日本能源简析20150130
? Countries
Japan
Last Updated: January 30, 2015 (Notes)
full report
Overview
Japan is the world's largest liquefied natural gas importer, second-largest coal importer, and third-largest net importer of crude oil and oil products.
Japan has limited domestic energy resources that have met less than 9% of the country's
total primary energy use since 2012, compared with about 20% before the removal of
nuclear power following the Fukushima plant accident.1 It is the third largest oil consumer
and net importer in the world behind the United States and China. Furthermore, it ranks as
the world's largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and second-largest importer of
coal behind China.
In light of the country's lack of sufficient domestic hydrocarbon resources, Japanese energy
companies have actively pursued participation in upstream oil and natural gas projects
overseas, providing engineering, construction, financial, and project management services
for energy projects around the world. Japan is one of the major exporters of energy-sector
capital equipment and has a strong energy research and development (R&D) program
supported by the government. This program pursues energy efficiency measures
domestically to increase the country's energy security and to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions.
In March 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of Sendai, Japan, triggering
a large tsunami and serious nuclear damage at the Fukushima-Daiichi reactors. The
damage to Japan's energy infrastructure resulted in an immediate shutdown of about 10
gigawatts (GW) of nuclear electric generating capacity. The plants that were not immediately
damaged were gradually shut down as a result of scheduled maintenance and lack of
government approvals to return to operation. Two nuclear reactors, Kansai Electric's Ohi
reactors 3 and 4, were restarted in July 2012 and represented the only source of nuclear
power in the country for more than a year. However, these two reactors were shut down
again in September 2013, suspending all of Japan's nuclear power generation for a second
time in more than 40 years.2
Nuclear generation in Japan represented about 27% of the power generation prior to the
2011 earthquake and was one of the country's least expensive sources of electric power.
Japan replaced the significant loss of nuclear power with generation from imported natural
gas, low-sulfur crude oil, fuel oil, and coal. This substitution of more expensive fossil fuels
led to higher electricity prices for consumers, higher government debt levels, and revenue losses for electric utilities.
Japan imports virtually all its fossil fuels, whereas very little fuel is needed for nuclear energy generation. Japan spent about $270 billion, or around 58% more, for fossil fuel imports in the three years following the Fukushima accident.3 Despite some strength in export markets, the yen's depreciation and soaring natural gas and oil import costs from a greater reliance on fossil fuels and sustained high international oil prices through the first half of 2014 continued to deepen Japan's recent trade deficit. The trade balance reversed from a 30-year trade surplus, which was $65 billion in 2010 to a deficit that reached $112 billion in 2013.4 The recent drop in oil prices in the latter part of 2014 is likely to ease the trade deficit and provide some relief to Japanese utilities.
Japan's current government intends to resume using nuclear energy as a baseload power source with necessary safety measures. The government believes that the use of nuclear energy is necessary to help reduce current energy supply strains and high energy prices faced by Japan's industries and end users. The government's new energy policy issued in 2014 emphasizes energy security, economic efficiency, and emissions reduction. Key goals and plans to balance the country's fuel portfolio include strengthening the share of renewable and alternative energy sources, diversifying away from oil to reduce dependency in the transportation sector, and developing the most advanced generation technologies using fossil fuels. These efforts occur in the context of the government's goal to reverse two decades of economic stagnation in Japan and to provide economic revitalization through public infrastructure spending, monetary easing, labor market reform, and business investment.
Source: Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook
Total primary energy consumption
In the wake of the Fukushima nuclear incident, Japan's energy fuel mix shifted as natural
gas, oil, and renewable energy now provide larger shares and supplant some of the
nuclear fuel. Oil remains the largest source of primary energy in Japan, although its share
of total energy consumption has declined from about 80% in the 1970s to 44% in 2013. The
decline in oil use occurred as a result of increased energy efficiency and the increased use
of other fuels. Coal continues to account for a significant share of total energy consumption,
although natural gas is increasingly important as a fuel source and is currently the preferred
fuel of choice to replace the nuclear shortfall. Natural gas rose from 19% in 2010 to 22% of
total primary consumption in 2013, according to BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2014
and EIA estimates. Before the 2011 earthquake, Japan was the third-largest consumer of
nuclear power in the world, after the United States and France, and nuclear power
accounted for about 13% of the country's total energy in 2010. By 2012 and 2013, the
nuclear energy share had fallen to less than 1% of total energy consumption. Hydroelectric
power and other renewable energy sources comprise a relatively small percentage of total
energy consumption in the country, although renewable energy is slowly growing as an
alternative fuel source.
The Japanese government's policy has emphasized increased energy conservation and
efficiency and a lower dependency on oil imports. The government generally aims to reduce
the share of oil consumed in its primary energy mix. Among the large developed world
economies, Japan has one of the lowest energy intensities, as high levels of investment in
R&D of energy technology since the 1970s have substantially increased energy efficiency.
Petroleum and other liquids
Japan is the third-largest petroleum consumer in the world. The country relies almost solely on imports to meet its oil consumption needs because Japan's oil resources are very limited.
Japan has very limited domestic proved oil reserves, amounting to 44 million barrels as of January 2015, according to the Oil & Gas Journal (OGJ).5 Japan's domestic oil reserves are concentrated primarily along the country's western coastline. Offshore areas surrounding Japan, such as the East China Sea (ECS), also contain oil and natural gas deposits. However, development of these zones is held up by competing territorial claims with China. The two countries reached an accord in 2008 to jointly explore four natural gas fields and equally invest in the development of two fields–Chunxiao/Shirakaba and Longjing/Asunaro. Since the agreement was signed, the countries have continued unilateral actions in attempts to develop the gas fields. Tensions escalated with territorial claims by Japan in 2012, with China's installation of a production platform in the contested area, and after China's unilateral declaration of an air defense zone covering much of the ECS in 2013 (see East China Sea analysis brief).6
Consequently, Japan relies almost solely on imports to meet its oil consumption needs. Japan maintains government-controlled oil stocks to ensure against a supply interruption. According to the International Energy Agency, total strategic crude oil stocks in Japan were more than 420 million barrels as of October 2014, where 73% of those were government stocks and 27% were commercial stocks.7 Also, Japan has signed agreements with oil-producing countries such as Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates in recent years that involve Japan leasing crude oil storage for these countries, with Japan having a priority to purchase the oil in the event of a serious supply disruption. Japan has a three-year lease to store 6.3 million barrels for each of these producers.8
Japan consumed an estimated 4.3 million barrels of oil per day (bbl/d) in 2014, making it the third-largest petroleum consumer in the world, behind the United States and China. However, oil demand in Japan has declined by 22% overall since 2000. This decline stems from structural factors, such as fuel substitution, a declining population, and government-mandated energy efficiency targets. Japan consumes most of its oil in the transportation and industrial sectors (about 41% and 29% of petroleum products, respectively), and it is also highly dependent on naphtha and low-sulfur fuel oil imports.9 Demand for naphtha has fallen as ethylene production is gradually being displaced by petrochemical production in other Asian countries. In addition to the shift to natural gas in the industrial sector, fuel substitution is occurring in the residential sector as high prices have decreased demand for kerosene in home heating.
Japan's oil consumption rose by 255,000 bbl/d in 2012 from the 2011 level, the first significant annual jump in nearly two decades. Demand for low-sulfur fuel oil and direct use of crude oil rose substantially in 2012 as these fuels replaced some nuclear electric power generation and supported the post-disaster reconstruction works. However, oil consumption in the power sector began declining in 2013 as Japan relied more on natural gas and coal as nuclear power substitutes, and energy conservation measures were enforced for larger businesses and highly encouraged for smaller consumers. In addition, a consumption tax hike implemented in April 2014, the first in 17 years, and the yen's devaluation, which lowers purchasing power for imported products, have put downward pressure on oil consumption. EIA assumes that Japan's oil consumption will continue declining through 2015 as nuclear capacity comes back online.
Sector organization
Although Japan is a minor oil-producing country, it has a robust oil sector comprised of
various state-run, private, and foreign companies. Until 2004, Japan's oil sector was
dominated by the Japan National Oil Corporation (JNOC), which was formed by the
Japanese government in 1967 and was charged with promoting oil exploration and
production domestically and overseas. In 2004, JNOC's profitable business units were
spun off into new companies to introduce greater competition into Japan's energy sector.
Many of JNOC's activities were taken over by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National
Corporation (JOGMEC), a state-run enterprise charged with aiding Japanese companies
involved in exploration and production overseas and in the promotion of commodity
stockpiling domestically. New companies were formed, of which the two largest are Inpex,
now Japan's largest oil and gas company, and the Japan Petroleum Exploration Company
(Japex).
Private Japanese firms dominate the country's large and competitive downstream sector,
as foreign companies have historically faced regulatory restrictions. But over the past
several years, these regulations have been eased, which has led to increased competition
in the petroleum-refining sector. Chevron, BP, Shell, and BHP Billiton are among the foreign
energy companies involved in providing products and services to the Japanese market as
well as being joint venture (JV) partners in many of Japan's overseas projects.
Domestic exploration and supply
In 2014, Japan's production of petroleum and other liquids was an estimated 136,000 bbl/d,
of which only 18,000 bbl/d was from crude oil and natural gas liquids. The vast majority of
Japan's domestic oil supply comes in the form of refinery gain, resulting from the country's
large petroleum refining sector. Japan has 148 producing oil wells in more than a dozen
fields, according to the OGJ.10
Overseas exploration and production
The government's energy strategy plan encourages Japanese companies to increase energy exploration and development projects around the world to secure a stable supply of oil and natural gas.
Japanese oil companies have sought participation in exploration and production projects
overseas with government backing because of the country's lack of domestic oil resources.
The government's energy strategy plan encourages Japanese companies to increase
energy exploration and development projects around the world to secure a stable supply of
oil and natural gas. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation supports upstream
companies by offering loans at favorable rates, thereby allowing Japanese companies to
bid effectively for projects in key hydrocarbon-producing countries. Such financial support
helps Japanese companies purchase stakes in oil and gas fields around the world,
reinforcing national energy security while guaranteeing their own financial stability.
The government set out in 2010 to double Japan's ratio of independently-developed fossil
fuels (domestic and overseas) by 2030, up from an estimated 22% through JOGMEC's
investments in production assets abroad. Following Fukushima, the government has not
established a new self-sufficiency target. As a result of the 2011 earthquake and a pressing
need to secure energy supplies, Japan is promoting even more investment in overseas oil
and natural gas operations. Japanese companies participate in about 140 oil and gas
projects worldwide that are in various stages of development, including about half that are
in the production phase as of 2014, as well as technology exchanges with various
countries.11
Japan's overseas oil projects are primarily located in the Middle East and Southeast Asia,
although companies have recently invested in shale oil and oil sands projects in North
America. Japanese oil companies involved in exploration and production projects overseas
include: Inpex, Cosmo Oil, Idemitsu Kosan Company, Japan Energy Development
Corporation, Japex, Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Nippon Oil, and others. Many of these companies are
involved in small-scale projects that were originally set up by JNOC. However, several have
invested in high-profile overseas upstream projects in recent years.
Oil imports
Japan, the third-largest global net oil importer, is highly dependent on the Middle East for most of its supply. The country is seeking to diversify its supply sources in Russia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa.
Japan was the third-largest net importer of total crude oil and petroleum products in the
world after the United States and China in 2014. Net imports of total liquids (crude oil and
petroleum product consumption less production) were 4.4 million bbl/d. After the
Fukushima incident, Japan has increased imports of crude oil for direct burn in power
plants. The country is primarily dependent on the Middle East for its crude oil imports, as
roughly 84% of Japanese crude oil imports originated from this region in 2014, up from
70% in the mid-1980s. Saudi Arabia is the largest source of imports, making up 34% of the
import portfolio, or more than 1.1 million bbl/d of crude oil in the first 11 months of 2014. The
UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, Russia, and Iran are other sizeable sources of oil to Japan.12
Japan's imports of crude oil and condensate from Iran have decreased since mid-2012 as
a result of the latest rounds of U.S. and European Union sanctions targeting Iran's oil
exports. Japanese refiners have replaced Iranian oil with other Middle Eastern supplies.
Japanese imports from Iran were more than 166,000 bbl/d in 2014, down from about
314,000 bbl/d in 2011, and Iran represented only 5% of Japanese crude oil imports in 2014
compared to nearly 9% in 2011. Japan is leveraging its nuclear capabilities to secure
nuclear cooperation and technology transfer deals and to strengthen ties with Middle Eastern countries in exchange for long-term crude oil supplies and upstream contracts. It signed a technology transfer deal with the UAE in 2013.13
Also, Japan is currently looking towards Russia, Southeast Asia, and Africa to geographically diversify its oil imports. As of mid-2011, Japan replaced some of the lost nuclear power generation with low-sulfur, heavy crudes from sources in West Africa (Gabon, Angola, and Nigeria) and Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia). However, when some crude oil burn for power began declining in 2013 as power utilities favored natural gas and coal as feedstock, some of these imports dwindled as well. After the U.S. began allowing ultra-light crude oil (condensate) to be exported in 2014, Japan became one of the first countries to import U.S. crude oil cargoes through private company Cosmo Oil's purchase in late 2014.14
Pipelines
For a country of its size, Japan has a relatively limited domestic oil pipeline transmission system. Crude oil and petroleum products are delivered to consumers mainly by coastal tankers and tank trucks, and, to a lesser degree, by railroad tankers and pipelines.
Russia's Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean pipeline (ESPO), a 2,900-mile pipeline running from Taishet, Siberia, to the Kozmino Bay Oil Terminal on the Pacific Ocean, began sending crude oil to Japan in 2009. Since then, Japan significantly raised crude oil imports from Russia, which now accounts for about 7% of Japan's total crude oil imports.
Refining
According to the Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ), Japan had 3.9 million bbl/d of crude oil refining capacity at 23 facilities as of October 2014, although some sources such as OGJ report a higher capacity of 4.4 million bbl/d.15 It has the third-largest refining capacity in the
Asia-Pacific region, surpassed by China and India. JX Nippon is the largest oil refinery
company in Japan and operates five refineries with about 1.1 million bbl/d of capacity. Other
key operators include Idemitsu Kosan, Cosmo Oil, and TonenGeneral Sekiyu. In recent
years, the refining sector in Japan has encountered excess capacity because domestic
petroleum product consumption has declined as a result of the contraction of industrial
output and the mandatory blending of ethanol into transportation fuels. In addition to
declining domestic demand for oil products, Japanese refiners now must compete with
new state-of-the-art refineries in emerging Asian markets. Currently, private refiners in
Japan are required to maintain petroleum product stocks equivalent to at least 70 days of
consumption, which imposes large additional costs to these companies. This regulation
was relaxed to 67 days after the Fukushima incident.
The Japanese government seeks to promote operational efficiency in the refining sector,
including increasing refinery competitiveness, which may lead to further refinery closures in
the future. As a result, Japan has scaled back refining capacity from around 4.8 million bbl/d
a decade ago, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).16 In 2010, METI
announced an ordinance that would raise refiners' mandatory cracking-to-crude distillation
capacity ratio from 10% to 13% or higher by March 2014. To adhere to METI's directive,
some refiners reduced capacity by nearly 20% between April 2010 and April 2014 by closing
plants entirely or by consolidating facilities. METI initiated a second phase of refining
restructuring, which involves improving the overall processing capacity to 50% from a
current 45% and includes a broader range of processing units. The government calls for
this phase to be implemented by March 2017, and it is likely that another 400,000 bbl/d of
capacity will be curtailed through further reductions in refining operations and facility
closures.17 Refiners such as Cosmo Oil and TonenGeneral have announced plans to form
a joint venture in 2015 to reduce their combined refinery capacity in the Chiba area and to
share infrastructure.18
Some industry analysts expect METI will issue a third phase to further consolidate the
number of refiners and the total capacity by 2021.19 These capacity reductions come at a
time when the country's oil demand continues to decline as a result of an aging population,
energy conservation measures, expectations of nuclear facilities returning to serve the
power sector, and financial burdens of companies having to upgrade and maintain Japan's
old refining plants.
Natural gas
Japan relies on LNG imports for virtually all of its natural gas supply and ranks as the world's largest LNG importer.
According to the OGJ, Japan had 738 billion cubic feet (Bcf) of proved natural gas reserves
as of January 2015. Natural gas proved reserves have declined since 2007, when they
measured 1.4 trillion cubic feet (Tcf). Most of Japan's natural gas fields are located along
the western coastline.
Sector organization
Similar to Japan's oil sector, Inpex and other companies created from the former Japan National Oil Company are the primary actors in Japan's domestic natural gas sector. Inpex, Mitsubishi, Mitsui, and various other Japanese companies are actively involved in domestic as well as overseas natural gas exploration and production. Osaka Gas, Tokyo Gas, and Toho Gas are Japan's largest retail natural gas companies, with a combined share of more than 70% of the retail market.20 Japanese retail gas and electric companies are participating directly in overseas upstream liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects to assure reliability of supply.
Although Japan is a large natural gas consumer, it has a relatively limited domestic natural gas pipeline transmission system for a consumer of its size. This limited pipeline system is partly due to geographical constraints posed by the country's mountainous terrain, but it is also the result of previous regulations that limited investment in the sector. Reforms in 1995 and 1999 helped open the sector to greater competition. A number of new private companies entered the industry since the reforms were enacted. Japanese companies have been constructing short pipelines to further integrate the country's gas infrastructure.
Exploration and production
Japan's natural gas production has been low and flat for more than a decade as a result of declining reserves. In 2013, production was 161 Bcf, down from an average of 182 Bcf over the past 10 years (2003-2012). Japan's largest natural gas field is the Minami-Nagaoka on the western coast of Honshu, which produces about 40% of Japan's domestic gas. Exploration and development are still ongoing at that field, which Inpex discovered in 1979. The gas produced is transported via an 840-mile pipeline network that stretches across the region surrounding the Tokyo metropolitan area.21 In 2013, Inpex installed an LNG terminal with a 73 Bcf/y capacity at Naoetsu port in Joetsu City, which connects to this domestic pipeline network and supplements the domestic gas supply with imports. Japex has been involved in locating new domestic reserves in the Niigata, Akita, and Hokkaido regions of Japan, targeting areas near existing oil and gas fields.
Japanese companies are using innovative methods to produce hydrocarbons and have discovered methane hydrates—natural gas deposits trapped within crystalized ice structures— off the country's east coast. In March 2013, JOGMEC conducted the first successful testing of methane hydrates offshore and confirmed Japan's estimates of 40 Tcf of methane hydrates in the Nankai Trough on the southeast coast of the country.22 Japan hopes to begin production by 2018, and a joint venture of eleven Japanese companies formed in late 2014 to advance the production and commercialization of methane hydrates.23 However, the high cost of such developments could push back production plans.
Consumption
In 2013, Japan consumed 4.6 Tcf of natural gas, rising about 58% from the 2000 level. Virtually all of the gas demand is met by LNG imports with the exception of a very small portion of domestic production. As a result of the March 2011 earthquake, Japan's overall LNG imports rose by more than 25% between 2010 and 2013, from 3.3 trillion feet of natural gas per year (Tcf/y) to 4.2 Tcf/y, according to BP Statistical Review. In 2013, LNG import
growth slowed for the first time since the Fukushima accident as most of the fuel
substitution for the lost nuclear power occurred in 2012. The power sector is the largest
consumer of gas, with about 68% of the mix, followed by the industrial sector (17%),
residential (8%), commercial (4%), and other sectors (3%) in 2013, according to Federation
of Electric Power Companies of Japan (FEPC) and the Japan Gas Association.24 The share
of power generation grew as the sector significantly increased its imports of natural gas
following the loss of nuclear power capacity more than three years ago.
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) is Japan's largest electric utility and gas importer,
holding 24% of the power generation market, according to the FEPC. The company
purchased an estimated 1.2 Tcf/y, or 28% of Japan's LNG imports, in 2013. Tepco and
Chubu Electric formed a joint venture to purchase LNG and make upstream gas and
downstream power plant investments beginning in 2015. The companies are seeking to
leverage their combined market power to lower import prices and create more market
efficiencies.25 Other firms such as Tokyo Gas, the country's largest gas supplier, and
Osaka Gas have expressed interest in becoming additional partners.
Liquefied natural gas imports
Japan have accounted for about 37% of global LNG purchases since 2012, as the Fukushima disaster spurred greater demand for LNG in the power sector. Nearly a third of the country's LNG imports are from Southeast Asia, but Japan has a diverse portfolio of supply sources.
Because of its limited natural gas resources, Japan must rely on imports to meet nearly all
of its natural gas needs. Japan, the world's largest LNG importer, accounted for 37% of the
global market share of LNG demand from 2012 through most of 2014, rising from 31% in
2010, the lowest share in four decades.26 Japan began importing LNG from Alaska in
1969, making it a pioneer in the global LNG trade. Because of environmental concerns, the
Japanese government has encouraged natural gas consumption in the country. The
government has chosen LNG as its first fuel-of-choice for power generation to substitute for
the lost nuclear generation following Fukushima.
According to IGU, Japan operated 23 major LNG import terminals, including expansions
and satellite terminals, with a total gas send-out capacity of 9 Tcf/y in 2014, which is well in
excess of demand.27 However, Japan is still constrained on how much LNG it can receive
based on berthing, ship size, and other infrastructure limitations. Japan also has the largest regasification storage capacity in the world, holding 551 MMcf, which serves as a buffer during seasons of higher LNG demand. Most of the LNG terminals are located in the main population centers of Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya, near major urban and manufacturing hubs, and are owned by local power companies, either alone or in partnership with gas companies. These same companies own much of Japan's LNG tanker fleet. Three terminals now under construction or undergoing trial operations are anticipated to come online by 2016, adding at least 145 Bcf/y of capacity, and other projects are proposed for construction by 2020.
Several factors have favored the use of LNG over other fossil fuels and other sources to replace nuclear energy after the 2011 earthquake. Current government carbon-abatement policies and the government's pledge to lower greenhouse gas emissions support natural gas as the cleanest fossil fuel to replace lost nuclear capacity. Also, natural gas was less expensive than international oil prices initially. However, natural gas import prices quickly escalated to levels on par with international crude oil prices at the end of 2012. Destruction of coal-fired electric capacity was widespread in the area affected by the earthquake, restricting its use for two years following Fukushima. More coal-fired plants came online in 2013. After the Fukushima incident, Japan replaced lost nuclear capacity with natural gas-fired power from short-term and spot purchases of LNG. Subsequently, Japanese companies signed several medium- and long-term LNG purchase agreements with both existing and new suppliers to hedge against higher rates. In the long run, reliance on the higher levels of LNG is contingent on how many nuclear facilities are able to return to operation in the next few years.
Asian LNG prices traditionally have been linked to international crude oil prices, which rose sharply between 2008 and 2014. Japan's higher natural gas demand for power, a tighter LNG global supply market over the past few years, and higher oil prices have led to a significant increase in Asian spot LNG import prices, climbing from an average of
$10/MMBtu before the Fukushima crisis to around $18/MMBtu in mid-2012.28 Japan has been negotiating lower prices for long-term LNG contracts that historically have been linked to international crude oil prices. Oil prices in the past few years have remained at all-time high levels for Asian buyers until the last few months of 2014, causing Japanese utilities, particularly those affected by the Fukushima accident, to incur serious costs from higher gas and oil purchases, resulting in net revenue losses. In response to the rising fuel acquisition costs and attendant power price increases, Japanese companies have signed some LNG contracts that are based on U.S. gas market prices, which are lower, rather than being tightly linked to crude oil prices. The recent decline in international oil prices at the end of 2014 will likely provide some relief for Japanese customers purchasing LNG for delivery in 2015.
Japanese regulations permit individual utilities and natural gas distribution companies to sign LNG supply contracts with foreign sources and re-sell the cargoes, in addition to directly importing LNG volumes. The largest LNG supply agreements are held by Tokyo Gas, Osaka Gas, Chubu Electric, TEPCO, Kansai Electric, Kyushu Electric, and Tohoku Electric, primarily with countries in Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Many of Japan's existing LNG contracts that date from the 1970s and 1980s have expired in recent years, forcing Japan to renegotiate term contracts or locate other supply sources. Japan's interest in securing natural gas imports over the long term at a reasonable price has been an
impetus for its companies to acquire equity stakes in foreign liquefaction projects such as those in Australia and North America.
About 30% of Japan's LNG imports originate from regional suppliers in Southeast Asia, although the country has a fairly balanced portfolio with supplies coming from other regions.29 After the March 2011 disaster, several suppliers from Qatar, Russia, Malaysia, and Indonesia exported cargoes to Japan through swaps, diverted cargoes, and short-term arrangements to quickly provide natural gas to power facilities. Qatar, the world's largest supplier of LNG, overtook Indonesia and Malaysia to become Japan's second largest supplier, behind Australia, since 2012. Japanese utility companies signed long-term agreements with Qatargas at the end of 2011.
LNG supplies from traditional suppliers Malaysia and Indonesia are becoming more constrained, and Japan is seeking to diversify its contracts and investments in other LNG ventures. Australia surpassed Malaysia to become Japan's largest LNG supplier in 2012, and Japanese companies are investing in small-equity stakes in Australia's liquefaction projects. Japanese electric and gas companies and trading houses have signed supply contracts with various large LNG projects in Australia, most notably the Chevron-led Gorgon project, Wheatstone LNG, and Ichthys LNG, all of which are slated to come online by 2017. Japan began importing LNG from Russia's Sakhalin terminal in 2009, and the two countries are discussing ways to increase gas imports to Japan via a proposed pipeline or more LNG shipments.
Additional LNG supplies over the medium and long term are likely to come from new projects in North America. Japan is in discussions with U.S. exporters for more natural gas supply, although negotiations depend on approval of export licenses by the United States. In May 2013, the U.S. Department of Energy gave approval for its Freeport LNG terminal in the Gulf of Mexico to ship LNG to countries that do not hold free trade agreements (FTAs) with the United States. This decision allows Japanese utilities to formalize deals for LNG supply from the terminal's operator. Japan's Chubu Electric and Osaka Gas signed preliminary agreements to import more than 100 Bcf/y each for 20 years from Freeport LNG starting in 2017, marking a potential reduction in the high LNG prices that Japan currently pays. The companies also plan acquire half of the assets of Freeport LNG's first train.30 Sumitomo, Japan's third-largest trading house, holds an agreement to buy 110 Bcf/y for 20 years from Cove Point LNG located on the U.S. East Coast and which received approval to export to non-FTA countries in September 2013. Sumitomo intends to sell the cargoes to Japanese utilities Tokyo Gas and Kansai Electric. In May 2013, Mitsubishi and Mitsui, Japan's two largest trading companies, first ventured into the U.S. shale gas export market by purchasing a combined 33% equity share Cameron LNG project located in the Gulf of Mexico. The companies have agreements to purchase 384 Bcf/y, or two-thirds of the terminal's export capacity that is expected to come online by 2017. Altogether, Japanese companies have secured about 1,000 Bcf/y in long-term volumes from the new U.S. terminals coming online by 2020.
Overseas exploration and production
Japanese companies, especially JX Nippon Group, Inpex, and Mitsubishi, have actively sought participation in overseas natural gas exploration and production projects that are typically linked to export facilities. The Japanese trading company, Mitsubishi, a key supplier to Japanese utilities, has owned capacity in liquefaction terminals, mostly in Southeast Asia, Australia, and Oman, for four decades. JX Nippon and Inpex are developing several production and export projects throughout Southeast Asia, Australia, and the UAE, and more recently, in North America. In the past few years, Japanese utilities have also acquired small stakes in the upstream supply and operations of LNG projects in attempts to secure LNG contracts from emerging and growing LNG markets such as Australia, the United States, Canada, and Russia.
The recent opening of North American shale gas production and anticipated gas exports have attracted investment by Japanese companies in North American gas developments linked to planned LNG projects. Also, JOGMEC has been guaranteeing loans to back such projects that could help Japan diversify its gas sources and secure supply at lower prices. Mitsubishi and Mitsui's recent purchase of capacity in Cameron LNG cost $10 billion and will hold 16.6% each of equity shares in the joint venture with Sempra Energy. Mitsubishi and Inpex are also participating in upstream ventures in the oil and shale gas developments in western Canada. Mitsui and Sumitomo are involved in large upstream shale gas ventures in the United States.
JOGMEC announced in 2013 that it will guarantee 75% of the bank loans to Japanese companies involved in developing LNG projects that help reduce Japan's import fuel cost. The projects must demonstrate lower rates compared to Japan's average LNG import costs from the previous year.
Electricity
Japan was the world's third-largest producer of nuclear power, after the United States and France, before the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident in March 2011. After the Fukushima disaster, the composition of fuel used for power generation shifted to fossil fuels, particularly LNG, which became the primary substitutes for nuclear power.
Japan had 293 gigawatts (GW) of total installed electricity generating capacity in 2012.
Fossil fuel-fired plants made up a bulk of this capacity, with 189 GW (64%) of the total
capacity. Nuclear capacity was 44 GW in 2012, constituting 15% of the capacity, although
installed capacity fell to 42 GW by 2014 after the last two of the six Fukushima-Daiichi
reactors were decommissioned, according to Japan Electric Power Information Center,
Incorporated (JEPIC) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Hydroelectric
facilities held 17% of the capacity and have been a steady source of power supply for Japan
for several years. The remaining capacity came from wind, solar, geothermal, and small
biomass-fired plants.31
Although Japan has the second highest demand for electricity in Asia, it has one of the
lowest electricity demand growth rates in the region. Net electricity generation, which has
hovered around 1,000 Terawatthour (TWh) for more than a decade, was estimated at
around 950 TWh in 2013. Because Japan depends heavily on fuel imports to meet its
generation needs, the country seeks to ensure an optimal combination of sources based
on cost efficiency, energy security, and environmental stability. Before most nuclear power
generation was removed from service after 2011, Japan had one of the most balanced
portfolios of fuels used for power generation of the world's major power consumers.32
Prior to the Fukushima disaster and the displacement of much of the nuclear-generated
power, Japan was not reliant on any particular fuel source for more than one-third of its total
generation. However, nuclear generation played a pivotal role in Japan's electricity
generation mix and represented 27% of net generation in the two years prior to Fukushima.
Natural gas and coal were the primary fossil fuels used in Japan's electricity portfolio and
constituted about 30% and 24%, respectively, in 2010. Oil, which was expensive and one of
the least clean fuels to burn, played a more minor role and accounted for just 7% of power
generation in 2010. Renewable energy made up about 11%, mostly from hydroelectricity.
Once Japan removed its nuclear generation capacity from operation starting in 2011, other
fuels such as LNG, oil, and coal displaced it. This shift has markedly altered the generation
portfolio. METI and IEA report that LNG, oil, and coal shares rose to 43%, 14%, and 30%,
respectively, in 2013.33
The Japanese government and electric utilities have taken several steps to ensure power
supply meets demand following the Fukushima crisis. Some of these measures for power
plants using fossil fuels included relaxing regulations on inspections and restarting
mothballed oil-fired generation units. Also, the government promoted power restrictions for
consumers, particularly in the disaster-affected areas, and encouraged other demand-side
measures especially during the peak summer and winter seasons. The government
continues to encourage some level of electricity rationing because energy costs have
increased as a result of higher fossil fuel purchases.
Sector organization
Japan's electricity industry is dominated by 10 privately-owned, integrated power companies that act as regional monopolies, accounting for about 80% of the country's total installed generating capacity. The remaining electricity is generated by industrial facilities or independent power producers. The largest power company is TEPCO, which accounted for 22% of total power generation in the country in 2012.34 These companies also control the country's regional transmission and distribution infrastructure. Japan's electricity policies are managed by the Agency for Natural Resources and Environment, part of METI. Japan has two power grids with virtually no interconnections and two different power line frequencies.
Other significant operators in the electricity market are the Japan Atomic Power Company, the first Japanese company to build a nuclear reactor in 1960, and the Electric Power Development Company (J-Power), formerly a state-owned enterprise that was privatized in 2004. The Japan Atomic Power Company operates four nuclear power plants with 2.6 GW total and sells electricity to the local power companies. J-Power operates 16 GW of hydroelectric and fossil fuel-fired power plants. It has also been involved in consulting services for electricity production and environmental protection in 63 countries, mainly in the developing world, since 1960.
Electricity price reform
Deregulation of Japan's electricity sector began in 1995, although the country has been slow to fully deregulate its regional generation, transmission and distribution sectors from the same companies. The government's goal of the current electricity reforms are for end-users to be able to choose their power generation suppliers by 2020. Essentially, the electricity reforms aim for greater competition and lower electricity prices for consumers based on more efficient power sector operations and investments. The first phase involves establishing a national grid that will enhance supply security in 2015. Japan currently has two electricity frequencies (50 hertz and 60 hertz) that are not compatible and that allow only 1.2 GW of electricity to be connected or transferred between the frequencies, posing problems in implementing a completely interconnected system. The second phase includes a full deregulation of the retail sector in 2016, and the third phase involves the divesting of transmission and distribution divisions from generating companies by 2020.
Because of the soaring fossil fuel costs, Japan's electric utilities have sought to increase
the electricity tariffs paid by end users to help cover the companies' losses. Between 2010
and 2013, electricity prices rose nearly 20% and 30% for residential and industrial
customers, respectively.35 Since July 2012, METI has approved tariff increases for several
utilities such as TEPCO, Kansai Electric, Kyushu Electric, Hokkaido Electric, Shikoku
Electric, and Tohoku Electric.
Electricity generation
As of the second half of 2013, all of Japan's nuclear power generation capacity was removed from service. Oil and natural gas replaced all of the lost nuclear generation in 2011 and 2012, and coal supplanted some in 2013. As nuclear capacity resumes operation following government approval of facilities, Japan anticipates reducing the current share of fossil fuel generation.
Fossil fuels
Japan had about 189 GW of installed fossil fuel-fired electric generating capacity in 2012, or
about 64% of the total capacity. Net electricity generation of fossil fuels accounted for an
estimated 820 TWh in 2013, representing more than 86% of the total generation, up from
about 62% in 2010. This was the highest share of fossil-fuel-powered generation in several
decades in the wake of the Fukushima disaster when electric utilities turned to
hydrocarbons as substitutes for the lost nuclear power generation.
According to Japan Electric Power Information Center, there are currently more than 60
major thermal power plants owned by the top 10 electric utilities and JEPCO. Several
combined-cycle LNG-fired or coal-fired plants are under construction or in the planning
stages. The country's aging oil-fired power plants are used primarily to meet peak demand.
Some facilities have dual-fuel (coal/oil or natural gas/oil) capabilities to provide more
flexibility of supply that have been particularly useful during the loss of nuclear generation
capacity.
Coal, typically used as a baseload source for power generation, remains an important fuel
source. Domestic coal production ended by 2002, and Japan began importing all of its coal,
primarily from Australia. Japan imported nearly 211 million short tons of coal in 2013, up
from 204 million short tons in 2012, after more coal capacity came online.36 Japan had
been the largest global coal importer for three decades until 2012 when China surpassed
Japan by a wide margin according to World Coal Association estimates.37
Coal consumption has hovered around 200 million short tons since 2004. Some coal-fired
plants experienced significant damage following the 2011 earthquake because they were
located near the earthquake epicenter off the coast of Fukushima. Therefore, coal use
declined slightly in 2011 while the country heavily relied on natural gas and oil for power
generation to quickly replace lost nuclear capacity. Two new coal-fired power plants with a
combined capacity of 1.6 GW came online in northern Japan in the first part of 2013. Also, 2
GW of capacity at the Haramachi plant came back online in 2013 after being
decommissioned following damage in the 2011 earthquake. These plants boosted coal
import levels in 2013 to 211 million short tons.38
Japan's government loosened the environmental regulations for the construction of coal-
fired capacity and use in the aftermath of the earthquake as emergency measures to ensure electricity supply. At the same time, new, clean coal plant technologies, such as ultra-supercritical units or integrated gasification combined-cycle technology, are being pursued by utilities to meet environmental targets and replace some of the decades-old coal plants. Utilization rates of Japan's coal-fired power plants are greater than 80%, and the country would need to expand capacity before coal use for power can be substantially increased.39 Although no significant coal-fired capacity is expected online before 2020, some sources report that Japan could add up to 10 GW after 2020. Coal is expected to displace some of the expensive oil-fired power generation, but the extent of build-out will depend on how many nuclear units can return to service.
Natural gas plays a significant role in the power sector and made up 30% of the electric generation in 2010 before the Fukushima disaster, according to METI. Post-Fukushima, natural gas-fired power is utilities'first choice of nuclear substitution as a result of natural gas being a cleaner-burning fossil fuel, and the share of natural gas in the power sector rose to 43% in 2013. Japan is ramping up the number of natural gas-fired power stations under construction, and utilities installed an estimated 10 GW of new natural gas-fired capacity between 2011 and 2014. Some of this capacity replaces older, less efficient units. The government has plans to construct more gas-fired power generators, and currently, there are three proposed gas-fired power plants with a total of 3.4 GW of capacity scheduled to come online by 2016.40 The lead time on greenfield plants is generally 7 to 10 years, mainly because of environmental permitting requirements. However, TEPCO and Tohoku Electric Power, utilities that suffered damage to their gas-fired plants in the earthquake zone, were temporarily exempted from these environmental requirements. The expected return to operation of some nuclear reactors in 2015 could put some downward pressure on LNG imports and natural gas use in the power sector.
Before the 2011 earthquake, Japanese utilities began removing oil-fired generation capacity because of the higher operational costs, aging units, and environmental downsides of the fuel. Capacity utilization at oil-fired facilities was around 30% in 2009.41 Power companies have plenty of room to increase burn of crude oil and fuel oil, and some utilities have brought back mothballed facilities to compensate for lost nuclear power. Direct crude oil burned for power skyrocketed from 70,000 bbl/d in 2010 to 256,000 bbl/d in 2012, a 266% increase, according to Japan's FEPC. Subsequently, direct crude use fell back to 192,000 bbl/d in 2013 as power consumption declined and as expensive oil imports used for power were replaced by LNG and coal. Likewise, power demand for heavy fuel oil grew from
100,000 bbl/d in 2010 to 280,000 bbl/d in 2012, an increase of 180%. Heavy fuel oil used to generate power also fell back to 222,000 bbl/d by 2013.42 Total oil demand for power continued declining through most of 2014. Lower overall power demand and the new coal facilities installed in 2013 are allowing utilities to reduce their oil consumption and generating costs.
Nuclear
Before the Fukushima accident, Japan ranked as the third-largest nuclear power generator in the world behind the United States and France. However, the country has lost all of its nuclear generation capacity as its facilities have been removed from service over the past three years because of earthquake damage or for regular maintenance. Japan currently has 48 operable nuclear reactors at 16 power plants with a total installed generating capacity of more than 42 GW, down from 54 reactors with about 47 GW of capacity in 2010.43 More than
10 GW of nuclear capacity at the Fukushima, Onagawa, and Tokai facilities ceased operations immediately following the earthquake and tsunami, and some of the reactors are permanently damaged from emergency seawater pumping efforts and not scheduled to return to service. The government officially decommissioned the 6 reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, which had a combined capacity of 4.6 GW.44
General maintenance standards in Japan require facilities to come offline every 13 months for inspections. Following the Fukushima disaster, the Japanese government required facilities to pass stress tests as well as local government approval. As reactors were removed from operation, they remained offline. By May 2012, Japan had no nuclear generation for the first time in more than 40 years. The government returned two reactors, Kansai Electric's Ohi 3 and Ohi 4, to service in July 2012, leaving Japan with only 2.4 GW of capacity for slightly more than a year. These two reactors were again removed from service in September 2013, leaving Japan with no operational nuclear capacity for a second time. METI and FEPC estimate that Japan produced less than 10 TWh of nuclear-generated electricity in fiscal year 2013 (April 2012–March 2013), down from about 288 TWh in FY 2010.45
Japan's 2010 Energy Plan called for at least a dozen new nuclear reactors to be constructed by 2020 and for the share of nuclear-fired electric generation to increase to 50% by 2030 as the country attempts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the Fukushima catastrophe created greater public concerns and revealed potential dangers of an aggressive nuclear policy. The previous government led by former Prime Minister Noda in 2012 pledged a no-nuclear policy that encountered push-back from the business sector. The current administration headed by Prime Minister Abe supports nuclear power providing at least 15% of power generation. Prime Minister Abe and industrial interests in Japan favor re-commissioning nuclear power to lower energy costs. However, they are considering safety concerns and resistance from anti-nuclear government factions and the public. Japan's most recent 2014 Strategic Energy Plan expressed the view that nuclear power is an important source of baseload power, but that dependence on nuclear generation will be offset as much as possible by improved efficiency and the acceleration of renewable energy supplies. While supporting the restart of reactors, the Strategic Energy Plan recognizes the need for the "untiring pursuit of safety and establishment of [a] stable environment for nuclear operations."46
Japan established the Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA) in September 2012 to replace two other nuclear agencies–the Nuclear Safety Commission and METI's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency. The NRA was established to provide a more independent assessment of nuclear safety. The NRA adopted more stringent nuclear safety guidelines and procedures in July 2013 and is in charge of their enforcement. All nuclear facilities must submit applications to restart operations to the NRA, and the government estimates taking up to six months to review each application.
These safety guidelines are to ensure facilities can withstand all natural disasters and require reactors to be located away from active earthquake fault lines. The guidelines require installation of larger seawalls, air vents, and safety control rooms. Also, the new standards include decommissioning any reactors older than 40 years, with a possible 20-year extension, to improve safety. Ultimately, this standard will result in a long-term decline in nuclear capacity unless new reactors are constructed.
As of January 2015, restart applications for 20 reactors and an application for the new Ohma plant, representing nearly half of Japan's remaining operable capacity, had been filed with the NRA.47 Kyushu Electric's Sendai 1 and 2 units in southwestern Japan have received approvals from the NRA and local authorities as of November 2014 and may restart in May 2015.48 The NRA also approved Kansai Electric's Takahama Units 3 and 4 at the end of 2014, although these facilities are waiting on authorization from the local government. Two nuclear reactors (Ohma Unit 1 and Shimane Unit 3) with a combined capacity of 2.7 GW are under construction, but work was suspended on these plants following Fukushima. Both units were originally scheduled to come online by 2014, although they must be approved under the new standards before they can begin operations. The timeline for restarting many of these reactors is uncertain, because of the need to meet more stringent regulations and overcome political opposition in some provinces.
Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel. Japan has promoted nuclear electricity over the years as a means of diversifying its energy sources and reducing carbon emissions, emphasizing safety and reliability. According to the FEPC, nuclear power has made a great contribution to Japan's energy security by reducing its energy imports and CO2 emissions. Before nuclear power was disrupted, the intensity of Japan's CO2 emissions (emission per unit of electricity consumption) decreased by about 18% from 1970 levels. Japan had a goal to reduce carbon intensity by 20% from 1990 levels by 2012. However, the surge in fossil fuel use after Fukushima caused CO2 emissions intensity to increase by 17% from 1990 levels.49
Hydroelectricity and other renewables
Japan's installed hydroelectric generating capacity was 49 GW in 2012, accounting for about 17% of total electricity capacity. About half of the installed capacity consists of large plants. One of TEPCO's facilities at the Kannagawa plant came online in 2012, and another 3.3 GW is expected to be online by 2022. Like nuclear power, hydropower is a source for baseload generation in Japan because of the low generation costs and a relatively stable supply. Hydroelectric generation was 76 TWh in 2013, making up about 8% of total net generation mix. The Japanese government has been investing in small hydropower projects to serve local communities, although the potential for growth of hydroelectricity in Japan is limited.
As part of the revised energy policy plan, Japan is trying to encourage a greater use of renewable energy, from sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass for power generation. Renewable energy apart from hydroelectricity made up about 2% of Japan's total energy consumption and less than 4%, or 42 TWh, of the country's total electricity generation in 2013.50 The Japanese legislature approved generous feed-in tariffs for renewable sources in July 2012, compelling electric utilities to purchase electricity generated by renewable fuel sources, except for nuclear, at fixed prices. The costs are shared by government subsidies and the end users.
The feed-in tariffs spurred the installation of more than 8 GW of renewable energy capacity since July 2012, mostly from solar.51 Biomass made up the largest portion (estimated 55%) of generation from other renewable sources in 2013, according to BP Statistics and EIA. Wind, solar, and tidal power are being actively pursued in the country and installed capacity from these sources increased in recent years as a result of the feed-in tariffs
Japan's key nuclear power plants in relation to the
Fukushima earthquake
Source: Financial Times via Petroleum Economist.
incentives. However, these sources continue to account for a relatively small share of
generation at this time. Most renewable capacity growth since 2012 has occurred in solar
energy as a result of heavy investment for large-scale PV units. Although renewable capacity
climbed sharply in the past two years, many projects are encountering problems connecting
to the grid and selling the electricity to the regional utility firms, slowing the process for
actual generation increases.52
The potential for geothermal power is significant, and many of the strict regulations have
kept geothermal power from growing in Japan. Following Fukushima and the need for
cleaner energy alternatives, METI is considering 36 additional geothermal projects in
addition to the 537 MW of capacity at 17 facilities that currently exist. Japan aims to increase
geothermal capacity by another 50 MW by 2020.53
Notes
Data presented in the text are the most recent available as of January 30, 2015.
Data are EIA estimates unless otherwise noted.
Endnotes
1EIA International Energy Statistics and BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2014 for 2013 data.
2International Energy Agency, Medium-Term Gas Market Report 2014, Box 1: "Three years after the Fukushima accident, how is Japan coping in the absence of nuclear", page 23.
3Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry: FY2013 Annual Report on Energy (Energy White Paper 2014) Outline, June
日本新能源政策及发展现状与趋势(精)
日本新能源政策及发展现状与趋势 日本天然资源匮乏，石油、煤炭及天然气等主要能源资源，均未蕴藏，能源自给率仅4%左右。日本所需石油的9 9.7%，煤炭的97.7%，天然气的96.6%都依赖进口。另外日本签署《京都议定书》，承诺到2010年控制温室气体排放达到1990年排放相同的目标。为此，规划了一系列的能源政策与能源技术开发研究，以实现经济与环境和谐发展。 一、新能源政策 (一通过新能源推广大纲 1994年12月，日本内阁会议通过“新能源推广大纲”，日本第一次正式宣布发展新能源及再生能源。在国家层 面上，要求政府全力推进新能源和再生能源；在地区层级上，要求当地县市政府全力配合宣传，使私人企业、一般大众了解此项基本政策。同时，提出到2010年，新能源和再生能源占全国能源供应3%以上的目标，或提供相当于约1550万吨油当量的新能源。 (二经济结构改革行动方案 1997年12月，日本内阁决议正式通过“环境保护与新商业活动发展”计划，作为政府到2010年实施新能源和再 生能源行动方案。行动方案将新能源及再生能源工业列为15项新兴工业之一，并且在构建新能源及再生能源商业化过程中，问题反馈追踪系统。采取积极措施推进新能源和再生能源的发展；一是剌激市场需求促进降低成本，二是积极研发新技术减少成本，三是降低手续费用和放宽限制，四是制定和完善市场规则和制度，五是培养大众的认知程度。 (三新能源法
1997年，日本制定了“促进新能源利用的特别措施法”(简称新能源法。新能源法规定，投入能源事业的任何 人都有责任与义务全力促进新能源和再生能源推广工作。在行政上，政府通过必要措施以加速新能源及再生能源的推广应用。在法规上，为新能源和再生能源进入市场创造有利条件，专门设立了提供低息贷款及保证，以及提供各类信息和专业技术。 日本新能源政策大致可以分为三个层面： 1、研究提出长期能源需求供给预测 确立能源总需求及供给政策为目的，提供能源未来需求的预测，以修改能源供给的政策。根据预测，预计到2010年日本对石油之依存度将降至45%，对新能源和可再生能源的利用提高到3%。 2、确定能源政策取向及相关责任 2002年，日本制订了能源政策基本法，提出了稳定供给、适合环境与市场原理的能源政策取向。明确规定国家、地方公共团体、事业单位的责任和国民应尽的职责；要求政府每年定期向国会报告能源政策的实施情况。 3、制定新能源法律及扶持政策 为此，日本出台了新能源法及电气事业利用新能源的特别措施法，制订了一系列新能源推广的奖励及补贴制 度，对新能源开发利用提供补助金或融资。例如，对大规模引进风力发电、太阳光发电、太阳热利用及废弃物发电等，或宣导新能源的公共团体，补助50%以内的事业费及推广费；对于符合新能源法认可目标的新能源推广项目，则补助1/3以内的事业费；另对非营利组织给予支持，以协助和推广新能源事业的发展。 二、新能源发展现状与趋势 (一太阳能利用 1、太阳能发电
浅谈日本文化特点
浅谈日本文化特点 08094020 张家瑞 2012/05/16
浅谈日本文化特点 日本民族是一个勇于和善于吸收外来文化的民族，日本文化是通过吸收、选择、融合外来文化才得以形成的混合文化。1万年前到公元前3世纪，是日本的绳纹文化时代，当时的日本是一个狩猎国，拥有自己独特的文化。徐福人海东渡对日本社会变革及文明进步起了推动作用。公元3世纪至公元7世纪渡来人源源不断地将大陆先进文明带进日本。日本对唐文化的吸收在奈良时代达到高潮。在长达千余年的对大陆文化的借鉴中，日本把大陆文化变形、融合，使之日本化，最后使大和文化日渐丰盈起来。二战后，美国文化又滔滔涌人。这三次外来文化对日本的冲击过程也是日本贪婪的吸收过程，日本在外来文化的冲击下，将传统与现代、外来文化与自我文化有机地结合，形成具有日本特色的“杂文化”。 一．日本“杂文化”的主体性和开放性 1. 日本文化的主体性 众所周知, 从历史角度看日本的周边是文明古国。在长久的历史发展中, 日本作为远离大陆的孤岛独自发展了自身的文化。与亚洲的文明中心古代印度和中国相比, 古代日本文化处于低水平的状态。古代日本文化与中国文化相遇时,就好比水往低处流, 当时已非常先进的中国文化被日本所吸收。到了近代, 日本的社会文化发展相当迅速。也是由于与西欧资本主义文化相比落后很多, 因此近代以后的日本开始大规模地吸收了西洋文化。 日本是岛国, 与文明中心地的中国以及中国的邻国朝鲜隔海相望。在近代以前的日本, 这个距离, 某种意义上给予了与外界交流的主导权。也就是说, 顺应时势或必要时日本经由大海从大陆引进所需文化, 时运不济或不必要时再次利用大海一时关闭交流的大门。日本利用有力的地理环境, 建立起统一的国家以来, 一千多年间没有受到外来的侵略和征服, 也没有像弥生时期的大规模的外族人种的迁入。直到第二次世界大战美军的占领, 日本之前从未有过外国军队的进入。这与当时的亚洲大陆和欧洲频繁征战, 发生民族冲突不同, 日本文化得以走自己独特的发展道路。日本在吸收外来文化时常常根据自国的需要有选择性地接收。这种开放和封闭的地理环境同时带来的是日本文化的两面性。开放的同时关闭, 一时开放一时关闭的外来文化的吸收也具有两面性。 日本人自古以来信仰多神论认为世上万物皆有神, 神支配人们的幸福与不幸。六世纪时佛教传到了日本。现在在日本人的生活与习惯中一般来说喜庆时以神道仪式庆贺,不幸之事采用佛教仪式。这种多元化的思维方式给日本文化带来了极大地融合性, 使外来文化和土著文化保持其不同的同时得以并存。 2.主导性，选择性，融合性，保守性 日本的主体性又可分为以下四个方面。
日本地理概况(全日文)
日本地理概况 日本の位置と面積 第一節位置と国土 日本はアジア大陸の東側に南北3,000ｋｍにわたって、弧状に位置している島国である。日本の東と南西には太平洋があり、アジア大陸と日本の間には、オホ―ツク海と日本海と東中国海がある。 日本は日本海と東中国海を隔てて、中国、韓国、北朝鮮と向い合い、東は広い太平洋を隔てて、アメリカ大陸と相対している。北にはオホ―ツク海を隔てて、ロシアのシベリアがあり、南には太平洋を隔てて、フィリピンやインドネシアなどの国々がある。特に、朝鮮半島とは対馬海峡で、また樺太（サハリン）とは宗谷海峡で接しており、大陸や近隣の島々と極めて近い位置にある。こうした地理的条件は、大陸からの人間や文化の移動を容易にし、日本という国家の形成に大きな役割を果たした。 日本と中国は「一衣帯水」の隣国であり、上海から九州の長崎まで約460海里、台湾省から日本の南西諸島の南端までは、約60海里しか離れていない。 日本は東経約123度（沖縄県の与那国島）から154度（東京都の南鳥島）、北緯約20度半（東京都の沖の鳥島）から45度半（北方領土の択捉島）の間にあり、首都東京は東経140度、北緯36度にある。 日本の国土は本州?北海道?九州?四国の四つの大きな島ほか、散在する4,000弱の島からなっている。これらは日本列島と総称されている。 国土の面積は約37万8,000ｋｍ２である。北海道は本州の北にあり、九州は本州の南西にあって、四国は本州の南にある。その中で、本州の面積が一番大きく、全国面積の61％を占めている。ついで、北海道は22％、九州（沖縄県を含む）は12％、四国は5％をそれぞれ占めている。 日本の国土は、北から北海道、東北、関東、中部、近畿、中国、四国、九州、沖縄の九つの地方に分けられる。これらの地方区分は地形などの自然的特性と地域の産業や歴史的変遷を基礎にして分けられたもので、行政上の地方区分ではない。 行政上では、日本は１都（東京都）、1道（北海道）、2府（大阪府、京都府）、43県に分けられている。東北地方と関東地方には県が十二あり、中部地方には九つの県があり、近畿地方と中国地方には県が十、四国地方には県が四つ、九州地方には県が七つある。沖縄地方は沖縄県一つである。日本の都、道、府、県にはそれぞれ都庁、道庁、府庁、県庁が設けられ、その下に
会计学专业就业形势分析
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我国能源资源有三个特点
我国能源资源有三个特点 l)水能、煤炭资源较丰富，油、气贫乏。 我国的水能资源总量和经济可开发量均居世界第一，煤炭远景储量和可开采储量均居世界 第二。 石油和天然气资源比较贫乏，分列世界第10位和第22位。 总体上我国今后的电源结构仍将以煤电和水电为主，并适度发展核电。 发展特高压电网有利于大煤电基地、大水电基地和大型核电站群的开发及电力外送。 2)人均能源资源相对贫乏，仅为世界平均水平的40%。 要为我国经济持续健康发展提供较强的能源支撑，必须在提高能源使用效率的同时，进一步加强能源开发，积极利用国外资源。 发展特高压电网有利于加强与周边国家的能源合作。 3)能源资源和生产力发展呈逆向分布，能源丰富地区远离经济发达地区。 我国2/3以上的经济可开发水能资源分布在四川、西藏、云南，煤炭资源2/3以上分布在山西、陕西和内蒙古。 东部地区经济发达，能源消费量大，能源资源却十分匾乏。 发展特高压电网有利于实现电能的大规模和远距离输送，有利于促进建设国家级电力市场，实现更大范围的资源优化配置。 三分之二以上的煤炭资源分布在北方，八成的水电资源源在西部，而三分之二以上的能源需求集中在东部沿海，供给与需求之间有2000公里的距离。 我国是全球第一大煤炭消费国和第二大石油、电力消费国。
煤炭占全国能源生产和消费总量的比重高达2／3左右，但开发和利用的总体效率还比较低。 同时，我国生产力发展水平的地区差异很大，一次能源分布严重不均衡。 能源需求主要集中在东部和中部经济较发达地区，约占需求总量的3／4左右；用于发电的煤炭和水力资源，则主要分布在西部和北部地区。 这种能源分布与消费的不平衡状况，决定了能源资源必须在全国范围内优化配置，以大煤电基地、大水电基地为依托，实现煤电就地转换和水电大规模开发，并通过建设特高压电网，实现跨地区、跨流域水火互济，将清洁的电能从西部和北部大规模输送到中东部地区。 发展特高压电网，有利于西部地区将资源优势转化为经济优势，促进西部大开发，实现区域经济协调发展；有利于在西部和北部煤炭基地发展壮大一批大型煤炭和发电企业，提高煤炭、发电行业的集约化发展水平，提高资源的开发和利用效率。
区别于欧系企业之日系企业管理特点
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期负责，这在绝大多数企业看来都是不可想象的。另外在细节管理方面，我们与日本企业的差距非常明显，企业的之中的废品垃圾严格按照分类摆放，甚至连文件夹的摆放顺序都用胶纸贴上明确标识，日本人的专着执着精神被我们很多人用“愚蠢”这个词来形容，比如再热的天，日本人都会西装革履的会见客户，一张桌子让他擦十遍绝对不会少，正是这一丝不苟的专着执着成就了今天高品质、精工艺的日本产品。 二、职业化仿佛与生俱来 日本人的敬业精神举世闻名，工作绝对排在第一位，甚至有时还需要有献身精神，他们认为工作才是人生的本质和真正含义，他们崇尚忠诚与奉献。所以他们把公司当成家，勤勤恳恳、不知疲倦地工作一生，被人称作“工蜂”。在日资企业经常看到日本人加班到很晚，但第二天照样精神抖擞的上班工作。与我们绝大多数国人不同，我们只把工作当成工作，是生活的一部分，他们把工作当成是神圣的使命，真正当成自己的事业在做，企业员工与老板一条心。这是中国企业与日本企业的真正差距所在。 三、完善、人性的福利保障 日本人讲究忠诚与奉献，视公司为家等等，其实是因为企业有系统、完善的福利保障，能保证他们的职业生涯无忧，所以他们才会愿意把一生都奉献给企业。日本企业的福利措施不但完善而且富有人性，
日本文化特性浅谈
董叶飞（1041051009）5.对日本文化的一点认识 日本文化特性浅谈 摘要：基于中日之间的复杂关系分析了解日本文化特性具有重要的现实意义，本文从不同的角度和侧面阐释日本文化的特点以及中日文化的异同，旨在深入剖析日本的民族性格，了解日本文化特征。 关键词：日本文化文化特性文化比较日本文化双重性 中国、日本一衣带水，千百年来恩怨相系，在交流与碰撞中发展着各自相通而又迥异的文化。我们曾以天朝上国的姿态睥睨东方的小小番邦，我们也曾背负东亚病夫的耻辱忍受近代数次战争的欺凌。时至今日，多极化的世界中，两大国相互依存而又相互矛盾的状况更是纷繁复杂。近来，围绕钓鱼岛问题中日矛盾升级，一度走向缓和平稳的外交关系又陷入僵局，在成都也出现了反日游行和抵制日货的号召。 “‘知己知彼，百战百胜’无论是怎样反对他攻击他，总而言之，非晓得他不可。” ----戴季陶 无庸置疑今后中日间将有更多的摩擦与碰撞也会有多方面的交流与合作。可无论怎样我们都有必要了解日本熟悉日本文化。下面是我对日本文化特性的一些认识。 日本文化中包含对等级制的绝对信仰。 日本在漫长的封建时代保持着严密的封建等级制度；即使在明治维新后走向资本主义等级制也是组织社会结构的主导形式；日本资本主义社会经过百余年的发展，在现代文明和西方民主传统的影响和冲击下，旧时代那种金字塔式的鲜明的阶级划分已不复存在了，但等级观念在其社会意识形态和民族性格中是难以磨灭的。 对等级制的绝对信仰从根本上促使日本形成了与西方民主国家完全不同的战争观。即建立以日本为核心的大东亚国家体系，让落后国家和外部强国各得其所。基于这种观念，日本认为二战的动机是合理而纯洁的，因此堂而皇
2016年日本新能源汽车行业发展现状
2016年日本新能源汽车行业发展现状 为了提高国家能源安全、增强产业竞争力，日本政府不断推进新能源汽车及相关产业的研发和推广。按照日本的分类，本文所指新能源汽车包括混合动力汽车（HEV）、插电式混合动力汽车（PHEV）、纯电动汽车（BEV）及燃料电池汽车（FCV）。 一、新能源汽车产业 在日本市场，混合动力汽车（HEV）已经优先普及，由于不需要建设配套基础设施，其销量已经远超EV/PHEV。据统计，2016年第一季度EV/PHEV的市场销量仅占HEV销量的3.3%。另外，处于市场投放期的FCV则表现出了强大的市场潜力，第一季度燃料电池乘用车的销量为170辆，占EV/PHEV的市场销量的2.3%，加氢站等配套基础设施建设也在逐步推进。 日本现阶段普及量最大的车型为混合动力汽车，其主要原因在于不断增加的车型填补了市场空白，给消费者提供更多选择。截至一季度底，日本市场共计推出49种混合动力车型，典型的畅销车型有丰田普锐斯HEV，本田飞度HEV等。 图表2016年第一季度混合动力汽车（HEV）销量排名 数据来源：日本汽车工业协会 日本混合动力汽车的市场占有率已经成为其他国家发展的标杆。在技术不断成熟的背景下，日系汽车企业的混合动力汽车已经实现了产业化。截至2015年7月，全球混合动力汽车累计销量达到800万辆。 按照日本政府的战略规划，预计到2020年普及氢燃料电池乘用车6000辆，燃料电池客车100辆以上。现阶段，日本的氢燃料电池汽车（FCV）发展已经领先全球，2014年12月丰田公司推出燃料电池汽车“MIRAI”。近日，本田公司也推出了氢燃料电池汽车clarity。
2016年一季度，丰田氢燃料电池汽车MIRAI累计销售170辆，单月增幅达到14.5%。 二、配套基础设施产业发展 日本经济产业省发布的《下一代汽车战略2010》中规划的普及目标是，到2020年，PHEV/EV的新车销量占到总销量的15-20%。目前，日本国内的充电设施普及程度不足，政府为了推广充电设施的普及，提供1005亿日元作为充电设施建设补贴。另外，日本的四大汽车厂商（丰田、日产、本田、三菱）也提出合作推进基础设施的建设。 截至2016年2月底，日本全国建设了19308个充电桩，其中慢速充电桩12426个，快速充电桩6882个。 图表日本现有充电桩构成 数据来源：日本政府 在充电基础设施运营方面，除政府补贴外，四大汽车企业与日本政策投资银行共同成立了日本充电服务公司。新设立的日本充电服务公司主要提供充电设施建设补贴及运营补贴两部分，由基础设施建设方提出申请，主要针对政府财政补贴覆盖不到的部分进行企业补贴，配合政府促进基础设施建设。具体来讲，是针对设置方的设施建设费用，提供政府补贴差额1/3的企业资金补贴，如机体、施工等方面；并帮助设置方承担一定的运营成本，如电费、运营开支等。
日本能源供需分析及政策演变梳理解读
陈体珠等：日本能源供需分析及政策演变梳理?５ｌ?同■■●● 网●■●● 一■■●■ ■热■电力口可再生能源口天然气口城市煤气■石油■煤炭罔¨Ｕ口■ ■ ■ ■ ㈨阐¨口■● ■ Ｉ目㈠口■ ■ ＿州同¨口■ ●■ Ｉ冈¨日■●■■■●陬罔㈠¨口■ ● Ｉ囝㈠¨Ｈ■● ■ －嘶罔㈠Ｈ■ ■ ●Ｉ图６日㈠¨Ｈ■ ■Ｉ嘶＂曰¨Ｈ■● ■Ｉ帅噬蚺罔¨口■ ■ ■ ■ 墨彝■ １９９０年一２０１０年财政年度日本能源消费结构图（数据来源：同图１。）２０世纪７０年代，受日元升值和石油危机影响，日本经济增长速度放缓，日本政府开始进行产业结构调整，重点扶植以计算机、半导体为代表的研发密集型产业，以通信设备、办公设备为代表的装备产业，以信息、咨询为代表的知识产业，限制化工、钢铁等高能耗、高排放产业，大力发展加工组装产业¨’。８０年代日本又提出“技术立国”方针，产业结构进一步得到优化。经过将近２０年的产业结构调整，日本的能源结构中石油所占比重不断下降，煤炭、天然气和核能所占比重逐渐上升。２０世纪９０年代泡沫经济破灭后，日本的信息技术产业发展迅速，提出了能源安全、经济效益和环境保护的能源政策“３Ｅ”目标。进入２１世纪以来，日本先后出台了《能源政策基本法》（２００２）、《能源基本计划》（２００３）、年成立的“节能中心”。为提高民众的节能意
识，日本政府将节能宣传教育制度化，设立节能日、节能月等。（３）有效的节能管理制度。包括工厂能源消耗监控制度、能源管理师制度、能效标识与产品认证制度、节能产品领跑者制度等。（４）经济激励机制。日本政府通过财政、税收、金融等手段对节能进行支持。如对节能设备推广和节能技术开发进行财政拨款、补贴、税收减免、提供低息贷款等。（三）大力开发新能源石油危机后，日本一直致力于新能源的开发利用。日本１９７４年开始实施“阳光计划”，决定把开发太阳能和燃料电池技术作为国家战略；１９８０年颁布了《开发替代石油能源法》，成立了“新能源产业技术综合开发机构”，开始大规模推进新能源、石油替代能源综合技术的开发旧１；１９９３年实施了“新阳光计划”，政府每年拨款３６２亿日元用于新能源技术开发；１９９７年出台了《新能源法》明确了政府、企业、民众在新能源产业发展中的职责分工。进入２ｌ世纪，２００３年日本实施了《电力设施利用新能源特别措施法》，规定电力公司每年新能源电力的开发配额；２００４年公布了《新能源产业化远景构想》，目标是到２０３０年把太阳能和风能发电等新能源技术扶植成商业产值达３万亿日元的支柱性产业之一∽。；２００８年１１月发布了《推广太阳能发电行动方案》，从供给和需求方面提出了多项促进措施，如推进蓄电池技术的开发、扩大中小企业的应用、加强企业与政府的合作、扩大公共设施引入太阳能发电系统、推进新能源社区建设等；２００９年１１月１日起日本政府推行太阳能发电剩余电力收购制度，要求电力公司按照原先两倍的价格进行回收；２０１０年公布了修正后的《能源基本计《新国家能源战略》（２００６）、《能源基本计划修正案》（２００７）、《能源基本计划修正案》（２０１０），主要以发展核能和可再生能源为目标，进行能源结构转变。２０１１年日本“３?１１”地震和福岛核事故使日本的能源战略和能源格局出现了根本变化，日本开始寻求降低对核能的依赖，加速发展可再生能源。（二）大力推行节能政策，提高能源利用效率据世界银行统计数据计算显示，２００９年，我国单位ＧＤＰ能耗是世界平均水平的１．５倍，是日本的２．２倍。日本每千美元ＧＤＰ的能耗为１２４．９千克油当量，我国为２７３．２千克油当量。日本是世界上能源利用效率最高的国家之一。日本主要的节能政策措施有：（１）构建完整的节能环保法律体系。１９７９年日本颁布实施
日本企业管理的特点
日本企业管理的特点 第一，树立员工是最重要经营资源思想。 日本企业认为，人的能力具有很大的发展性和可塑性。公司给予职工的待遇等于是对职工能力提高和发展的投资。每个员工都应该在自己的工作岗位上开发能力、追求自己以及公司的最大发展，所以必须争取让员工立足于长期为企业作贡献。 第二，管理者以自主责任作为领导原则。 日本大公司流行事业部制。所谓的事业部制即按各自的市场及产品来组成几个自负盈亏的责任核算单位制度。事业部制有利于各专业部门根据实际情况灵活操作，按产品的专业门类进行生产和经营，加强了各种产品的竞争能力，公司则通过目标管理体制来评介事业部长的经营业绩。 其三，组织灵活，富有弹性，尊重人和追求效率相辅相成。 在日本企业的组织设计中，每个员工的工作区域划分得不细，这样可以扩大个人责任范围，使得各管理环节容易协调，另外通过定期变动工作，使员工保持浓厚的学习热情，力求成为多面手和行行通。 第四，善于模仿和学习先进经验。 在战后经济复兴那阵子，日本人满世界范围内寻求各种专利和技术，十分关注国外科学技术的运用，最大限度地从中汲取精华。企业家们还不时造访外国同行，学习人家是如何经营管理企业的。 例如索尼公司当初就是从美国西物电气公司买下了制造半导体收音机的专营权，并在此基础上建立起它自己的微电子工业帝国。公司创始人之一的森田秋雄在自传《日本制造》中承认，索尼吸取了很多西方人做生意的经验。 第五，企业决策注重发挥集体的作用。 日本企业领导人在做重要决策时，一般都必须设法将所有成员的意见都尽量统一起来。日本人把这叫做“Nemawashi”（绑根，指园丁在移植树木时小心翼翼地将所有跟须都包缠起来）。这个操作过程是既乏味又漫长，但最终获利的是企业，因为人的思想一旦统一，实行起来反而很快捷。 第六，注意劳资关系的相对稳定。 传统的日本企业很少解雇职员，企业通过尽量满足员工生活安定感达到激发他们工作热情的目的，同时让员工明白个人待遇的获得是通过集团总体赢利的提升来达到的。因此公司并不追求即时偿付和经常性的分红增长，更倾向于长期激励。有这样的经营思想作支撑，企业的繁荣可以是五年、十年，甚至更久。 日本通过自身顽强的努力取得了巨大成功，我们必须承认这一点。在积极引进外来管理文化的基础上，日本人对自己的传统进行了创造性的转化，进而获得了巨大实效。对于东邻扶桑的突然发迹，我们不要怀以吃不到葡萄说葡萄酸的心理，其中的有益经验应该珍视才对。 日本企业的经营管理特点，一是组织灵活，富有弹性，适应性强，二是尊重人和追求效率相辅相成。每个员工的工作划分不细，扩大了个人责任范围，使得各管理环节容易协调，通过定期变动工作使员工成为多面手。三是要求人的技能和知识水平较高，力求行行通，具有广泛的知识，综合能力强并有牢固的理想和信念。
人类现阶段使用的能源特点对比
小论文：人类现阶段使用的能源都有哪几种？他们各有什么优缺点，并根据你所从事的研究方向谈谈你对中国未来资源格局发展的看法。 一、人类现阶段使用的能源小结 目前人类使用的能源还是来自化石燃料的。煤、石油、天然气均是来自于化石燃料的。作为能源煤、石油、天然气是使用范围最广的。当前人类利用能源的各种形式都是直接或者间接地来自于太阳或地球内部伸出所产生的热能。包括了太阳能、风能、生物质能、地热能、核聚变能、水能和海洋能以及由可再生能源衍生出来的生物燃料和氢所产生的能量。可以预知，石油，煤矿等资源将加速减少。核能、太阳能即将成为主要能源。相对于传统能源，新能源在未来人类社会中发挥的作用将会越来越明显。一般地说，常规能源是指技术上比较成熟且已被大规模利用的能源，而新能源通常是指尚未大规模利用、正在积极研究开发的能源。因此，煤、石油、天然气以及大中型水电都被看作常规能源，而把太阳能、风能、现代生物质能、地热能、海洋能以及核能、氢能等作为新能源。 太阳能：太阳能一般指太阳光的辐射能量。太阳能的主要利用形式有太阳能的光热转换、光电转换以及光化学转换三种主要方式广义上的太阳能是地球上许多能量的来源，如风能，化学能，水的势能等由太阳能导致或转化成的能量形式。利用太阳能的方法主要有:太阳电能池，通过光电转换把太阳光中包含的能量转化为电能;太阳能热水器，利用太阳光的热量加热水，并利用热水发电等。它的优点有：1、普遍：到处都有，可直接开发和利用，且无须开采和运输。2、无害：开发利用太阳能不会污染环境，它是最清洁能源之一。3、巨大：每年到达地球表面上的太阳辐射能约相当于130万亿吨煤。4、长久：太阳的能量是用之不竭的。缺点：1、不稳定性：由于受到昼夜、季节、地理纬度和海拔高度等自然条件的限制以及晴、阴、云、雨等随机因素的影响。2、效率低和成本高：目前太阳能利用的发展水平，有些方面在理论上是可行的，技术上也是成熟的。但有的太阳能利用装置，因为效率偏低，成本较高。 核能：核能是通过转化其质量从原子核释放的能量，符合阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦的方程E=mc^2;，其中E=能量，m=质量，c=光速常量。核能的利用存在的主要问题: (1)资源利用率低 (2)反应后产生的核废料成为危害生物圈的潜在因素，其最终处理技术尚未完全解决 (3)反应堆的安全问题尚需不断监控及改进 (4)核不扩散要求的约束，即核电站反应堆中生成的钚-239受控制 (5)核电建设投资费用仍然比常规能源发电高，投资风险较大 风能：风能是太阳辐射下流动所形成的。风能与其他能源相比，具有明显的
日本的企业管理
日本的企业管理 日本在亚洲占第一位、世界第二位，达到100家，这还是因为受泡沫经济的影响之后的保守数据。并且像松下、丰田、本田、三菱、佳能、日立等日本企业都是在世界上家喻户晓的。松下幸之助、大久保睿、小平浪平、盛田昭夫等人都是各种管理典籍和人们口头常说的大企业家。那么，对于日本企业界而言，什么是制胜的法宝呢？日本人自己的话来说：“就是带有浓厚文化气息的管理方式”。 1．人力资源管理 人力资源管理理论是近几年来流行于世界各国管理界的一个崭新理论。日本公司的人力资源管理制度可用共同体组织的概念来说明，共同体如同一个家庭或教会，其成员在互助友爱基础上联合在一起的，聚会是一种欢乐的源泉，人的互爱、帮助、信任和相互了解，共享欢乐，和衷共济。前面说过，日本民族重视“家”与“家族”的意义。所以日本组织有点类似于共同体组织，因为日本公司重视职工的福利，并按照服务年限给以较平等的待遇，这样一来，职工也就乐意献身于组织。在日本的人力资源管理方式中有几点重要的措施。如，终身雇佣制、双梯晋升制和年功序列工资制等。终身雇佣制在前面讲日本传统文化特点的团体主义色彩时已经说过，在此就不在赘述。这里主要说明一下后两者。 （1）双梯晋升制
日本企业一般实行双梯晋升制，一种是职务等级制度，另一种是资格等级制度。业务工作者按正规的职务。评定方法等级，类似于美国的制度，如果职务不动，职务等级就不晋升。此外，根据服务余限和工作成绩，雇员的工资可以功规定的资格等级晋升。在同一资格中有一个最高余限，当超过最高余限时，雇员才自然被晋升到上一个资格等级，晋升纶不是自动发生的，它反映着能力和努力，要经过经常性的，广泛的评价。在评价标准中，对利润的短期贡献不如技能，同事的合作及工作质量重要，双梯值增加了晋升机会，日立公司的晋升政策是，“任何人最迟在53随时都可以晋升到八级正规资格等级制度中的第一个等级。”这使每个人都有晋升到中层等级的希望，从而增加对组织的中层等级的希望，从而增加对组织的忠诚意识和献身精神。 2。年功序列工资制. 这种制度有两个特点。一是高工资与低工资的差别最多五六倍.二是个人工资收入随工龄而漫漫增长。职工的工资收入在退休前达到最高峰。 日本企业界认为,团体内部工资收入差别过大,不利于团结,不利于团体成员友好合作,会影响士气,降低生产效略.在日本人的观众中,团结就是力量。人们普遍坚信内部的亲密无间,定会制造出奇迹.因此,极力排斥团体内部的利益竞争,把为个人利益而竞争称作＂独＂．＂独＂是不让人们喜欢的品行．
浅谈日本文化认识
浅谈日本文化认识 通过对这门课的学习和了解，让我们从各个方面对日本有了一个全面的了解。日本独特的地理条件和悠久的历史，孕育了别具一格的日本文化。尤其是日本的经济，科技，经济管理，教育等都是值得我们发展中国家借鉴的。 也许是小时候学的历史知识在我的心里太过于根深蒂固，对于日本这个国家我总是怀着一丝敌视，直到现在才学会了辩证的看待。 日本文化是传承于汉唐宋明的汉民族古典文化，中国文化是多民族文化融合而成的优秀文化。不可否认，日本这个民族在吸收不同文化的方面有着超乎寻常的能力，例如，茶道，书法等等，都是在中国之华夏文化的基础之上而创造而来。我们中华民族秉承了孔老先生的儒家思想，不断的吸收现代文化的同时，也摒弃了许多传统文化。比如说，在新民主文化时期，胡适先生提出中国汉字拼音化，如果胡适先生这一想法得以实现，实乃中华民族之大不幸。正巧这些被我们渐渐忘却的传统，正被别人弘扬着，我想这也是前几年中日、中韩传统节日之争的原因吧。 日本的文化主要表现在风俗习惯，文学等方面，日本以礼仪之邦而闻名于世，讲究礼节世日本人的习俗，平时人与人见面时总要互相鞠躬，并相互问候；日本的当代文学与其他的事物一样，有其丰厚的渊源，部分来自中国的传统的影响，也有来自多元化的西方的思想，当然日本历史悠久的传统特点也是少不了的。九世纪是日本与中国直接交往的时期，这时候中国的古典文学对日本的文学影响至深。日本
的文化艺术主要以体现在茶道，花道两方面，茶道是日本民族特有的文化艺术之一，在世界上享有声誉，而花道，顾名思义就是插花艺术，日本的花道始于十五世纪，花道有多重流派，而每一种流派都有自己的哲学思想，而且他们所遵循的艺术准则以及这些准则所蕴含的人生观，自然观和宇宙观基本是一致的，特别强调事理一体，因此，尽管日本的插花艺术千姿百态，但象征天地人的三条线是罪基本的格局。说到日本的体育文化，当然少不了相扑，柔道和剑道，相扑是日本的国技，不仅在国内深受人们的喜爱，今年来在过外也颇受外国人的欢迎。而柔道起源于古代的武术，可追溯到柔术，剑道是由日本传统的剑术发展起来的，剑术原为武士掌握格斗技术的训练手段，1970年国际剑道联盟成立，剑道开始被承认为世界性的体育项目，剑道在战后一直衰落，但现在开始复兴。 我最欣赏的还有日本的茶道。说起日本的茶道，它还是起源与中国，但其中具有日本民族味。日本茶文化是在唐朝时期传入的，几百过去，日本仍旧保留了一套完整的茶文化，并得到日本茶道。而中国的茶文化，由于种种原因，未能完整的保存下来。我想这与中华子孙所受的儒家思想不无关系，隐忍的接受着外来文化，却在隐约中失去了自己特有的传统。在我们批评他人抄袭我们的同时，我们也要反省下自己，为何没有保护好祖先留下的财富。 日本人相当注重形式，茶道便是这样的一种体现。他们喜欢当着客人的面准备食物，像铁板烧，让客人不仅能吃到食物，还能学习到烹饪的方法，茶道也是如此。许多人会认为，日本人饮茶，只重形式。
日本概况复习资料
日本概况复习资料! 单项选择题： 1、日本の新聞紙はその二分の一が（①）で作られていると言う。 ①北海道②京都③宫崎④奈良 2、日本の気候は一般的に温帯海洋性（①）気候に属する。 ①モンスーン②?サシネーター③シーズン④モノレール 3、長い歴史のある鎌倉市は関東地方の（③）にある。 ①埼玉県②千葉県③神奈川県④東京都 4、繩文時代の日本人種は、数人から１０人が一户の（③）居住に住んでいた。 ①貝塚②埴輸③豎穴④高床 5、聖武天皇の招きで日本に来た唐鑒真は奈良で（④）を創建した。 ①東大寺②東本願寺③春日社④唐招提寺 6、日本人が一番初めに洋服を着たのは（③）である。 ①平安時代②昭和時代③明治時代④戰後 7、法隆寺をはじめ、東大寺、唐招提寺など當時の遺構は世界最古の（①）造建築として今日にまで伝わっている。 ①木②銅③銀④金 8、自衛隊は（④）年にできたものである。 ①1950年②1951年③1952年④1954年 9、（①）は魚介類、野菜類に水でといた小麥粉の衣をつけて油で揚げた料理である。 ①てんぷら②すし③すきやき④さしみ 10、（③）は和食を食べる時、なくてはならない調味料である。 ①酢②砂糖③醬油④酒 11、今現在、日本の経済規模は世界の（③）にしめている。 ①五分の一②六分の一③七分の一④八分の一 12、（②）日本經濟の高速發展階段だと見られる。 ①45~55 ②56~73 ③74~87 ④87~90 13、財閥が日本經濟を獨佔する局面を解除するために、45から（①）措置を實施した。 ①解散財閥②農業投資の擴大③傾斜生産方式④國內市場擴大 14、日本の土地改革は1946年から（①）まで完成した。 ①1950年②1951年③1952年④1953年 15、（④）では八時間の勞動時間と休暇時間の原則を決めている。 ①勞動組合法②勞動關係調法③憲法④勞動標準法 16、戰後日本の各工業部門の中で一番速く發展したのは（①）部門である。 ①鐵鋼工業②造船工業③自動車工業④電力工業 17、沖繩の返還は（③）である。 ①1952年②1958年③1972年④1978年 18、日中文化交流協會は（④）に創立された。 ①1950年②1952年③1954年④1956年 19、日本經濟貿易團體の中で實力が一番強く影響一番大きい團體は（②）である。 ①日經連②經團連③同友會④産研 20、現在の日本憲法は前文と天皇、國民の權利と義務、國會、司法などについて（② ）条が決められている。 ①101 ②103 ③105 ④107 21、（③）年から、日本は?ンフレを伴って、經濟回復の道に踏み出した。 ①1946年②1947年③1948年④1949年 22、（④）の変化につれて、日本の産業構造と就業構造に変化が起きた。 ①工業流向②金融流向③資本流向④投資流向
会计学专业学子五大就业前景分析
会计学专业学子五大就业前景分析
凯程考研，中国最权威的考研辅导班会计学专业学子五大就业前景分析一、内资企业：需求量大，待遇、发展欠佳 职业状况：这一块对会计人才的需求是最大的，也是目前会计毕业生的最大就业方向。很多中小国内企业特别是民营企业，对于会计岗位他们需要找的只是“帐房先生”，而不是具有财务管理和分析能力的专业人才，而且，此类公司大都财务监督和控制体系相当简陋。因此，在创业初期，他们的会计工作一般都是掌握在自己的亲信(戚)手里。到公司做大，财务复杂到亲信(戚)无法全盘控制时，才会招聘“外人”记记帐。
凯程考研，中国最权威的考研辅导班 有种可能也不排除：你选择的公司具有极大的成长性，你做为元老在公司壮大以后能分到一杯羹。但更多的情况是，你进去的时候是记帐，离开时还是只会记帐，最多能学到简单的财务监管和避税方法，甚至是一些反对“不做假账”的伎俩。 薪资情况：新人月薪绝大部分集中在1500元左右。 师兄建议：工作任务少，压力小，特别是国企。这就给你很多的学习时间，给你的鲤鱼跳龙门梦想提供了舞台。如果你的学校不是很好，会计专业在国内不是很牛，那我建议你选择这些企业，
凯程考研，中国最权威的考研辅导班 因为可以利用时间，参考注册会计师或ACCA，既能积攒经验，又能继续努力拿证书。 在校期间参加注册会计师考试，有条件的参加ACCA考试。前者在一些省市在校会计学生就能报名，而且费用相对低，总共5门，考过一门在5年内持续有效;后者全面，总共14 门课程，英文试题，大二及以上就可以报名培训。培训后不仅能掌握国际财务会计操作，更重要的是其课程涉及管理、金融等方面，还能提高专业英语水平。根据调查，上海现有ACCA会员年薪在10万到80万之间，缺点在于报名和培训费用稍微有点高。 参加上述两项考试在国内企业(包括外资)中的认
(能源化工行业)日本能源战略启示录
（能源化工行业）日本能源 战略启示录
面对经济发展面临的能源制约瓶颈，发展新能源被视为解决中国能源瓶颈的方法之壹。早在《十壹五规划的建议》中，就明确提出“加快发展风能、太阳能、生物能源等可再生能源”。按照近期出台的新能源振兴规划初稿，到2020年中国计划总投资超3万亿。纵观世界经济发展史，中国不是发展新能源的第壹个国家。欧美等西方发达国家早已开始实施新能源战略，尤其是日本后起而位前，对于中国的新能源之路犹有借鉴意义。aliqq 资源小国的能源战略 2008年日本GDP为4.802万亿美元，名列世界第二大经济体。同时它也是世界上主要能源消耗大国之壹，由于资源短缺，其能源严重依赖进口。近年来，日本通过对内不遗余力地研究替代，对外千方百计寻求多样化能源，为了适应日本工业领域高科技的飞速发展，日本在能源储备、自主开发、和能源出口国合作等方面采取了既有效果又有效率的政策。 日本能源政策的重要目标是实现能源安全(EnergySecurity)、经济增长(EconomicGrowth)和环境保护(EnvironmentalProtection)(简称3ES)的共同发展。3Es中的三个因素同样重要，不可偏废。归纳起来日本的能源政策包括石油安全、石油储备、石油替代、节约能源、环境保护等几个方面。 石油安全。日本进口石油大部分来自安全形势极不稳定的中东地区，伊朗是日本最大的石油输入国，仅2006年日本从伊朗购买的原油数量为581000桶/天，相当于日本石油总进口量的14%。近年来日本提出旨在分散风险的综合资源战略，壹方面强化石油和天然气的自主开发，降低石油依存度。同时大力推行能源外交，积极推进石油供应来源多样化。除了中东地区是日本能源外交的重点地区外，同时也重视发展和亚洲、非洲和拉丁美洲资源国的合作，促进石油供应来源的多元化。近年来，日本将油气进口多元化的战略重点转向能源资源丰富的俄罗斯，且加大和亚洲国家的能源合作。 石油储备政策。石油的战略储备是日本的壹项基本国策，20世纪70年代初，日本先后制定了《石油储备法》和《天然气储备法》，建立了战略石油和天然气储备制度，且通过立法强制国家和企业进行储备。日本的石油储备有民间和政府俩个主体。国家石油储备由政府直接控制，储备方式为国家储备基地以及从民间租用储库。民间储备且没有将生产性库存和义务储备截然分开，只要求量，且不要求储备种类及储备方式。国家储备量的规定是90天，实际储备91天，100%为原油储备。民间石油企业义务储备量规定70天，其中成品油占55%，原油占45%。 节约能源政策。为了鼓励企业和全社会节能，日本实施多项财税政策。壹是税制改革。使用指定节能设备，可选择设备标准进价的30%的特别折旧或者7%的税额减免(适用于中小企业)。二是补助金制度，对于企业引进节能设备、实施节能技术改造给予总投资额的1/3-1/2的补助，对于企业和家庭引进高效热水器给予固定金额的补助，对于住宅、建筑物引进高效能源系统给予其总投资1/3的补助。三是特别会计制度，由经产省实施支援企业节能和促进节能的技术研发等活动，该项预算纳入“能源供需结科目”，主要来源于国家征收的石油煤炭税。 石油替代政策。目前，石油、煤炭、核能和天然气仍是日本主要的壹次能源。日本能源发展的基本方向是鼓励新能源，争取提高新能源在壹次能源中的比重，努力实现能源的最佳综合利用。日本政府大力推动新能源的开发。“新能源开发计划”即“阳光计划”致力太阳能开发利用，同时也包括地热能开发、煤炭液化和汽化技术、风力发电和大型风电机研制、海洋能源开发和海外清洁能源输出技术。 近年来，随着日本节能技术使能源利用效率大幅提高，尤其新能源开发利用使日本经济抗风险能力大大增强，对传统能源的依赖大幅降低，部分日本新能源企业开始出现向海外扩张的新迹象。经过多年的发展，太阳能在日本已逐渐普及，很多家庭都购买了太阳能发电装置。从2000年起，太阳能光伏发电、太阳能电池产量多年位居世界首位，约占世界总体产量的