当前位置：文档库 › UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Code and Design Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems

UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Code and Design Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems

Code and Design Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems Jaana Lindroos

Helsinki, 1st of December 2004

Seminar on Quality Models for Software Engineering

Department of Computer Science

UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI

Code and Design Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems

Jaana Lindroos

Seminar on Quality Models for Software Engineering

Department of Computer Science

UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI

1st of December 2004, 10pages

Abstract

The metrics for object-oriented systems are different due to the different approach in program paradigm and in object-oriented language itself. An object-oriented program paradigm uses localization, encapsulation, information hiding, inheritance, object abstraction and polymorphism, and has different program structure than in procedural languages.

There are quite a few sets of proposed metrics of object-oriented metrics for object-oriented software in the literature and research papers. The definition of six different metrics is presented in this document. The presented metrics are also validated by couple of real projects that use object-oriented language in their projects.

Metric data provides quick feedback for software designers and managers. Analyzing and collecting the data can predict design quality. If appropriately used, it can lead to a significant reduction in costs of the overall implementation and improvements in quality of the final product. The improved quality, in turn reduces future maintenance efforts. Using early quality indicators based on objective empirical evidence is therefore a realistic target.

It is unlikely that universally valid object-oriented quality measures and models could be devised, so that they would suit for all languages in all development environments and for different kind of application domains. It should be also kept in mind that metrics are only guidelines and not rules. They are guidelines that give an indication of the progress that a project has made and the quality of the design.

ACM Computing Classification System 1998:

D.1.5 [object-oriented programming]

D.2.2 [design tools and techniques]

D.2.3 [coding tools and techniques]

D.2.4 [software/program verification]

D.2.8 [metrics]

D.2.9 [management: software quality assurance]

D.2.11 [software architectures: data abstraction, information hiding]

Keywords: object-oriented software metrics, software quality, object-oriented design, object-oriented programming

Contents

1 Introduction (1)

2 Rationale for Measurement (2)

3 Code and Design Metrics Suite (3)

4 Evaluation of Metrics (4)

5 Conclusions (6)

References (7)

Appendix. Terminology (9)

1 Introduction

Object-oriented design and development has become popular in today’s software development environment. The benefits of object-oriented software development are now widely recognized [AlC98]. Object-oriented development requires not only different approaches to design and implementation; it also requires different approaches to software metrics. Metrics for object-oriented system are still a relatively new field of study. The traditional metrics such as lines of code and Cyclomatic complexity [McC76, WEY88] have become standard for traditional procedural programs [LIK00, AlC98].

Software metrics are often categorized into product metrics and design metrics [LoK94]. Project metrics are used to predict project needs, such as staffing levels and total effort. They measure the dynamic changes that have taken place in the state of the project, such as how much has been done and how much is left to do. Project metrics are more global and less specific than the design metrics. Unlike the design metrics, project metrics do not measure the quality of the software being developed.

Design metrics are measurements of the static state of the project design at a particular point in time. These metrics are more localized and prescriptive in nature. They look at the quality of the way the system is being built. [LoK94]

Design metrics can be divided into static metrics and dynamic metrics [SyY99]. Dynamic metrics have a time dimension and the values tend to change over time. Thus dynamic metrics can only be calculated on the software as it is executing. Static metrics remain invariant and are usually calculated from the source code, design, or specification.

There are quite a few sets of proposed metrics of object-oriented metrics for object-oriented software in the literature and research papers. Only few of them can be presented in this document. The presented metric suite in this document is selected from ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ article [ChK94] because it describes a basic suite of object-oriented metrics [AlC98] and its metrics has also tested in practice [ChK94, BBM96]. The basic set of metrics contains total of six different metrics that are presented in the Chapter 3. More metrics has been presented for example in the Lorenz’s and Kidd’s book ‘Object-Oriented Software metrics’ [LoK94].

There has been also a research and development project aiming at developing methods for the measurement of software quality at the design level that was researched at the University of Helsinki in the Department of Computer Science between 1999 and 2001. The project is called ′Metrics for Analysis and Improvement of Software Architectures′ (MAISA) and it concentrated in recognizing Design Patterns [GRJ98] in C++ Programs. [MAI01]

In this paper the focus is on static product metrics that are described in Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s article ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ [ChK94]. The relationship between different object-oriented metric values is out-of scope in this paper as well as automated tools for collecting object-oriented metric data. This paper doesn’t cover measuring design pattern metrics.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Chapter 2 explains why it is important to measure object-oriented metrics. In Chapter 3 the basic set of metrics defined in Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s article ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ [ChK94] is described. Chapter 4 contains couple of practical examples, how defined metrics have been evaluated in different projects. Chapter 5 concludes the paper and the next Chapter contains references. The relevant terminology is described in the Appendix.

2 Rationale for measurement

The intent of the metrics proposed is to provide help for object-oriented developers and managers to foster better designs, more reusable code, and better estimates. The metrics should be used to identify anomalies as well as to measure progress. The numbers are not meant to drive the design of the project’s classes or methods, but rather to help us focus our efforts on potential areas of improvement. The metrics can help each of us improve the way we develop the software. The metrics, as supported by tools, makes us think about how we subclass, write methods, use collaboration, and so on. [LoK94] They help the engineer to recognize parts of the software that might need modifications and re-implementation. The decision of changes to be made should not rely only on the metric values [SyY99].

The metrics are guidelines and not rules and they should be used to support the desired motivations. The intent is to encourage more reuse through better use of abstractions and division of responsibilities, better designs through detection and correction of anomalies. Positive incentives, improvement training and mentoring, and effective design reviews support probability of achieving better results of using object-oriented metrics. [LoK94] According to my experience Extreme Programming (XP) [Bec01] could be utilized in training and mentoring so that a senior software designer and a junior software designer could work together and learn design practices from each other’s. It requires good co-operation between designers, for example so that junior designer is encouraged to contradict design decisions made by senior designer and vice versa. In that way designers really need to think and justify their design decisions.

If we are going to improve the object-oriented software we develop, we must measure our designs by well-defined standards. Thresholds are affected by many factors, including the state of the software (prototype, first release, third reuse and so on) and your local project experiences. The language used and different coding styles affect some of the metrics. This is primarily handled with different threshold values for the metrics, which indicate heuristic ranges of better and worse values. For example, C++ tends to have larger method sizes than Smalltalk. Thresholds are not absolute laws of nature. They are heuristics and should be treated as such. Possible problems in our system designs can be detected during the development process. [LoK94]

Software should be designed for maintenance [AlC98]. The design evaluation step is an integral part of achieving a high quality design. The metrics should help in improving the total quality of the end product, which means that quality problems could be resolved as early as possible in the development process. It is a well-known fact that the earlier the problems can be resolved the less it costs to the project in terms of time-to-market, quality and maintenance.

3 Code and design metrics suite

Metric 1: Weighted Methods per Class (WMC)

WMC is a sum of complexities of methods of a class. Consider a Class C1 with Methods M1…M n that are defined in the class. Let c1…c n be the complexity of the methods1 [ChK94]. Then:

WMC measures size as well as the logical structure of the software. The number of methods and the complexity of the involved methods are predictors of how much time and effort is required to develop and maintain the class [SyY99, ChK94]. The larger the number of methods in a class, the greater the potential impact on inheriting classes. Consequently, more effort and time are needed for maintenance and testing [YSM02]. Furthermore, classes with large number of complex methods are likely to be more application specific, limiting the possibility of reuse. Thus WMC can also be used to estimate the usability and reusability of the class [SyY99]. If all method complexities are considered to be unity, then WMC equals to Number of Methods (NMC) metric [YSM02].

Metric 2: Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT)

The depth of a class within the inheritance hierarchy is the maximum length from the class node to the root of the tree, measured by the number of ancestor classes. The deeper a class is in the hierarchy, the greater the number of methods it is likely to inherit, making it more complex to predict its behavior. Deeper trees constitute greater design complexity, since more methods and classes are involved. The deeper a particular class is in the hierarchy, the greater potential reuse of inherited methods. [ChK94] For languages that allow multiple inheritances, the longest path is usually taken [YSM02].

The large DIT is also related to understandability and testability [LIK00, SyY99]. Inheritance decreases complexity by reducing the number of operations and operators, but this abstraction of objects can make maintenance and design difficult.

Metric 3: Number of Children (NOC)

Number of children metric equals to number of immediate subclasses subordinated to a class in the class hierarchy. Greater the number of children, greater the reuse, since inheritance is a form of reuse. Greater the number of children, the greater the likelihood of improper abstraction of the parent class. If a class has a large number of children, it may be a case of misuse of sub classing. The number of children gives an idea of the potential influence a class has on the design. If a class has a large number of children, it may require more testing of the methods in that class. [ChK94] In addition, a class with a large number of children must be flexible in order to provide services in a large number of contexts [YSM02]. Metric 4: Coupling between object classes (CBO)

CBO for a class is a count of the number of other classes to which is coupled. CBO relates to the notion that an object is coupled to another object if one of them acts on the other, i.e., methods of one uses methods or instance variables of another. Excessive coupling between 1 Complexity is deliberately not defined more specifically here in order to allow for the most general application of this metric [ChK94].

object classes is detrimental to modular design and prevents reuse. The more independent a class is, the easier it is to reuse it in another application. In order to improve modularity and promote encapsulation, inter-object class couples should be kept to a minimum. [ChK94] Direct access to foreign instance variable has generally been identified as the worst type of coupling [SyY99].

The larger the number of couples, the higher the sensitivity to changes in other parts of the design, and therefore maintenance is more difficult. A measure of coupling is useful to determine how complex the testing of various parts of a design is likely to be. The higher the inter-object class coupling, the more rigorous the testing needs to be. [ChK94, AlC98] Metric 5: Response For a Class (RFC)

The response set of a class is a set of methods that can potentially be executed in response to a message received by and object of that class2. RFC measures both external and internal communication, but specifically it includes methods called from outside the class, so it is also a measure of the potential communication between the class and other classes. [ChK94, AlC98] RFC is more sensitive measure of coupling than CBO since it considers methods instead of classes [YSM02].

If a large number of methods can be invoked in response to a message, the testing and debugging of the class becomes more complicated since it requires a greater level of understanding required on the part of the tester. The larger the number of methods that can be invoked from a class, the greater the complexity of the class. A worst-case value for possible responses will assist in appropriate allocation of testing time. [ChK94]

Metric 6: Lack of Cohesion in Methods (LCOM)

The LCOM is a count of the number of method pairs whose similarity is 0 minus the count of method pairs whose similarity is not zero. The larger the number of similar methods, the more cohesive the class, which is consistent with traditional notions of cohesion that measure the inter-relatedness between portions of a program. If none of the methods of a class display any instance behavior, i.e., do not use any instance variables, they have no similarity and the LCOM value for the class will be zero. [ChK94]

Cohesiveness of methods within a class is desirable, since it promotes encapsulation. Lack of cohesion implies classes should probably be split into two or more subclasses. Any measure of disparateness of methods helps identify flaws in the design of classes. Low cohesion increases complexity; thereby it increases the likelihood of errors during the development process. [ChK94]

4 Evaluation of metrics

The content of this chapter is mainly based on Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s document ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ [ChK94]. This chapter presents only part of the testing details and results that is described in the original document. More information about the details can be read in the referred document [ChK94]. This chapter describes also briefly results of Basili’s, Briand’s and Melo’s document ‘A Validation of Object-Oriented Design Metrics as Quality Indicators’ [BBM96] in which they empirically investigate the suite of 2 It should be noted that membership to the response set is defined only up to the first level of nesting of method calls due to the practical considerations involved in collection of the metric.

object-oriented design metrics introduced in Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s document ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ [ChK94].

Chidamber and Kemerer who introduced the basic suite for collecting object-oriented code and design metrics tested the metrics suite with two projects. The metrics proposed in their paper were collected using automated tools developed for this research at two different organizations which will be referred to here as Site A and Site B. [ChK94]

Site A is a software vendor that uses object-oriented design in their development work and has a collection of different C++ class libraries. Metrics data from 634 classes from two C++ class libraries that are used in the design of graphical user interfaces (GUI) were collected. Both these libraries were used in different product applications for rapid prototyping and development of windows, icons and mouse based interfaces. Reuse across different applications was one of the primary design objectives of these libraries. These typically were used at Site A in conjunction with other C++ libraries and traditional C-language programs in the development of software sold to UNIX workstation users.

Site B is a semiconductor manufacturer and uses the Smalltalk programming language for developing flexible machine control and manufacturing systems. Metrics were collected on the class libraries used in the implementation of a computer aided manufacturing system for the production of VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuits. Over 30 engineers worked on this application, after extensive training and experience with object orientation and the Smalltalk environment. Metrics data from 1459 classes from Site B were collected.

The data from two different commercial projects and subsequent discussions with the designers at those sites lead to several interesting observations that may be useful for managers of object-oriented projects. Designers may tend to keep the inheritance hierarchies shallow, forsaking reusability through inheritance for simplicity of understanding. This potentially reduces the extent of method reuse within an application. However, even in shallow class hierarchies it is possible to extract reuse benefits, as evidenced by the class with 87 methods at Site A that had a total of 43 descendants. This suggests that managers need to proactively manage reuse opportunities and that this metrics suite can aid this process.

Another demonstrable use of these metrics is in uncovering possible design flaws or violations of design philosophy. As the example of the command class with 42 children at Site A demonstrates, the metrics help to point out instances where sub classing has been misused. This is borne out by the experience of the designers interviewed at one of the data sites where excessive declaration of sub classes was common among engineers new to the object-oriented paradigm. These metrics can be used to allocate testing resources. As the example of the interface classes at Site B (with high CBO and RFC values) demonstrates, concentrating test efforts on these classes may have been a more efficient utilization of resources.

Another application of these metrics is in studying differences between different object-oriented languages and environments. As the RFC and DIT data suggest, there are differences across the two sites that may be due to the features of the two target languages. However, despite the large number of classes examined (634 at Site A and 1459 at Site B), only two sites were used in this study, and therefore no claims are offered as to any systematic differences between C++ and Smalltalk environments. [ChK94]

Basili’s, Briand’s and Melo’s document ‘A Validation of Object-Oriented Design Metrics as Quality Indicators’ [BBM96] presents the results of a study in which they empirically investigated the suite of object-oriented design metrics introduced in Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s document ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’ [ChK94]. In their study,

they collected data about faults found in object-oriented classes. Based on these data, they verified how much fault-proneness is influenced by internal (e.g., size, cohesion) and external (e.g. coupling) design characteristics of object-oriented classes. From the results, five out of six Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s object-oriented metrics showed to be useful to predict class fault-proneness during the high- and low-level design phases of the life cycle. The only metric that was not appropriate in their study was LCOM. In addition, Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s object-oriented metrics showed to be better predictors than the best set of ‘traditional’ code metrics, which can only be collected during later phases of the software processes. [BBM96]

This empirical validation provides the practitioner with some empirical evidence demonstrating that most of Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s object-oriented metrics can be useful quality indicators. Furthermore, most of these metrics appear to be complementary indicators, which are relatively independent from each other. The obtained results provide motivation for further investigation and refinement of Chidamber’s and Kemerer’s object-oriented metrics. [BBM96]

My opinion is that evaluation executed by Basili, Briand and Melo is not as relevant as evaluation performed by Chidamber and Kemerer. That is because Basili, Briand and Melo used University environment and students who had no significantly experience with object-oriented design and implementation.

5 Conclusions

This paper introduces the basic metric suite for object-oriented design. The need for such metrics is particularly acute when an organization is adopting a new technology for which established practices have yet to be developed. [ChK94] The metric suite is not adoptable as such and according to some other researches it is still premature to begin applying such metrics while there remains uncertainty about the precise definitions of many of the quantities to be observed and their impact upon subsequent indirect metrics. For example the usefulness of the proposed metrics, and others, would be greatly enhanced if clearer guidance concerning their application to specific languages were to be provided. [ChS95] Metric data provides quick feedback for software designers and managers. Analyzing and collecting the data can predict design quality. If appropriately used, it can lead to a significant reduction in costs of the overall implementation and improvements in quality of the final product. The improved quality, in turn reduces future maintenance efforts. Using early quality indicators based on objective empirical evidence is therefore a realistic objective [BMB99]. According to my opinion it’s motivating for the developer to get early and continuous feedback about the quality in design and implementation of the product they develop and thus get a possibility to improve the quality of the product as early as possible. It could be a pleasant challenge to improve own design practices based on measurable data.

It is unlikely that universally valid object-oriented quality measures and models could be devised, so that they would suit for all languages in all development environments and for different kind of application domains. Therefore measures and models should be investigated and validated locally in each studied environment. [BMB99] It should be also kept in mind that metrics are only guidelines and not rules. They are guidelines that give an indication of the progress that a project has made and the quality of design [LoK94].

References

[AlC98] Alkadi Ghassan, Carver Doris L.: Application of Metrics to Object-Oriented Designs, Proceedings of IEEE Aerospace Conference, Volume 4, pages 159 -

163, March 1998.

[ArS95] Archer Clark, Stinson Michael: Object-Oriented Software Measures, Technical Report CMU/SEI-95-TR-002, ESC-TR-95-002, Software Engineering Institute,

Carnegie Mellon University, April 1995.

[BBM96] Victor R. Basili, Fellow, IEEE, Lionel C. Briand, Walcélio L. Melo, Member IEEE Computer Society: A Validation of Object-Oriented Design Metrics as Quality

Indicators, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Volume 22, Number

10, pages 751 - 761, October 1996.

[Bec01] Beck Kent: Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, Addison-Wesley, 190 pages, 2001.

[BMB99] Lionel C. Briand, Sandro Morasca, Member, IEEE Computer Society, Victor R.

Basili, Fellow, IEEE: Defining and Validating Measures for Object-Based High-

Level Design, Volume 25, Number 5, pages 722 - 743, September/October

1999.

[ChK94] Chidamber Shyam R., Kemerer Chris F.: A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Volume 20, Number 6,

pages 476 - 493, June 1994.

[GRJ98] Gamma Erich, Helm Richard, Johnson Ralph, Vlissides John: Design Patterns CD: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software, Addison Wesley

Longman, Inc.1998.

[LIK00] Shuqin Li-Kokko: Code and Design Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems, Helsinki University of Technology, 9 pages, 2000.

[LoK94] Lorenz Mark, Kidd Jeff: Object-Oriented Software Metrics: A Practical Guide.

P T R Prentice Hall, Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Pearson Education Company, 146

pages, 1994.

[MAI01] Metrics for Analysis and Improvement of Software Architectures (MAISA), Research and Development Project at the University of Helsinki in Department

of Computer Science, Paakki Jukka, Verkamo Inkeri, Gustafsson Juha,

Nenonen Lilli, 1999 - 2001. http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/group/maisa/ (read on 25th

of November 2004).

[McC76] McCabe Thomas J.: A Complexity Measure, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Volume SE-2, September, Number 2, pages 308 - 320, December

1976.

[ChS95] Neville I. Churcher, Martin J. Shepperd: Comments on ‘A Metrics Suite for Object Oriented Design’, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Volume

21, Number 3, pages 263 - 265, March 1995.

[SyY99] Tarja Syst?, Ping Yu: Using OO Metrics and Rigi to Evaluate Java software, University of Tampere, Department of Computer Science, Series of

Publications A A-1999-9, 24 pages, July 1999.

[WEY88] Weyuker Elaine J.: Evaluating Software Complexity Measures, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Volume 14, Number 9, pages 1357 -

1365, September 1988.

[YSM02] Ping Yu, Tarja Syst?, Hausi Müller: Predicting Fault-Proneness using OO Metrics An Industrial Case Study, Proceedings of the Sixth European

conference on Software Maintenance and Reengineering (CSMR′02), 1534-

5351/02, IEEE, 2002.

Appendix. Terminology

Measurement related terminology

Terminology related to measurement of object-oriented design is defined in Lorenz’s and Jeff’s book ‘Object-Oriented Software Metrics: A Practical Guide’ [LoK94].

Metric

Metric is a standard of measurement. It is used to judge the attributes of something being measured, such as quality or complexity, in an objective manner.

Measurement

Measurement is the determination of the value of a metric for a particular object.

Design

Design is that part of software development concerned with the mapping of a business model into an implementation.

Terms Specific to Object-Oriented Analysis and Design

Terminology related to object-oriented analysis and design is defined in Archer’s and Stinson’s Technical Report ‘Object-Oriented Software Measures’ [ArS95] unless otherwise stated.

Abstraction

The essential characteristics of an object that distinguish it from all other kinds of objects, and thus provide, from the viewer’s perspective, crisply-defined conceptual boundaries; the process of focusing upon the essential characteristics of an object.

Aggregate object (aggregation)

An object composed of two or more other objects. An object that is part of two or more other objects.

Attribute

A variable or parameter that is encapsulated into an object.

Class

A set of objects that share a common structure and behaviour manifested by a set of methods; the set serves as a template from which objects can be created.

Class structure

A graph whose vertices represent classes and shoes arcs represent relationships among the classes.

Cohesion

The degree to which the methods within a class are related to on another.

Collaboration classes

If a class sends a message to another class, the classes are said to be collaborating.

Coupling

Object X is coupled to object Y if and only if X sends a message to Y. Coupling is a measure of the strength of association established by a connection from one entity to another [LIK00]. Classes (objects) can be coupled in following three ways [LIK00]:

1. When a message is passed between objects, the objects are said to be coupled.

2. Classes are coupled when methods declared in a one class use methods or attributes

of the other classes.

3. Inheritance introduces significant tight coupling between super classes and their

subclasses.

Encapsulation

The process of bundling together the elements of an abstraction that constitutes its structure and behaviour.

Information hiding

The process of hiding the structure of an object and the implementation details of its methods. And object has a public interface and a private representation; these two elements are kept distinct.

Inheritance

A relationship among classes, wherein one class shares the structure or methods defined in one other class (for single inheritance) or in more than on other class (for multiple inheritance). It is a design abstraction that enables programmers to reuse previously defined classes [LIK00].

Instance

An object with specific structure, specific methods, and an identity.

Instantiation

The process of filling in the template of a class to produce a class from which one can create instances.

Message

A request made of one object to another, to perform operation.

Method

An operation upon and object, defined as part of the declaration of a class.

Operation

An action performed by, or on an object, available to all instances of class. The operation needs not to be unique in case of polymorphism [LIK00].

Polymorphism

The ability of two or more objects to interpret a message differently at execution, depending upon the super class of the calling object.

Super class

The class from which another subclass inherits its attributes and methods.

Uses

If object X is coupled to object Y and object Y is coupled to object Z, then object X uses object Z.

从实践的角度探讨在日语教学中多媒体课件的应用

从实践的角度探讨在日语教学中多媒体课件的应用在今天中国的许多大学，为适应现代化，信息化的要求，建立了设备完善的适应多媒体教学的教室。许多学科的研究者及现场教员也积极致力于多媒体软件的开发和利用。在大学日语专业的教学工作中，教科书、磁带、粉笔为主流的传统教学方式差不多悄然向先进的教学手段而进展。一、多媒体课件和精品课程的进展现状然而，目前在专业日语教学中能够利用的教学软件并不多见。比如在中国大学日语的专业、第二外語用教科书常见的有《新编日语》（上海外语教育出版社）、《中日交流标准日本語》（初级、中级）（人民教育出版社）、《新编基础日语（初級、高級）》（上海译文出版社）、《大学日本语》（四川大学出版社）、《初级日语》《中级日语》（北京大学出版社）、《新世纪大学日语》（外语教学与研究出版社）、《综合日语》（北京大学出版社）、《新编日语教程》（华东理工大学出版社）《新编初级（中级）日本语》（吉林教育出版社）、《新大学日本语》（大连理工大学出版社）、《新大学日语》（高等教育出版社）、《现代日本语》（上海外语教育出版社）、《基础日语》（复旦大学出版社）等等。配套教材以录音磁带、教学参考、习题集为主。只有《中日交流標準日本語（初級上）》、《初級日语》、《新编日语教程》等少数教科书配备了多媒体DVD视听教材。然而这些试听教材，有的内容为日语普及读物，并不适合专业外语课堂教学。比如《新版中日交流标准日本语（初级上）》，有的尽管DVD视听教材中有丰富的动画画面和语音练习。然而，课堂操作则花费时刻长，不利于教师重点指导，更加适合学生的课余练习。比如北京大学的《初级日语》等。在这种情形下，许多大学的日语专业致力于教材的自主开发。其中，有些大学的还推出精品课程，取得了专门大成绩。比如天津外国语学院的《新编日语》多媒体精品课程为2007年被评为“国家级精品课”。目前已被南开大学外国语学院、成都理工大学日语系等全国40余所大学推广使用。

赫尔辛基大学的硕士专业介绍UofHelsinki_international_masters_degree_p

International Master′s Degree Programmes 2010

Table of Contents 3 Welcome to the University of Helsinki 4 General Information on Study Opportunities in English 5 Helsinki & Finland 6 Advanced Spectroscopy in Chemistry 7 Art Theory, Criticism and Management 8 Atmosphere-Biosphere Studies 9 Bayesian Statistics and Decision Analysis 10 Bioinformatics 11 Biotechnology 12 Economics 13 Economy, State and Society 14 Environment and Natural Resources 15 Ethnic Relations, Cultural Diversity and Integration 16 European Studies 17 Food of Life – the Science of Animal-Derived Foods 18 Food Sciences 19 Forest Sciences and Business 20 Geoinformatics 21 Intercultural Encounters 22 Media and Global Communication 23 Modeling Molecules and Nanosystems 24 Multidisciplinary Studies on Urban Environmental Issues 25 Neuroscience 26 Plant Production Science 27 Practical Philosophy – Theories of Good Society 28 Public International Law and International Commercial Law 29 Religious Roots of Europe 30 Semiotics 31 Social Sciences 32 Space Sciences 33 Translational Medicine 34 The Cross Border University Masters’ Degrees

新视野大学英语全部课文原文

Unit1 Americans believe no one stands still. If you are not moving ahead, you are falling behind. This attitude results in a nation of people committed to researching, experimenting and exploring. Time is one of the two elements that Americans save carefully, the other being labor. "We are slaves to nothing but the clock,” it has been said. Time is treated as if it were something almost real. We budget it, save it, waste it, steal it, kill it, cut it, account for it; we also charge for it. It is a precious resource. Many people have a rather acute sense of the shortness of each lifetime. Once the sands have run out of a person’s hourglass, they cannot be replaced. We want every minute to count. A foreigner’s first impression of the U.S. is li kely to be that everyone is in a rush -- often under pressure. City people always appear to be hurrying to get where they are going, restlessly seeking attention in a store, or elbowing others as they try to complete their shopping. Racing through daytime meals is part of the pace

新视野大学英语第三版第二册课文语法讲解 Unit4

新视野三版读写B2U4Text A College sweethearts 1I smile at my two lovely daughters and they seem so much more mature than we,their parents,when we were college sweethearts.Linda,who's21,had a boyfriend in her freshman year she thought she would marry,but they're not together anymore.Melissa,who's19,hasn't had a steady boyfriend yet.My daughters wonder when they will meet"The One",their great love.They think their father and I had a classic fairy-tale romance heading for marriage from the outset.Perhaps,they're right but it didn't seem so at the time.In a way, love just happens when you least expect it.Who would have thought that Butch and I would end up getting married to each other?He became my boyfriend because of my shallow agenda:I wanted a cute boyfriend! 2We met through my college roommate at the university cafeteria.That fateful night,I was merely curious,but for him I think it was love at first sight."You have beautiful eyes",he said as he gazed at my face.He kept staring at me all night long.I really wasn't that interested for two reasons.First,he looked like he was a really wild boy,maybe even dangerous.Second,although he was very cute,he seemed a little weird. 3Riding on his bicycle,he'd ride past my dorm as if"by accident"and pretend to be surprised to see me.I liked the attention but was cautious about his wild,dynamic personality.He had a charming way with words which would charm any girl.Fear came over me when I started to fall in love.His exciting"bad boy image"was just too tempting to resist.What was it that attracted me?I always had an excellent reputation.My concentration was solely on my studies to get superior grades.But for what?College is supposed to be a time of great learning and also some fun.I had nearly achieved a great education,and graduation was just one semester away.But I hadn't had any fun;my life was stale with no component of fun!I needed a boyfriend.Not just any boyfriend.He had to be cute.My goal that semester became: Be ambitious and grab the cutest boyfriend I can find. 4I worried what he'd think of me.True,we lived in a time when a dramatic shift in sexual attitudes was taking place,but I was a traditional girl who wasn't ready for the new ways that seemed common on campus.Butch looked superb!I was not immune to his personality,but I was scared.The night when he announced to the world that I was his girlfriend,I went along

“高级环境规划技术理学硕士”课程简介小册子

香港中文大学“高级环境规划技术理学硕士＂正在招生香港中文大学“高级环境规划技术理学硕士＂课程是在国家住房和城乡建设部指导下、由该部与香港中文大学合作成立的研究机构——香港中文大学中国城市住宅研究中心主持开设的研究院课程。该课程紧贴国家强调节能减排和生态文明发展的大背景，培养学生在跨学科方法论的体系上，掌握相对全面的知识体系和相关技术，并训练如何在低碳生态城市与区域环境具体规划问题和操作程序中应用高端技术的方法。与其它传统城市规划课程相比，本课程的内容集中于规划实际工作中的可操作实践方法及地理信息系统、遥感、环境模拟等信息获取和量化分析科技支持。该门课程设于敝校地球系统与地球信息科学研究生学部，为一年制全日制课程（或以兼读制修读两年），毕业将获香港中文大学理学硕士学位。课程面向规划师、景观园林设计师、建筑师、环境工程师、市政工程师等专业人员、或负责城市规划、资源环境管理、城市建设管理、环境保护等领域工作的公务员、以及未来将从事相应工作的应届或往届毕业生进一步进修开设。学生可通过本课程学习系统与科学的低碳生态规划理念，同时可以掌握发现、评估和分析环境问题的技术手段，并能够通过规划和管理的手段和操作加以回应和解决。课程详细信息，可于课程网页（https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0917589429.html,.hk/gis/mscaept或https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0917589429.html,.hk/mscaept）查询。如对课程有任何查询，可随时联络课程办公室（电话：+852-2994 0495；传真：+852-2603 6515；电子邮件：innovations@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0917589429.html,.hk）。主任的话国家在十二五规划中强调节能减排和生态文明，进一步将区域与城市发展中低碳生态取向的指导策略加以强化。近年来中国在绿色建筑单体的设计、营造、技术和理念方面进步显著，但在全球气候变化背景下的可持续生态城市和大尺度的区域低碳生态环境发展才刚刚起步。这一世界性的研究难题对于在规划设计和管理实践中应用层面的挑战相当严峻，尤其是在中国这一极具特殊性的地区，快速城市化的压力和专业人员在相关知识和能力上的不足都严重制约着城市和环境建设中执行低碳生态策略的效率。 “高级环境规划技术理学硕士＂课程的建立，正是在这样的大背景下，依托香港中文大学太空与地球信息科学研究所和中国城市住宅研究中心多年的研究成果积淀和学术网络得以建立，针对上述的问题培养实用型专业人才。本课程的基本理念是培养学生在跨学科方法论的体系上，掌握相对全面的知识体系和相关技术，并训练在低碳生态城市与区域环境具体规划问题和操作程序中应用高端技术的方法。在科目设置上也兼顾理论与实践、技术与方法、全面与专精等诸多方面的平衡，让学生在掌握系统化科学知识和技术手段的同时，能有

IT职业英语一级_课后翻译

Unit one A computer is a fast and accurate system that is organized to accept, store and process data, and produce results under the direction of a stored program. 计算机是一种快速、准确的系统组织接受,存储和处理数据,并在存储程序的指导下产生结果。 Like input devices, output devices are instruments of interpretation and communication between humans and computer systems. 像输入设备,输出设备是负责人机交流解释的一种设备。 This means that, in its network server role, the computer is responsible for holding the files and managing the processes that enable everyone in the office to access and use the network. 这意味着, 当它充当网络服务器时,计算机负责保存文件和管理进程,保证办公室里的每个人都能够访问和使用网络。 Unit two Like the Macintosh operating environment, Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices. 像Macintosh操作环境一样,Windows提供了一个图形用户界面(GUI),虚拟内存管理,多任务处理,支持许多外围设备。 A family of operating systems for personal computers, Windows, dominates the personal computer world, running, by some estimates, on 90% of all personal computers. 家庭个人电脑的操作系统,据估计,90%的个人电脑都是Windows,它主宰个人电脑世界。 Its most visible feature, though, is the Active Desktop, which integrates Internet Explorer with the operating system. 不过,其最明显的特征是活动桌面,它集成了IE浏览器与操作系统。 Unit three

欧洲各国顶尖大学详细介绍

欧洲各国顶尖大学详细介绍英国拥有欧洲数量最多的国际排名大学，有76所大学入选，其次是德国(45所)和法国(35所)。有了如此多的欧洲顶级大学可供选择，决定在欧洲学习的地方并不总是那么容易。为了帮助您入门，我们编制了按国家分类的欧洲一流大学列表。奥地利地区：在中欧的一个内陆国家，奥地利与其他八个欧洲国家接壤，其中包括北部的德国和南部的意大利。它拥有目前纳入QS世界大学排名的八所欧洲顶尖大学。其中，奥地利一流大学是：维也纳大学(世界第175名，欧洲第77名) 维也纳科技大学(世界排名第199位，欧洲排名第89位) 因斯布鲁克大学(世界并列279名，欧洲并列122位) 格拉茨工业大学(世界并列363名，欧洲并列162位) 开普勒大学(世界并列456名，欧洲排名第198位) 比利时地区：以其精美的巧克力和啤酒而闻名，比利时也拥有一些优秀的教育机构。今年，它声称欧洲八所顶级大学在国际上排名靠前，其中除了其中两所大学全部位于全球前300名之外。比利时顶尖的大学是：鲁汶大学(世界第81名，欧洲第27名) 根特大学(世界第138名，欧洲第54名) 鲁汶天主教大学(世界第165名，欧洲第70名) 布鲁塞尔自由大学(世界第188名，欧洲第83名) 安特卫普大学(世界并列223名，欧洲97位)

法国地区：法国拥有许多的顶级欧洲大学，并在国际排名中占有令人印象深刻的位置，其前10大大部分大学都位于首都巴黎。法国顶尖的大学是：巴黎科学和文学勋章研究型大学(世界第50名，欧洲第11名) 理工学院(世界第65名，欧洲第19名) 索邦大学(世界并列75名，欧洲22位) CentraleSupélec(世界并列137名，欧洲53位) 里昂高等师范学校(世界153名，欧洲64位) 德国地区：德国是除了一个州以外的所有本科生提供给国际学生免费学费的国家，也是世界上最受欢迎的非英语国家之一。德国顶尖的大学是：慕尼黑工业大学(世界61名，欧洲16位) 路德维希慕尼黑大学(世界62名，欧洲17位) 鲁普雷希特卡尔斯-海德堡大学((世界64名，欧洲18位) 卡尔斯鲁厄研究所(世界116名，欧洲40位) 洪堡大学(世界121名，欧洲44位) 爱尔兰地区：爱尔兰是西欧一个相对较小的国家，拥有八所世界级大学，其中一半在首都都柏林。爱尔兰的顶尖大学是：都柏林三一学院(世界第104位，欧洲第35位) 都柏林大学(世界并列193名，欧洲并列85位) 爱尔兰国立大学戈尔韦分校(世界260名，欧洲113位) 科克大学学院(世界并列338名，欧洲并列150位)

新视野大学英语读写教程第一册课文翻译及课后答案

Unit 1 1学习外语是我一生中最艰苦也是最有意义的经历之一。虽然时常遭遇挫折，但却非常有价值。 2我学外语的经历始于初中的第一堂英语课。老师很慈祥耐心，时常表扬学生。由于这种积极的教学方法，我踊跃回答各种问题，从不怕答错。两年中，我的成绩一直名列前茅。 3到了高中后，我渴望继续学习英语。然而，高中时的经历与以前大不相同。以前，老师对所有的学生都很耐心，而新老师则总是惩罚答错的学生。每当有谁回答错了，她就会用长教鞭指着我们，上下挥舞大喊：“错！错！错！”没有多久，我便不再渴望回答问题了。我不仅失去了回答问题的乐趣，而且根本就不想再用英语说半个字。 4好在这种情况没持续多久。到了大学，我了解到所有学生必须上英语课。与高中老师不。大学英语老师非常耐心和蔼，而且从来不带教鞭！不过情况却远不尽如人意。由于班大，每堂课能轮到我回答的问题寥寥无几。上了几周课后，我还发现许多同学的英语说得比我要好得多。我开始产生一种畏惧感。虽然原因与高中时不同，但我却又一次不敢开口了。看来我的英语水平要永远停步不前了。 5直到几年后我有机会参加远程英语课程，情况才有所改善。这种课程的媒介是一台电脑、一条电话线和一个调制解调器。我很快配齐了必要的设备并跟一个朋友学会了电脑操作技术，于是我每周用5到7天在网上的虚拟课堂里学习英语。 6网上学习并不比普通的课堂学习容易。它需要花许多的时间，需要学习者专心自律，以跟上课程进度。我尽力达到课程的最低要求，并按时完成作业。 7我随时随地都在学习。不管去哪里，我都随身携带一本袖珍字典和笔记本，笔记本上记着我遇到的生词。我学习中出过许多错，有时是令人尴尬的错误。有时我会因挫折而哭泣，有时甚至想放弃。但我从未因别的同学英语说得比我快而感到畏惧，因为在电脑屏幕上作出回答之前，我可以根据自己的需要花时间去琢磨自己的想法。突然有一天我发现自己什么都懂了，更重要的是，我说起英语来灵活自如。尽管我还是常常出错，还有很多东西要学，但我已尝到了刻苦学习的甜头。 8学习外语对我来说是非常艰辛的经历，但它又无比珍贵。它不仅使我懂得了艰苦努力的意义，而且让我了解了不同的文化，让我以一种全新的思维去看待事物。学习一门外语最令人兴奋的收获是我能与更多的人交流。与人交谈是我最喜欢的一项活动，新的语言使我能与陌生人交往，参与他们的谈话，并建立新的难以忘怀的友谊。由于我已能说英语，别人讲英语时我不再茫然不解了。我能够参与其中，并结交朋友。我能与人交流，并能够弥合我所说的语言和所处的文化与他们的语言和文化之间的鸿沟。 III. 1. rewarding 2. communicate 3. access 4. embarrassing 5. positive 6. commitment 7. virtual 8. benefits 9. minimum 10. opportunities IV. 1. up 2. into 3. from 4. with 5. to 6. up 7. of 8. in 9. for 10.with V. 1.G 2.B 3.E 4.I 5.H 6.K 7.M 8.O 9.F 10.C Sentence Structure VI. 1. Universities in the east are better equipped, while those in the west are relatively poor. 2. Allan Clark kept talking the price up, while Wilkinson kept knocking it down. 3. The husband spent all his money drinking, while his wife saved all hers for the family. 4. Some guests spoke pleasantly and behaved politely, while others wee insulting and impolite. 5. Outwardly Sara was friendly towards all those concerned, while inwardly she was angry. VII. 1. Not only did Mr. Smith learn the Chinese language, but he also bridged the gap between his culture and ours. 2. Not only did we learn the technology through the online course, but we also learned to communicate with friends in English. 3. Not only did we lose all our money, but we also came close to losing our lives.

新大学日语简明教程课文翻译

新大学日语简明教程课文翻译第21课一、我的留学生活我从去年12月开始学习日语。已经3个月了。每天大约学30个新单词。每天学15个左右的新汉字，但总记不住。假名已经基本记住了。简单的会话还可以，但较难的还说不了。还不能用日语发表自己的意见。既不能很好地回答老师的提问，也看不懂日语的文章。短小、简单的信写得了，但长的信写不了。来日本不久就迎来了新年。新年时，日本的少女们穿着美丽的和服，看上去就像新娘。非常冷的时候，还是有女孩子穿着裙子和袜子走在大街上。我在日本的第一个新年过得很愉快，因此很开心。现在学习忙，没什么时间玩，但周末常常运动，或骑车去公园玩。有时也邀朋友一起去。虽然我有国际驾照，但没钱，买不起车。没办法，需要的时候就向朋友借车。有几个朋友愿意借车给我。二、一个房间变成三个从前一直认为睡在褥子上的是日本人，美国人都睡床铺，可是听说近来纽约等大都市的年轻人不睡床铺，而是睡在褥子上，是不是突然讨厌起床铺了？日本人自古以来就睡在褥子上，那自有它的原因。人们都说日本人的房子小，从前，很少有人在自己的房间，一家人住在一个小房间里是常有的是，今天仍然有人过着这样的生活。在仅有的一个房间哩，如果要摆下全家人的床铺，就不能在那里吃饭了。这一点，褥子很方便。早晨，不需要褥子的时候，可以收起来。在没有了褥子的房间放上桌子，当作饭厅吃早饭。来客人的话，就在那里喝茶；孩子放学回到家里，那房间就成了书房。而后，傍晚又成为饭厅。然后收起桌子，铺上褥子，又成为了全家人睡觉的地方。如果是床铺的话，除了睡觉的房间，还需要吃饭的房间和书房等，但如果使用褥子，一个房间就可以有各种用途。据说从前，在纽约等大都市的大学学习的学生也租得起很大的房间。但现在房租太贵，租不起了。只能住更便宜、更小的房间。因此，似乎开始使用睡觉时作床，白天折小能成为椅子的、方便的褥子。

芬兰留学赫尔辛基大学介绍.doc

芬兰留学赫尔辛基大学介绍芬兰留学名校之一的赫尔辛基大学成立于1640年，历史文化悠久，是世界知名芬兰科研基地。很多想去赫尔辛基大学留学的同学一定想知道这所大学教学设置怎样吧!这所大学值不值得留学?跟着我来一起看看吧!欢迎阅读。赫尔辛基大学简介赫大建立于遥远的1640年，芬兰当时还隶属于瑞典王国，13岁的瑞典女王赫里斯蒂娜在摄政王的提议下，创建了其前身土尔库皇家学院(the Royal Academy of Turku)，为当时的国家培养了众多优秀的管理人员。1828年在芬兰又属于沙俄时期，将学校迁至赫尔辛基，同时向实验科学研究转型，为沙俄培养各种专业人才。直到1917年芬兰正式独立，两年后也就是1919年才正式更名为赫尔辛基大学，并且继续为芬兰培养各种人才，到20世纪的时候它的科研能力已经能和欧洲其他知名大学媲美了。从2003年以来赫大在世界学术排名上一直处于70左右，今年上海交通大学发布的研究型大学“世界大学学术排名”中位列67位。时至今日，赫尔辛基大学已经发展成由8个主要学院和20个相对独立的研究所组成，且拥有40000学生和5000多名教职员工的高校。作为欧洲研究型大学联盟的成员，赫大杰出的高等教育与不断的国际化，吸引着全球各地的求学者。赫大是一所以文科为主的综合大学，其法律，哲学，数学，理论物理，生命科学及医学等学科居世界领先地位。历史上赫尔辛基大学孕育了4位诺贝尔得主：Lars Ahlfors获1936年诺贝尔，Frans Emil Sillanpaa获1939年诺贝尔文学奖，Artturi Ilmari Virtanen获1945年化学奖，Ragnar Granit获1967年诺贝尔医学奖。此外，世界著名的音乐大师Jean Sibelius也是出自赫尔辛基大学。入学要求

新视野大学英语第一册Unit 1课文翻译

新视野大学英语第一册Unit 1课文翻译学习外语是我一生中最艰苦也是最有意义的经历之一。虽然时常遭遇挫折，但却非常有价值。我学外语的经历始于初中的第一堂英语课。老师很慈祥耐心，时常表扬学生。由于这种积极的教学方法，我踊跃回答各种问题，从不怕答错。两年中，我的成绩一直名列前茅。到了高中后，我渴望继续学习英语。然而，高中时的经历与以前大不相同。以前，老师对所有的学生都很耐心，而新老师则总是惩罚答错的学生。每当有谁回答错了，她就会用长教鞭指着我们，上下挥舞大喊：“错！错！错！” 没有多久，我便不再渴望回答问题了。我不仅失去了回答问题的乐趣，而且根本就不想再用英语说半个字。好在这种情况没持续多久。到了大学，我了解到所有学生必须上英语课。与高中老师不同，大学英语老师非常耐心和蔼，而且从来不带教鞭！不过情况却远不尽如人意。由于班大，每堂课能轮到我回答的问题寥寥无几。上了几周课后，我还发现许多同学的英语说得比我要好得多。我开始产生一种畏惧感。虽然原因与高中时不同，但我却又一次不敢开口了。看来我的英语水平要永远停步不前了。直到几年后我有机会参加远程英语课程，情况才有所改善。这种课程的媒介是一台电脑、一条电话线和一个调制解调器。我很快配齐了必要的设备并跟一个朋友学会了电脑操作技术，于是我每周用5到7天在网上的虚拟课堂里学习英语。网上学习并不比普通的课堂学习容易。它需要花许多的时间，需要学习者专心自律，以跟上课程进度。我尽力达到课程的最低要求，并按时完成作业。我随时随地都在学习。不管去哪里，我都随身携带一本袖珍字典和笔记本，笔记本上记着我遇到的生词。我学习中出过许多错，有时是令人尴尬的错误。有时我会因挫折而哭泣，有时甚至想放弃。但我从未因别的同学英语说得比我快而感到畏惧，因为在电脑屏幕上作出回答之前，我可以根据自己的需要花时间去琢磨自己的想法。突然有一天我发现自己什么都懂了，更重要的是，我说起英语来灵活自如。尽管我还是常常出错，还有很多东西要学，但我已尝到了刻苦学习的甜头。学习外语对我来说是非常艰辛的经历，但它又无比珍贵。它不仅使我懂得了艰苦努力的意义，而且让我了解了不同的文化，让我以一种全新的思维去看待事物。学习一门外语最令人兴奋的收获是我能与更多的人交流。与人交谈是我最喜欢的一项活动，新的语言使我能与陌生人交往，参与他们的谈话，并建立新的难以忘怀的友谊。由于我已能说英语，别人讲英语时我不再茫然不解了。我能够参与其中，并结交朋友。

新大学日语阅读与写作1 第3课译文

习惯与礼仪我是个漫画家，对旁人细微的动作、不起眼的举止等抱有好奇。所以，我在国外只要做错一点什么，立刻会比旁人更为敏锐地感觉到那个国家的人们对此作出的反应。譬如我多次看到过，欧美人和中国人见到我们日本人吸溜吸溜地出声喝汤而面露厌恶之色。过去，日本人坐在塌塌米上，在一张低矮的食案上用餐，餐具离嘴较远。所以，养成了把碗端至嘴边吸食的习惯。喝羹匙里的东西也象吸似的，声声作响。这并非哪一方文化高或低，只是各国的习惯、礼仪不同而已。日本人坐在椅子上围桌用餐是1960年之后的事情。当时，还没有礼仪规矩，甚至有人盘着腿吃饭。外国人看见此景大概会一脸厌恶吧。韩国女性就座时，单腿翘起。我认为这种姿势很美，但习惯于双膝跪坐的日本女性大概不以为然，而韩国女性恐怕也不认为跪坐为好。日本等多数亚洲国家，常有人习惯在路上蹲着。欧美人会联想起狗排便的姿势而一脸厌恶。日本人常常把手放在小孩的头上说“好可爱啊！”，而大部分外国人会不愿意。如果向回教国家的人们劝食猪肉和酒，或用左手握手、递东西，会不受欢迎的。当然，饭菜也用右手抓着吃。只有从公用大盘往自己的小盘里分食用的公勺是用左手拿。一旦搞错，用黏糊糊的右手去拿，

会遭人厌恶。在欧美，对不受欢迎的客人不说“请脱下外套”，所以电视剧中的侦探哥隆波总是穿着外套。访问日本家庭时，要在门厅外脱掉外套后进屋。穿到屋里会不受欢迎的。这些习惯只要了解就不会出问题，如果因为不知道而遭厌恶、憎恨，实在心里难受。过去，我曾用色彩图画和简短的文字画了一本《关键时刻的礼仪》（新潮文库）。如今越发希望用各国语言翻译这本书。以便能对在日本的外国人有所帮助。同时希望有朝一日以漫画的形式画一本“世界各国的习惯与礼仪”。练习答案５、（１）止める並んでいる見ているなる着色した（２）拾った入っていた行ったしまった始まっていた

2015年QS世界名牌大学排名大全(完整版)

2015年QS世界名牌大学排名大全（最新版）排名学校名称学校英文名国家/地区评分 1 麻省理工学院Massachusetts Institute of Technology 美国100 2 剑桥大学University of Cambridge 英国99.4 2 帝国理工学院Imperial College London 英国99.4 4 哈佛大学Harvard University 美国99.3 5 牛津大学University of Oxford 英国99.2 5 伦敦大学学院UCL (University College London) 英国99.2 7 斯坦福大学Stanford University 美国98.3 8 加州理工学院California Institute of Technology (Caltech) 美国97.1 9 普林斯顿大学Princeton University 美国96.6 10 耶鲁大学Yale University 美国96.5 11 芝加哥大学University of Chicago 美国95.5 12 苏黎世联邦理工学院ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) 瑞士95.3 13 宾夕法尼亚大学University of Pennsylvania 美国94.5 14 哥伦比亚大学Columbia University 美国94.1 14 约翰霍普金斯大学Johns Hopkins University 美国94.1 16 伦敦大学国王学院King's College London (KCL) 英国92.9 17 爱丁堡大学University of Edinburgh 英国92.8 17 洛桑联邦理工学院Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 瑞士92.8 19 康奈尔大学Cornell University 美国92.6 20 多伦多大学University of Toronto 加拿大92.4 21 麦吉尔大学McGill University 加拿大91.5 22 新加坡国立大学National University of Singapore (NUS) 新加坡91.1

新视野大学英语(第三版)读写教程第二册课文翻译(全册)

新视野大学英语第三版第二册读写课文翻译 Unit 1 Text A 一堂难忘的英语课 1 如果我是唯一一个还在纠正小孩英语的家长，那么我儿子也许是对的。对他而言，我是一个乏味的怪物：一个他不得不听其教诲的父亲，一个还沉湎于语法规则的人，对此我儿子似乎颇为反感。 2 我觉得我是在最近偶遇我以前的一位学生时，才开始对这个问题认真起来的。这个学生刚从欧洲旅游回来。我满怀着诚挚期待问她：“欧洲之行如何？” 3 她点了三四下头，绞尽脑汁，苦苦寻找恰当的词语，然后惊呼：“真是，哇！” 4 没了。所有希腊文明和罗马建筑的辉煌居然囊括于一个浓缩的、不完整的语句之中！我的学生以“哇！”来表示她的惊叹，我只能以摇头表达比之更强烈的忧虑。 5 关于正确使用英语能力下降的问题，有许多不同的故事。学生的确本应该能够区分诸如their/there/they're之间的不同，或区别complimentary 跟complementary之间显而易见的差异。由于这些知识缺陷，他们承受着大部分不该承受的批评和指责，因为舆论认为他们应该学得更好。 6 学生并不笨，他们只是被周围所看到和听到的语言误导了。举例来说，杂货店的指示牌会把他们引向stationary（静止处），虽然便笺本、相册、和笔记本等真正的stationery（文具用品）并没有被钉在那儿。朋友和亲人常宣称They've just ate。实际上，他们应该说They've just eaten。因此，批评学生不合乎情理。 7 对这种缺乏语言功底而引起的负面指责应归咎于我们的学校。学校应对英语熟练程度制定出更高的标准。可相反，学校只教零星的语法，高级词汇更是少之又少。还有就是，学校的年轻教师显然缺乏这些重要的语言结构方面的知识，因为他们过去也没接触过。学校有责任教会年轻人进行有效的语言沟通，可他们并没把语言的基本框架——准确的语法和恰当的词汇——充分地传授给学生。

新视野大学英语1课文翻译

新视野大学英语1课文翻译 1下午好！作为校长，我非常自豪地欢迎你们来到这所大学。你们所取得的成就是你们自己多年努力的结果，也是你们的父母和老师们多年努力的结果。在这所大学里，我们承诺将使你们学有所成。 2在欢迎你们到来的这一刻，我想起自己高中毕业时的情景，还有妈妈为我和爸爸拍的合影。妈妈吩咐我们：“姿势自然点。”“等一等,”爸爸说，“把我递给他闹钟的情景拍下来。”在大学期间，那个闹钟每天早晨叫醒我。至今它还放在我办公室的桌子上。 3让我来告诉你们一些你们未必预料得到的事情。你们将会怀念以前的生活习惯，怀念父母曾经提醒你们要刻苦学习、取得佳绩。你们可能因为高中生活终于结束而喜极而泣，你们的父母也可能因为终于不用再给你们洗衣服而喜极而泣！但是要记住：未来是建立在过去扎实的基础上的。 4对你们而言，接下来的四年将会是无与伦比的一段时光。在这里，你们拥有丰富的资源：有来自全国各地的有趣的学生，有学识渊博又充满爱心的老师，有综合性图书馆，有完备的运动设施，还有针对不同兴趣的学生社团——从文科社团到理科社团、到社区服务等等。你们将自由地探索、学习新科目。你们要学着习惯点灯熬油，学着结交充满魅力的人，学着去追求新的爱好。我想鼓励你们充分利用这一特殊的经历，并用你们的干劲和热情去收获这一机会所带来的丰硕成果。 5有这么多课程可供选择，你可能会不知所措。你不可能选修所有的课程，但是要尽可能体验更多的课程！大学里有很多事情可做可学，每件事情都会为你提供不同视角来审视世界。如果我只能给你们一条选课建议的话，那就是：挑战自己！不要认为你早就了解自己对什么样的领域最感兴趣。选择一些你从未接触过的领域的课程。这样，你不仅会变得更加博学，而且更有可能发现一个你未曾想到的、能成就你未来的爱好。一个绝佳的例子就是时装设计师王薇薇，她最初学的是艺术史。随着时间的推移，王薇薇把艺术史研究和对时装的热爱结合起来，并将其转化为对设计的热情，从而使她成为全球闻名的设计师。 6在大学里，一下子拥有这么多新鲜体验可能不会总是令人愉快的。在你的宿舍楼里，住在你隔壁寝室的同学可能会反复播放同一首歌，令你头痛欲裂！你可能喜欢早起，而你的室友却是个夜猫子！尽管如此，你和你的室友仍然可能成

芬兰高等教育学校分为三类

芬兰高等教育学校分为三类芬兰高等教育学校分为三类美丽的千湖之国，璀璨的北欧明珠，圣诞老人的故乡，这就是纯净而神秘的芬兰。这个人口只有500多万的国家，多年来国家综合竞争力排名世界第一，拥有诺基亚等世界著名品牌。芬兰从小学到大学都是免费的，对留学生也如此。一个芬兰孩子的一天是这样的：早上九点去学校上课，十二点半就放学了，下午就去各种兴趣班，打球、画画、唱歌等。在芬兰，老师不许给学生留家庭作业，练习都必须在课堂上完成，以便学生放学后可以把时间都投在综合素质的培养上。所以那里的学生都至少擅长一种体育项目，还有一两门艺术特长。我在芬兰时加入了一个合唱团，发现里面的人全都会弹钢琴甚至还会其他乐器。我现在在国内找工作，也发现外企比较看重个人特长或者兴趣爱好，他们会觉得你不光只是会学习，你的眼界会比较开阔。芬兰高等教育的最大特点是非常灵活，采取学分制的形式，只要学分修够了就能毕业，对于学习期限没有限制，本科阶段读个十年八年很正常，如果中途想去工作或者结婚生子，可以申请休学，回来再把学分修完就行。芬兰学生进入大学时不分专业，可以根据兴趣尝试不同专业，想拿几个学位都没问题。芬兰大学里的课程多数是讲座式和讨论式的，国际化程度很高，经常会有其他国家的访问学者来开短期课程。课程设置上也比较注意实用性和动手能力，跟企业的联系很紧密，比如赫尔辛基理工大学的实验室就是跟诺基亚共建的。很多学生的毕业设计就是去企业做，平时也能获得丰富的实习机会。芬兰的高等教育学校可以分为三类：一类是职业学校，相当于我们的中专再高一些;一类是比较专业的应用性大学，拿的也是本科学位，不过技术性和应用性都比较强;第三类是综合性大学，基础研究更多一些。学生在报考学校时就会想清楚，真正喜欢做学术的人