height”for (geodetic) height of anything above the reference ellipsoid is also used comparing the acceptance of the standard geodetic term of “geoidal height”.(相对于标准的大地测量学术语“大地水准面高”的采用【acceptance接受、认同】,“椭球高”这个表示高于参考椭球面的高度(大地高)的表达【expression】也被采用。)Surveyors used to working with spirit levels have referenced orthometric heights (H) to the “average”surface of the earth, as depicted by MSL.(测量者习惯于参考【reference to】地球“平均”表面——用MSL来描述【depicte】,利用水准测量,获得正高(H))The surface of MSL can be approximated by the geoid.(MSL这个面可以近似的当作大地水准面)

The difference between the two surfaces arises from the fact that seawater is not homogeneous and because of a variety of dynamical effects on the seawater.(这两个面的差别出现在一个事实上——海水不均匀并且有各种不断变化的影响在其上)

The height of the MSL above the geoid is called the sea surface topography (SST).(MSL高于大

地水准面的高度称为海面地形【sea surface topography】【还有一个SST satellite-to-satellite tracking卫星跟踪卫星技术;不要混了】)

It is a very difficult quantity to obtain from any measurements; consequently, it is not yet known very accurately.(这是一个从任何测量工作中都非常难获取的值,因此【consequently】,它尚未【not yet尚未】非常准确的得知)

GPS heights are referenced to the ellipsoid, a mathematical model that does not physically exist.(GPS高参考的是椭球面,是一个数学模型,并不物理地存在)

This model, does not agree with mean sea level. That means the height of a pointdetermined from GPS is not the same as its sea level elevation as determined by leveling. (这个模型,不与平均海平面相吻合。这就意味着一个点由GPS确定的高度与由水准测量确定的海拔高不相同)The summarizing of the relationships among height systems can be illustrated below:(高程系统的关系概述举例说明【illustrate】如下【summarize概述n.】:)

⑴MSL elevation is roughly equivalent to orthometric height (H), the technical name for height above the geoid. The geoid is, for all intents and purposes, the same as MSL.(MSL 高程概略地等同于正高(H)——高于大地水准面的高度的技术名词)

⑵Geoid height (N)is the separation between the geoid and the ellipsoid (sometimes called Geoidal separation). It can be plus or minus. A negative geoidal separation indicates that the geoid is below the ellipsoid.(大地水准面高(N)是大地水准面和椭球面之间的差距【separation】(有时也叫大地水准面差距)。它可以是正也可以是负。一个正的大地水准面差距表示【indicate】大地水准面在椭球面下方)

⑶Ellipsoid height (h)is the distance above or below the ellipsoid (plus or minus). Ellipsoid height is also called geodetic height.(椭球高(h)是高于或低于椭球的距离(正或负)。椭球高也叫做大地高。)

Unit 14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions(基准、坐标和变换)

A datum is the mathematical model of the Earth we use to calculate the coordinates and elevations on any map, chart, or survey system.(基准是我们在任何地图、海图【chart海图】或测量系统中用来计算坐标和高程的地球数学模型)

Geodetic datums define the size and shape of the Earth and the origin and orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth.(大地基准能定义地球的大小和形状,以及用来给地球绘图的坐标系统的原点和坐标定向【orientation】)

Hundreds of different datums have been used to frame position descriptions since the first estimates of the Earth’s size were made by Aristotle.(自亚里士多德【Aristotle】第一次对地球的大小作出估计【estimate估计】以来,上百种不同的基准被用来构架【frame构造v.】位置的表述【description】)

But all coordinates reference some particular set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth.(但是所有的坐标参考对于地球大小和形状有一些特殊)

For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84).(例如,GPS就是基于1984世界大地系统(WGS-84)【美国军方采用IUGG国际大地测量与地球物理联合会第17届大会大地测量常数的推荐值GRS80建立的大地坐标系】建立的)

Many countries use their own datums when they make their maps and surveys---what we call local datums.(许多国家进行他们的测量和绘图时用他们自己的基准——我们称之为区域基准)

Horizontal and Vertical Datums(水平和竖直基准)

In geodesy two types of datums must be considered: a “Horizontal Datum” for location, which forms the basis for the computations of horizontal control surveys in which thecurvature of the Earth is considered and a “Vertical Datum”for elevation or to which elevations are referred.(大地测量中两个基准的类型应该考虑:一个是位置的“水平基准”,形成考虑地球曲率的水平控制测量计算的基础;一个是高程的“竖直基准”或者说高程所参考的【refer涉及】)Vertical control networks provide elevations with reference to a surface of constant gravity force called the geoid.(竖直控制网提供关于【with reference to】一个被称为大地水准面的恒【constant不变的】重力表面【重力等位面】的高程)

Almost all maps and charts use mean sea level (geoid) for elevation. (几乎所有地图和海图都使用平均海平面(大地水准面)作为高程基准)

But they might use any of over hundred different horizontal position datums.(但是它们可能使用任一上百种不同的水平位置的基准)

One example of horizontal datum is a mathematical surface called a reference ellipsoid with which positional information (latitude and longitude) is referenced to.(一个水平基准的例子是一个称为参考椭球的数学曲面【surface表面,这里按习惯翻译为曲面】,位置信息(经纬度)可以参考其得到)

The coordinates for points in specific geodetic surveys and triangulation networks are computed from certain initial quantities (datums).(精密的【specific详细而精确的;特殊的】大地测量和三角测量【triangulation三角测量的】网中,点位坐标由一些【cerrtain某些、一些】初始量【quantity】(基准)计算得到)

Sometimes, a map will have more than one grid on it. Normally, each grid is for a different datum.(有时,一张地图有超过一个格网存在。通常,每个格网有一个不同的基准)

Horizontal datum and coordinates: A horizontal datum is a surface of constant values that forms the basis for the computations of horizontal control surveys.(水平基准和坐标:水平基准是一个恒值的曲面,形成水平控制测量的基础)

In a horizontal datum a reference ellipsoid is used as a mathematical approximation of the shape of the Earth.(水平基准中,一个参考椭球被用来当作地球形状的数学近似【approximation 近似值】)

Five parameters are required to define a horizontal datum: two to specify the dimensions of the ellipsoid, two to specify the location of an initial point (origin), and one to specify the orientation (i.e., north) of the coordinate system.(定义一个水平基准需要五个参数【parameter】:两个确定椭球的尺度,两个确定一个原点【initial初始的,initial point即大地原点】的位置,一个确定坐标系统的方向(也就是,北方向))

For example, the radius and flattening of the ellipsoid selected for the computations to specify the dimensions of the ellipsoid, the longitude and latitude of an initial point (origin) to specify the location and an azimuth of a line (direction) to some other (triangulation) station to specify the orientation.(例如,被选择来计算的【用来计算的】椭球的半径和扁率确定椭球的尺度,原点的经纬度确定位置【指椭球定位】,一条线(方向)到其它某个(三角测量)站点的方位角来确定方位【椭球定向】)

A change in any of these quantities affects every point on the datum.(这些量中任一个的改变都会影响到基准面上每个点)

For this reason, while positions within a system are directly and accurately reliable, data such as distance and azimuth derived from computations involving geodetic positions on different datums will be in error in proportion to the difference in the initial quantities.(因为这个原因,当在一个

系统内的位置是直接和精确可靠的,如距离和方位等得自【derived from得自】计算的数据——包括在不同基准上的大地测量位置——将出现错误,错误与初始值之间的差异成比例)The two main horizontal datums used in the U.S. are the North American Datum of 1927(NAD27) and the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83).(美国使用的两个主要的水平基准是1927北美基准(NAD27)【1927北美坐标系】和1983北美基准(NAD83)【1983北美坐标系】)

In 1986, NAD83 replaced NAD27 because the latter was found to be not accurate enough to support modern positioning activities that occur in highly accurate electronic measurement systems and satellite-based positioning systems.(1986年,NAD83代替了NAD27,因为后者被发现不足够准确以支持出现在高精确的电子测量系统和卫基定位系统的现代定位活动)NAD83 is an earth-centered datum and relies on an ellipsoid (and other constants) of the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS80).(NAD83是一个地心坐标系,以1980大地参考系统(GRS80)椭球(和其它常量)为基础【rely on依靠、依赖】)

It is important to note that GPS position calculations are based on the WGS84 datum (World Geodetic System of 1984), which for all practical purposes is identical to GRS80.(需要注意的是,GPS定位计算是基于WGS84基准【坐标系】(1984世界大地坐标系),实际上【for all practical purposes实际上】同GRS80是相同的)

In China, Xi’an Geodetic Coordinate System 1980 is used as a horizontal datum in which the initial point (origin) is in Shanxi Province.(在中国,1980西安大地坐标系【1980西安坐标系】作为水平基准,其原点在陕西省)

Vertical datum and heights:The zero surface, to which elevations or heights are referred, is called a vertical datum.(竖直基准和高程:0基准面,高程或海拔所参照的,被称为竖直基准【高程基准】)

From previous text we know the geoid is an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field that most closely approximates the mean sea surface.(在以前的【previous】文章里我们知道大地水准面是一个地球重力场的等位面【equipotential surface】,非常接近于平均海平面。)

At every point the geoid surface is perpendicular to the local plumb line.(在每个点上大地水准面都与本地铅垂线正交)

It is therefore a natural reference for heights---measured along the plumb line.(因此【therefore 因此】这是一个自然的【natural天生的、自然的】高程参考——沿铅垂线测得)

Heights referred to the geoid are called orthometric heights, which stand in contrast to geodetic (ellipsoidal) heights, which refer to the ellipsoid.(到大地水准面的高程叫正高【orthometric height】,与之相比的是大地高【in contrast to和……相比】,其参考面为椭球面)

Because we cannot directly see the geoid surface, we cannot actually measure the heights above or below the geoid surface.(因为我们不能直接看到大地水准面,我们就不能实际测量到【above or below高于或低于】大地水准面的高程。)

We must infer where this surface is by making gravity measurements and by modeling it mathematically.(我们必须利用重力测量来推断【infer推断】该曲面在哪儿,并将其数学地建模【并建立其数学模型】)

For practical purposes, we assume that at the coastline the geoid and the MSL surfaces are essentially the same.(为了实际目的【以应用为目的】,我们假定大地水准面和平均海平面在海岸线处基本上【essentially基本上、本质的】一样)

Nevertheless, as we move inland we measure heights relative to the zero height at the coast, which in effect means relative to MSL.(然而,当我们向内陆移动,我们测量高程相对于岸边的0高程,实际上指的是【means意味着】相对于平均海平面)Therefore we use mean sea level as a

plane upon which we can reference or describe the heights of features on, above or below the ground.(因此我们用平均海平面当作一个平面,在其上我们可以参考或描述高于或低于地表或地表上的特征的高程)

Elevations are not required for most parcel mapping applications.(大多数地块【parcel小包、地块,即小范围的】绘图应用并不要求高程)

However, since GPS is a 3D (actually 4D) measuring device, elevations are available for every point.(然而,由于GPS是一个3D(实际上是4D)测量仪器,每个点的高程都是可以用到的【available可用的】)

As mentioned earlier, the GPS-derived elevation refers to the ellipsoid (ellipsoidal height), not the mean sea level (orthometric height).(正如早些时候提到的,GPS高程【GPS-derived得自GPS 的】是到椭球(大地高)而不是平均海平面(正高)的高)

Conversions (转换)

A coordinate conversion or transformation is the process of bringing a coordinate from one defined coordinate system (or zone) into another through a series of algorithms based on the latitude/longitude position of the point.(坐标转换【conversion or transformation都是转换】是在点的经纬度位置基础上,通过一连串的运算法则,将坐标从一个定义坐标系统(或坐标带)转换到另一个坐标系统的过程)

Coordinate systems based on the same datum retain a perfect mathematical relationship, allowing coordinate values to be precisely transformed between them.(基于相同的基准的坐标系统保留着完美的【perfect】数学关系式,使得坐标值可以在两者之间精确转换)

But the coordinates for a point on the Earth’s surface in one datum will not match the coordinates from another datum for that same point.(但是地球表面点的一个坐标系中的坐标与另一坐标系中相同该点的坐标将不再相吻合【match匹配、符合】)

The differences occur because of the different ellipsoids used and the probability that the centers of each datum’s ellipsoid is oriented differently with respect to the Earth’s center.(差异的发生是因为使用的椭球不同和每个基准的椭球中心关于地球中心定位不同的可能性【probability】)【used和probabiolity并列,其它都是分别修饰两个词的】

A grid shift exists between datums because each datum has a different origin.(基准之间存在一个坐标变换【shift变换、改变n.】,因为每个基准有一个不同的原点)

A datum conversion is the process of bringing coordinate values referenced to one defined datum into another datum system.(坐标系转换是将参考【referenced to】定义【defined】的坐标系的坐标值转换到另一个坐标系中的过程)

Complete datum conversion is based on seven parameter transformations that include three translation parameters, three rotation parameters and a scale parameter.(完全的基准转换基于7参数转换,包括3个平移参数,3个旋转参数和一个尺度参数)

Simple three parameter conversion between latitude, longitude, and height in different datums can be accomplished by conversion through Earth-Centered, Earth Fixed XYZ Cartesian coordinates in one reference datum and three origin offsets that approximate differences in rotation, translation and scale.(在不同基准的纬度、经度和高程之间简单的三参数转换可以由通过地心的、地球固定XYZ笛卡儿坐标系【地固笛卡儿坐标系,以地球质心为原点,以指向固定平极为Z轴,以指向经度原点为X轴的右手笛卡儿直角坐标系】在一个参考基准内和三个初始偏移量【offset】,近似【approximate近似v.】旋转、平移和尺度差值来完成)

翻译研究途径的回顾与发展

龙源期刊网 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0712877628.html, 翻译研究途径的回顾与发展 作者:杨可伊 来源:《文教资料》2018年第01期 摘要:本文从翻译学研究途径回顾、翻译学当代研究的发展和翻译学有待拓展的领域三方面对近几十年来翻译学的学科发展做了梳理和总结,从语言的对比研究、功能主义学派、描写翻译学及翻译的文化转向方面做了总结和回顾,肯定了翻译学理论研究取得的卓越成果,指出了翻译学学科在纯理论研究、专项研究及构建我国翻译体系理论等方面相对滞后,以期翻译学学者和专家为丰富翻译学理论做出专门研究。 关键词:翻译研究途径翻译学理论 一、引言 研究途径是指研究者用作研究的理论与方法,翻译学处于跨学科的领域,需要借鉴其他学科的研究理论和方法丰富本学科内涵,正所谓翻译的研究途径。归纳起来,翻译研究的途径即从语言学角度研究翻译语言和对比文本阶段开始,经历了德国功能主义学派阶段、描写翻译研究阶段、文化转向研究阶段及当代社会学方向研究、实证性转向研究及全球化转向研究阶段。 二、翻译研究途径回顾 1. 50年代末至70年代注重语言的对比研究 相关理论霍姆斯、雅各布逊、卡特福德、奈达、纽马克、穆南及费道罗夫等。奈达提出了著名的动态对等翻译观,在第三阶段用功能对等取代了动态对等,指出翻译需要寻找以交际功能为目的的对等语,从而重新组织语言的结构和语义的形式,(Nida and Taber, 1969:12)奈达进一步指出翻译必须达意、传神、措辞通顺及考虑读者的接受。几乎和奈达同一时期,苏联著名翻译理论家费道罗夫(A.V. Fedorov)提出翻译学理论和语言学学科紧密相关,强调翻译要通过两种语言的对比才能体现出来,翻译要通过语言学学科才能表现出来。(蔡毅、段京华,2000:5-6)此外,哈蒂姆(Basil Hatim),纽马克(Peter Newmark),贝尔(Roger Bell)格特(Ernst-August Gutt)等将语用学、篇章语言学、认知语言学与翻译研究结合,丰富并促进了翻译语言的对比研究。 2. 70年代末至80年代德国功能主义学派研究 德国的翻译功能学派针对翻译语言学派重形式的不足,提出重文化和交际功能,将翻译研究置于目的语文化和语境中。赖斯通过文本类型理论(text typology)阐释不同文本类型的功能,指出文本的多义性和多功能性,他们运用语言功能和交际的特点分析和研究翻译。弗米尔提出目的论(Skopostheorie),认为翻译文本要以达到目的语语境为目的,并指出译文要根据目的语读者和译入语习惯达到文内连贯和互文连贯的原则。曼塔里阐发了翻译行为理论

科技翻译

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子是不通顺的,根据前后文则可以猜测它的词意应该与经济体有关。实际上,这里“carrier”是“运营商”的意思。 译文:运营商的关注焦点已从技术转向了应用、服务和收益。作为信息服务的高级形态,个性化服务开始逐步走上了前台。 例2:Ozone pollution is a concern during the summer months because strong sunlight and hot weather result in harmful ozone concentrations in the air we breathe. concern:vt.涉及,关系到;使担心。n.关系;关心;关心的事。这些是“carrier”的常用词意。 译文1:因为强烈的阳光和炎热的天气会导致有害臭氧集中在我们呼吸的空气中,所以在夏季,臭氧污染是一个关注点。 显然把“concern”翻译为“关注点”并不适合在这一句的翻译中,因此我们可以对词意进行灵活的变动。 译文2:受强光和炎热天气影响,有害臭氧在空气中大量聚集,因而在夏季,臭氧污染是一个尤为突出的问题。 二、科技翻译的艺术性 科技翻译的前提是忠实于原文,这不意味着呆板、毫不变通的文字的堆砌。科技翻译需要创造性的技巧运用,所以,可以说,翻译是一种再创造。 It is fortunate that men have worked out new plane shapes which enable

时代周刊翻译

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翻译学必读 1语文和诠释学派 二十世纪之前的翻译理论被纽马克(1981)称为翻译研究的‘前语言学时期’,人们围绕‘word-for-word’和‘sense-for-sense’展开激烈的讨论,核心是‘忠实’,‘神似’和‘真理’。典型的代表有John Dryden, Tytler等,而Barnard, Steiner等人则是在他们的基础上进一步发展。 2语言学派 Jacobson(1959)提出意义对等的问题,随后的二十多当年,学界围绕这个问题进行了研究。奈达(1969)采取了转换语法模式,运用“科学(奈达语)”的方法来分析他翻译《圣经》过程中的意义处理问题。奈达提出的形式对等说、动态对等说和等效原则都是将注意力集中在受众一方。纽马克信奉的是语义翻译和交际翻译,即重视翻译中的语义和交际方面。 3话语分析Discourse Analysis(critical discourse analysis批评话语分析functional discourse analysis功能语篇分析Discourse analysis theory话语分析理论 Discourse Analysis for Interpreters翻译专业演说分析 Pragmatics & Discourse Analysis语用学positive discourse analysis积极话语分析 rhetorical or discourse analysis语篇分析Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis语用学Mediated discourse analysis中介话语分析 二十世纪七十年代到九十年代,作为应用语言学领域的一个分支,话语分析经历了产生和发展壮大的过程,其理论背景来自M.K.Halliday(韩礼德)的系统功能语法。今天,话语分析的方法已经逐步运用到翻译研究中。House(1997)提出的翻译质量模型就是基于韩礼德的理论,他吸收了其中的语域分析方法;Baker(1992) 则为培养译员提供了话语分析和语用分析的范本;Hatim 和Mason(1997)将语域研究拓展到语用和符号学角度 4目的学派 目的学派于二十世纪七、八十年代在德国兴起,是从静态的语言学、语言类型学中剥离出来的。其中的代表人物有,Reiss,Vermmer,Nord 等。Reiss(1971,1988,2000)强调的是文本层面的对等,主张文本的类型和翻译策略结合起来;Holz-Manttari(1984)则认为在翻译过程是一个交际、互动的过程,涉及各种各样的角色。Vermmer(2000)继承并发展了Reiss的观点。 5文化学派the Culture School Even-Zohar 在二十世纪七十年代提出将文学翻译视为文化的,文学的和历史的过程或系统。翻译研究的“文化转向”指的是更加注重从文化研究的角度进行翻译研究。其中,Lefevere (1992)逐渐从系统理论转向文化学研究,将翻译看作‘重写’的过程,审视围绕着翻译文本的意识形态冲突等课题。Simon(1996) 和一些女权主义者则重点研究文化学研究中的女性意识。后殖民主义文化学方向的代表人物是Bassnett和Trivedi (1999),他们认为,无论在殖民化的过程中还是在被殖民的社会,翻译都十分活跃。文化学派的研究有着各自的研究任务和各自的侧重点,丰富了翻译研究的内容。 6解构学派 本雅明本人不属于解构学派,但他的著作《译者的任务》通常被看作解构学派对翻译研究的缘起和根据。本雅明率先指出,翻译不可能与原作相等,因为翻译过程已经改变了原作,况且,没有蜕变,也就不会产生‘后起的生命’。本雅明认为,译者的任务不是在目标语中复制原文,而是颠覆原语的体系,把潜藏于原文的精神内容表达出来。德里达则更进一步,在他的著作《巴别通天塔》中,翻译被看作一个不断解构和建构的过程。学界认为德里达将翻

地层时代中英文对照

圭亚那盆地地层时代中英文对照 Cainozoic 新生界 Tertiary 第三纪 Pleistocene 第三纪更新世 Miocene 第三纪中新世 Lower Miocene 第三纪下中新世 Oligocene 第三纪渐新世 Eocene 第三纪始新世 Middle Eocene第三纪中始新世 Lower Eocene第三纪下始新世 Paleocene 第三纪古新世、古近系 Cretaceous 白垩纪 Senonian 森诺阶 Campanian 坎帕阶 Santonian 桑托阶 Coniacian 科尼亚克阶(晚白垩纪第三期)Turonian 白垩纪土仑阶(晚白垩纪第二期)Cenomanian 森诺曼阶 Albian 阿尔比阶 Aptian 阿普第阶 Barremian 巴列姆阶 Precambrian 前寒武纪地层

Cainozoic 新生界 Quaternary 第四系Quaternary period 第四纪Paleocene 第三纪古新世、古近系 Mesozoic中生界 Cretaceous 白垩系 Jurassic 侏罗系 Triassic 三叠系 LateTriassicepoch 晚三叠世 Paleozoic 古生界 Permian 二叠系 LatePermianepoch Early Permian 早二叠世 Carboniferous 石炭系石炭纪 Late Carboniferous Devonian 泥盆系泥盆纪upperDevonionseries 上泥盆统 siluric 志留系Silurian 志留纪 Ordovician 奥陶系奥陶纪 Cambrian 寒武系寒武纪 Proterozoic era 元古代

90年代结婚证翻译模板

MARRIAGE CERTIFICATE (Seal of Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of China) Supervised bytheMinistry of Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of China Photograph of the holder and his/her spouse (embossing seal) Certificate Holder: 1 / 3

Marriage Certificate No.: Name: Sex:Female Birthday Date: ID No: Name: Sex:Male Birthday Date: ID No:Themarriage application conforms to the provisions of the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China. We hereby certify thatthe applicants are registered as married. Issuing Authority:(Special Seal for Marriage Registration, CivilAffairs Bureau of XX District, Shanghai) Date of Registration: 2 / 3

The Marriage Law prescribes that both the male and the female applicants shallgo to the marriage registration authority in person to get registered. If the application conforms to the provisions of the Marriage Law, the applicants shall be registered and issued the marriage certificate.Marriage relationship will be established once the marriage certificate is issued. Printed by the Department of Civil Affairs of Shanghai 3 / 3

科学翻译

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大数据时代英文翻译

Era of Big Data is a woman's age; women in the gene can accumulate and deal with big data/ women are born to accumulate and deal with big data. Many men and children, in fact, have been wondering about this special ability of women. Like, as a child, just as soon as you entered the house your Mother said immediately in a suspicious tone: “Liu zhijun, you didn’t do well in the exam today, did you.” Another example, you just have a glance at the mobile phone, your wife laughs: “Does Er gou the next door ask you to play games?” One more ex ample, when you close the door and make a phone call, your girlfriend will cry: “Who are shot in bed?” They are sometimes right, sometimes wrong. However, On the whole, the accuracy rate is higher than chance level. When they are wrong, men would sneer women always give way to foolish fancies; when they are right, men would say women are sensitive animal maybe with more acute sensory organs. Anyway, that is a guess. It has already scared man that overall accuracy rate is higher than the random level. In order to adapt to this point, the male also developed a very strong skills against reconnaissance. This part is beyond the scope of this article, so no more details about it. Some studies, such as Hanna Holmes’s paper, have indi cated that the white matter of the female’s brain is higher than that of the male. So they have very strong imagination of connecting things together. Some recent studies have shown that women are better than men in the "date" memory. That is the reason why they are able to remember all the birthdays, anniversaries, and even some of the great day of unimportant friends. No matter whether these results are true or not, I am afraid that this is not women's most outstanding ability. Women's most remarkable ability is a long-term tracking of some seemingly unimportant data to form their own baseline and pattern. Once the patterns of these data points are significantly different from the baseline she is familiar with, she knows something unusual. In their daily life, women do not consider the difference between causality and correlation. They believe in the principle: "There must be something wrong out of something unusual." People who talk about big data often take Lin Biao as an example. Lin Biao recorded some detailed and unimportant data after a battle. Such as seized guns, the proportion of rifles and pistols, the age levels of war prisoners, seized grain, whether they are sorghum or millet, etc., all of which were unavoidably recorded in the book. Others laughed at him. But later, he determined where the enemy headquarters were according to these data. What women do is almost the same. A girl A has a secret crush on boy B, but she usually doesn’t contact him directly. Two days later, I asked her if she wanted to ask him to have dinner together. She said he was playing. I wondered “how do you know that?” She said that boy B usually is on the line Gmail at 8:00 am, away status at8:30am, for he goes out to buy coffee and breakfast, on line again at 9:00am, busy status, for he is at work, away again at12:30am for lunch, on line for whole evenings, maybe for reading or playing games. His buddy C is on line at10:00 am, still online till 2:00am next day. He is a boy who gets up late and stays up late. His buddy D is on line for the most of the day. However, the most important pattern is that there are 2-3 days per week, during which they would be offline or away for 3-4 hours together. Conclusion: they are playing together.

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