Genetic relationships within the genus Beta determined using both
Heredity 80(1998) 624–632Received 11 July 1997 Genetic relationships within the genus Beta
determined using both PCR-based marker
and DNA sequencing techniques
YULONG SHEN, BRIAN V. FORD-LLOYD &H. JOHN NEWBURY*
School of Biological Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK The sequences of ITS1 of the internal transcribed spacer regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA
from 11 species or subspecies in four sections of the genus Beta were compared. Phylogeny of
these wild beet taxa was inferred from the sequence data using phenetic and phylogenetic
analyses. Multiple accessions from the same 11 taxa were subjected to random ampli?ed
polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, and the data were analysed phenetically. With both
molecular techniques and each analysis, three distinctive groups were formed: species from
section Beta formed one group; species from section Procumbentes formed a very distinct
group; and species from both section Nanae and section Corollinae clustered together forming
the third group, which is closer to Beta than to Procumbentes.The RAPD data revealed within-
section interspecies relationships that are consistent with those reported previously; this was
not always the case using the single-locus sequence data.
Keywords:Beta, internal transcribed spacer (ITS), phylogeny, rDNA, RAPD, wild beets.
Introduction
The genus Beta is divided into four sections: Beta, Corollinae, Nanae and Procumbentes. Section Beta includes the crop species B. vulgaris which contains sugar beet, fodder beet and chards. The systematics within this economically important genus have been subject to disagreement (Kishima et al., 1987; Santoni & Berville, 1992), but molecular data may provide a solution to the taxonomic problems, as well as information about the possible evolutionary relationships of sections and species within the genus. DNA sequence data are increasingly provid-ing valuable information for evolutionary studies (Olmstead & Palmer, 1994) and, in plants, chloro-plast genes and the 18S–5.8S–25S ribosomal DNA have been the main sequences used for such studies. The 18S–5.8S–25S rDNA is attractive for phylogeny reconstruction because of high copy number, univer-sality and diverse rate of evolution within and among component subunits and spacers (Baldwin, 1994). Although the regions of rDNA that encode the mature rRNAs are useful for deep phylogeny inference within angiosperms as a whole, the two internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2; Fig. 1) of nuclear rDNA have evolved more rapidly than the coding regions that ?ank them and are suitable for comparison of closely related taxa. For example, phylogenetic analysis of ITS sequences from several genera in the subtribe Masinae of the Compositae (Baldwin, 1992) has yielded results highly concord-ant with the phylogeny of species based on chloro-plast DNA restriction site mutations. The ITS sequences have also revealed phylogeny in the genus Calycadenia which has close agreement with that based on the interpretation of cytological and morphological data (Baldwin, 1992). In sugar beet, the 18S–5.8S–25S rDNA repeats have been mapped onto chromosomes using ?uorescent in situ hybrid-ization (Schmidt et al., 1994). Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of Beta species has been carried out using rDNA probes, and variation in restriction sites was detected within the nontranscribed intergenic spacer (IGS) region but not in the transcribed ITS region (Santoni & Berville, 1992).
As a contrasting technique, RAPD (Williams et al., 1990) has been widely used to reveal genetic variation in crops. The technique has been used successfully for revealing polymorphism within species (Demeke & Adams, 1994). For the study of genetic relationships above the species level, the use of RAPD has been criticized for revealing unreliable phylogenies because of possible lack of homology of
*Correspondence. E-mail: h.j.newbury@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0a18762535.html,
?1998 The Genetical Society of Great Britain.
624
co-migrating bands (Brummer et al ., 1995).However, several studies have used RAPD success-fully to reveal relationships at the section level or above in several genera, including Oryza (Martin et al ., 1997), Medicago (Brummer et al ., 1995) and Rosa (Millan et al ., 1996); in each case, the RAPD-derived phylogenies have been found to be in good agreement with those produced using other methods. In beets, RAPD analysis has so far been used in the taxonomic characterization of species/subspecies of wild annual beets within the section Beta (Shen et al ., 1996) and ?ve species within section Corollinae (Reamon-Buttner et al ., 1996).Here, we present results using ITS1 sequence data to illustrate the phylogenetic relationships of species in the genus Beta. We also show that similar genetic relationships are revealed using RAPD when species from each of the sections of the genus are analysed,con?rming the reliability of RAPD for studying vari-ation between species and sections of a genus.
Materials and methods
ITS (ITS1–5.8S–ITS2) ampli?cation and sequencing
Thirteen accessions from the University of Birming-ham Beet Germplasm Collection, representing members of all four sections, were used for ITS1sequencing (Table 1). In addition, the ITS1 region of Chenopodium album was sequenced to provide an outgroup for the phylogenetic analysis. Leaf tissues from greenhouse-grown beet plants and a C. album plant growing naturally were used for DNA extrac-tion according to the method of Sabir et al . (1992).Between two and 10 plants were sampled for each accession used in DNA sequencing. The yield of DNA was estimated by electrophoresis on an agarose gel (0.7%) along with phage DNA stand-ards. PCRs were performed in 25 L volumes containing 1.0ng of genomic DNA, 200 M of each dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP, 2 M of each primer, 1.0U of Taq polymerase, 1 ammonium incubation buffer and 2.5m M magnesium chloride.
The primers were ITS5 (5?-GGAAG-TAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3?) and ITS4 (5?-TCCTCCGCTATATGATATGC-3?) (White et al ., 1990; Fig. 1). Ampli?cations were performed in a thermocycler (Hybaid-Omnigene) programmed as follows: one cycle at 95°C for 2min; two cycles of 30s at 95°C, 1min at 57°C and 2min at 72°C; two cycles of 30s at 95°C, 1min at 55°C and 2min at 72°C; 31 cycles of 30s at 94°C, 1min at 55°C and 2min at 72°C; and ?nally 72°C for 5min. In order to separate the ampli?ed product from the residual primers, 10–12 reaction mixtures from one accession were pooled and subjected to electrophoresis in a 1.2% (w/v) low-melting-point agarose gel using TAE buffer (Sambrook et al ., 1989). The desired DNA fragment was cut out of the gel and recovered using a Geneclean II Kit (Bio 101, Vista, CA, USA)according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The DNA was used for sequencing using an Applied Biosystem 373A Automatic DNA Sequencer. Only the ITS1 region (White et al ., 1990; Fig. 1) was sequenced, using ITS5 as a forward primer and ITS2(ITS2: 5?-GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGC-3?;White et al ., 1990; Fig. 1) as reverse.
Alignment of ITS1 sequences and phylogenetic reconstruction
The sequences of ITS1 obtained using the two different primers (ITS5 and ITS2) for each of the 13samples of beet plus C. album were compared and checked. The sequences were aligned by eye using the LINE -UP program of the GCG sequence analysis software package (GCG, 1995). Divergence between ITS1 sequences in pairwise comparisons was calculated using the Kimura two-parameter method (Swofford & Olsen, 1990). In this method, different rates of transversions and transitions are taken into account and the gaps are not scored. The calculation was carried out using the DISTANCES program in the GCG software package (GCG, 1995). Phylogenetic
trees were generated using the distances with the
Fig.1Diagram of the organization of the ITS region of the 18S–5.8S–25S nuclear rDNA repeat. Arrows indi-cate approximate positions of primers for sequencing. Primer names follow White et al . (1990). The nontranscri-bed intergenic spacer (IGS) between 25S and 18S is not shown.
GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE GENUS BETA 625
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GROWTREE program and using both UPGMA and neighbour-joining options.
RAPD analysis
DNA was extracted from 25 accessions representing all the taxa in the Birmingham Beta collection (Table 1) as described above. PCR ampli?cation and electrophoresis were carried out in duplicate follow-ing the method used for rice (Virk et al., 1995). The primers used were OPG-12, OPH-16, OPK-10, OPM-17 and OPM-18 (Operon Technology). Except for accessions from section Beta, in which DNA samples used for ampli?cation were pooled, all the other DNA samples were from single plants. The DNA ampli?cation reactions were performed in a volume of 25 L containing approximately 1ng of genomic DNA, 200 M of each dATP, dCPT, dGTP and dTTP, 0.4 M primer, 1.0U of Taq polymerase, 1 ammonium incubation buffer and 2.5m M magnesium chloride. The ampli?cation was performed in a thermocycler (Hybaid-Omnigene) programmed as follows: one cycle of 95°C for 2min; two cycles of 30s at 95°C, 1min at 37°C and 2min at 72°C; two cycles of 30s at 95°C, 1min at 36°C and 2min at 72°C; 41 cycles of 30s at 94°C, 1min at 36°C and 2min at 72°C; and ?nally 72°C for 5min. Aliquots of 16 L of ampli?ed products were loaded onto 1.4% (w/v) agarose gels for electrophoresis in 0.5 TBE buffer and run at 200V for about 2h. Gels were stained with ethidium bromide and photo-graphed under UV light using the IS-500 Digital Imaging System (Alpha Innotech Corporation). Only strong bands that were observed in both duplicate
Table1Beta material used
No. of plants Country of Accession Species/subspecies Abbreviation Section used for RAPD origin* NA Chenopodium album ALB?NA1UK
B0205lomatogona LOM Corollinae2Turkey
B0213lomatogona LOM?Corollinae2Turkey
B0234lomatogona LOM Corollinae3Turkey
B0221macrorhiza MCR Corollinae1Turkey
B0397macrorhiza MCR?Corollinae2Czech.
B0224trigyna TRI Corollinae1Turkey
B0349trigyna TRI Corollinae1
B0367trigyna TRI?Corollinae2
B0368corolli?ora COR Corollinae2
B0403corolli?ora COR Corollinae2Armenia B0537corolli?ora COR?Corollinae2
B0317maritima MAR Beta10?Greece
B0731maritima MAR Beta10?Algeria
B0334maritima MAR?Beta1Greece
B0424adanensis ADA Beta10?Greece
B0423adanensis ADA?Beta1Greece
B0588macrocarpa MCC?Beta4?Canary Is. B0051vulgaris spinach beet VU1?Beta1
B0079vulgaris sugar beet VU2?Beta1
B0534patellaris PAT Procumbentes1Canary Is. B0555patellaris PAT Procumbentes2Canary Is. B1108patellaris PAT Procumbentes3
B0576procumbens PRO(PR1)?Procumbentes5Canary Is. B0535procumbens PRO(PR2)?Procumbentes3Canary Is. B0536webbiana WEB Procumbentes3
B0566webbiana WEB?Procumbentes3Canary Is. FD19nana NAN?Nanae1
FD24nana NAN Nanae2
FD25nana NAN Nanae1
*Where information available.
?Accessions used for RAPD and sequencing.
?Accessions for which pooled samples were used.
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ampli?cations were scored. RAPD bands showing variation across the 48 samples were used as poly-morphic markers and were scored as present (1) or absent (0) for each accession. The data were then subjected to analysis using Jaccard’s similarity coef?-cient, and a dendrogram was generated using UPGMA cluster analysis (NTSYS-pc: Rohlf, 1992).
Results
ITS fragments were ef?ciently ampli?ed for all the 13 beet accessions and C. album. A band of the expected size (740bp) was obtained, although some accessions also yielded a faint band of about 480bp, probably because of weak, non-speci?c primer binding within the ITS region during PCR. The sequences of ITS1 fragments were aligned and, by comparison of the sequence data with published sequences in other crops (Yokota et al., 1989), the boundaries of ITS1 were determined. Because of insertions or deletions, four gaps of between one and four bases were included in the alignment (Fig.
2). Species in section Procumbentes have 238–239bp sequences, in section Beta241bp and in sections Nanae and Corollinae243–244 base sequences, whereas ITS1 in C. album is 221bp long. Omitting base insertions and deletions leaves 211 bases, of which 86 (41%) are variable across the 14 sequences.
Pairwise comparisons of transitions and transver-sions of the ITS1 regions and the Kimura two-parameter distances were calculated. The distances among pairwise comparisons ranged from 0 to 48.85. The distances between species within sections were usually less (0–2.53) than those between sections, except for those between species in sections Nanae and Corollinae.
The phylogenetic relationships among species were the same in the trees generated using the distance data and both UPGMA and neighbour-joining methods. To illustrate the distances between accessions, a phylogenetic tree was drawn using the data from the neighbour-joining analysis (Fig. 3). Three groups were formed: species from section Procumbentes formed a distinct group, species from section Beta formed another and species from sections Nanae and section Corollinae formed the third group (closer to Beta than to Procumbentes). In section Beta, two accessions from B. vulgaris and one accession from B. maritima did not show any varia-tion in the ITS1 region and grouped as one. Beta macrocarpa is more distantly related to B. vulgaris than is B. adanensis. In section Procumbentes, two accessions from B. procumbens were separated; one
of them had the same sequence as B. webbiana and
the other differed by six bases. In section Corollinae,
B. macrorhiza and B. trigyna did not show sequence
variation in the ITS1 region and clustered together.
Beta nana, the single species in section Nanae, was
grouped with species from section Corollinae; B.
nana was closer to B. trigyna and B. macrorhiza than
to B. corolli?ora or B. lomatogona.
Forty-eight DNA samples derived from 25 acces-
sions were analysed using RAPD (see Table 1). The
primers used were selections of those that had been
used in a previous study (Shen et al., 1996), and all
?ve primers produced reliable and reproducible
banding patterns. Accessions from the four sections
gave rise to characteristic RAPD pro?les, which
were so obviously different as to allow identi?cation
at the section level by eye. An example of the
pro?les is shown in Fig. 4. For numerical analysis, 31
polymorphic bands were scored, and the data were
analysed using the simple matching coef?cient and UPGMA clustering (NTSYS-pc: Rohlf, 1992) to produce a dendrogram (Fig. 5). All accessions from section
Procumbentes formed one group (A) well separated
from the others. Within this group, plants from each
accession were generally clustered together.
However, accessions putatively belonging to the
same species were not always grouped together. The
remainder of the accessions formed another main
group consisting of three subgroups: accessions from
section Beta formed one group (B), although the
four accessions (B0317, B0424, B0588 and B0731)
were well separated; accessions from section Nanae
showed no polymorphism and formed a tight group
(C), which is closer to section Corollinae than
section Beta. Within section Corollinae(Fig. 5),
accessions from B. lomatogona clustered together
and formed a distinctive group (E). Accessions from
the other three species grouped together (D) but,
although plants from the same accessions did cluster
together, the subgrouping did not correlate well with
the putative species identi?cation.
Discussion
ITS1 base sequence and RAPD banding data have
been obtained for 11 species or subspecies of Beta
and for Chenopodium album. Both the phylogeny
obtained using the ITS1 sequence data and the
genetic relationships revealed using RAPD are in
general agreement with the relationships de?ned
using other methods; these include relationships
revealed from taxonomically more restricted
analyses of RFLP studies of chloroplast (Kishima et
al., 1987, 1995), mitochondrial (Senda et al., 1995) GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE GENUS BETA627
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628Y. SHEN ET AL.
Fig.2Aligned DNA sequences of the
ITS1 region of the 18S–5.8S–26S
nuclear ribosomal DNA from 13 beet
accessions in the genus Beta and an
outgroup species (Chenopodium
album). Accessions abbreviations are
indicated on the left and the gap
positions are indicated as dots.
? The Genetical Society of Great Britain, Heredity, 80, 624–632.
and total genomic DNA (Jung et al ., 1993) and the distribution of satellite DNA families (Schmidt et al .,1991; Schmidt & Heslop-Harrison, 1993). There is also general agreement with the classi?cations produced by Santoni & Berville (1992) using varia-tion in four restriction enzyme sites in the IGS region of rDNA in nine Beta species; no differences in restriction sites for the enzymes Eco RI, Bam HI,Hin dIII or Sac I were found in the ITS1 region of these species, and this is in agreement with our data.A number of key points emerge from our results with respect to Beta taxonomy and phylogeny. For example, it is clear from both ITS1 sequence data and RAPD banding pro?les that there is a consider-able divergence of section Procumbentes from the other three sections; this agrees with results from other molecular studies (Kishima et al ., 1987; Mita et al ., 1991; Santoni & Berville, 1992; Senda et al .,1995). With regard to section Nanae , represented by the single species B. nana , the RAPD banding patterns suggest a lack of genetic variation within this species and that it is closely related to species of section Corollinae.This relationship has also been demonstrated in studies using RFLPs of mini-satellite DNA (Jung et al ., 1993) and hybridization of satellite DNA family probes cloned from species B. corolli?ora and B. trigyna (Schmidt & Heslop-Harrison, 1993). In the studies of Jung et al . (1993),Nanae was grouped within section Corollinae , which is also the case for our ITS1 results, whereas our RAPD data and the study by Schmidt & Heslop-Harrison (1993) showed Nanae to be separated from, but closely allied to, section Corollinae . In either case, the conclusion must be that sections Nanae and Corollinae are closely related phylogenetically.
Section Procumbentes includes three species, B.patellaris , B. procumbens and B. webbiana .
Beta patel-
Fig.3Phylogenetic tree based upon
data using the neighbour-joining method with the Kimura
two-parameter distances displayed.
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laris has been regarded as an allotetraploid (Abe et al ., 1987; Senda et al ., 1995), with B. procumbens and B. webbiana as diploids. Molecular studies have recently suggested that the last two are extreme forms of the same species (Wagner et al ., 1989; Mita et al ., 1991; Jung et al ., 1993; Kishima et al ., 1995), a situation originally proposed by Curtis (1968) based on morphological characteristics. Our ITS1 sequence data suggest that one accession (B0535), designated by the original collector as B. procumbens , may actually be B. webbiana . The RAPD results show that considerable variation exists within this section.The subgroupings do not correlate with the original classi?cation into species, which might result from natural gene exchange and could support the single-species hypothesis, and an autopolyploid origin for B. patellaris (Santoni & Berville, 1992). Section Procumbentes is, however, the most genetically distinct of all sections within the genus, and this is supported by both RAPD and sequence data. Phylo-genetic analysis of the sequence data, with C. album included as an outgroup to root the tree, indicates that section Procumbentes diverged from the other forms of beet at a relatively early stage in the evolu-tion of the genus, a conclusion that is also supported by Santoni & Berville (1992).
As for section Corollinae , accessions of B. lomato-gona formed a distinctive group using RAPD data,but much variation was observed in the group composed of the other three species. This may, in part, result from dif?culty with taxonomic identi?ca-tion within this section. It seems just as likely,however, that it is because B. macrorhiza , B. corolli-?ora and B. trigyna are closely related phylogenet-ically. Reamon-Buttner et al . (1996) indicated that these three species are distinct from B. lomatogona and that B. macrorhiza is ancestral to both B. corolli-?ora and B. trigyna , which have evolved through various hybridizations. If this is the case, then one might expect a lack of discrimination between these species in our RAPD analysis. Santoni & Berville (1992) also separated B. lomatogona from B. macro-rhiza , B. trigyna and B. corolli?ora using variation in restriction sites within the IGS region of rDNA.
The sequence data provide direct information about mutations in DNA that accompany divergence of species. In further work, we have developed protocols that exploit these ITS1 sequence differ-ences to de?ne speci?c primers, which allow the identi?cation of Beta taxa using single locus PCR (data not shown). However, in the context of genetic relationships, it is important to remember that the sequence data re?ect variation at only a single locus (ITS1), whereas the RAPD analysis used data from 31 loci. A potential problem with the RAPD data is
some co-migrating bands, which may not be allelic.
Fig.4RAPD pro?les showing varia-tion in band patterns between samples. The ampli?cation was
carried out using primer OPM17. M indicates molecular size https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0a18762535.html,nes 1–24 (from left to right): (a)B0205–1, B0205–2, B0213–1,B0213–2, B0221–3, B0224–2,
B0234–1, B0234–2, B0234–3, B0317,B0349–1, B0367–1, B0367–3,B0368–1, B0368–2, B0397–1,
B0397–2, B0403–1, B0403–2, B0424,B0534–1, B0535–1, B0535–2 and B0535–3; (b) B0536–1, B0536–2,B0536–3, B0537–1, B537–2,B0555–1, B0555–2, B0566–1,B0566–2, B0566–3, B0576–1,B0576–2, B0576–3, B0576–4,
B0576–5, B0588, B0731, B1108–1,B1108–2, B1108–3, FD19–1,
FD24–1, FD24–2, FD25–1 (numbers after the hyphens are plant numbers within accessions). Species are identi-?ed using the abbreviations included in Table 1.
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The results obtained here indicate that the patterns of interspeci?c relationships revealed by the RAPD data are broadly similar to those revealed using sequence data, although there are some differences.For instance, the plants of B. macrorhiza and B.trigyna possessed identical ITS1 sequences and were closely linked to B. nana ; however, all three were clearly separated using RAPD data. This suggests that the RAPD data may provide a more accurate picture of relationships at the species level. This is supported by the concordance of these results with those of Reamon-Buttner et al . (1996) even to the extent that two forms of B. macrorhiza may exist; the two accessions used here appear to be very distinct.Overall, the results demonstrate the value of using
more than one molecular technique for the analysis of genetic relationships.
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恒大多元帝国的崛起——恒大集团案例分析
恒大多元帝国的崛起——恒大集团案例分析
摘要 恒大集团是在香港上市，以民生住宅产业为主，集商业、酒店、体育、金融、健康及文化产业为一体的特大型企业集团。恒大地产在2011年、2012年、2013年的销售业绩分别是803.9亿元、923.2亿元、1004亿元，每年增幅都保持在10%左右，2013达到了千亿销售额。 2010年3月1日，恒大集团买断广州市足球运动队全部股权，俱乐部更名为广州恒大足球俱乐部。截至2013年11月，在国内赛场，广州恒大足球俱乐部已连续三次获得中超联赛冠军，并获得一次超级杯冠军和足协杯冠军。而在2013年11月9日，恒大旗下的广州恒大足球队获得了亚冠联赛冠军，这也是首次有中国球队获此殊荣。一夜间，全国上下正面认同了“恒大”这一品牌，“恒大”两个字和球队荣誉一起载入史册。 恒大的品牌效应，会为恒大集团的发展带来前所未有的机遇和优势，同时，恒大集团也会面临着新的挑战。恒大集团将不被人看好的“烧钱足球“一步步变成强大的“足球效应”，同时恒大品牌效应使得恒大变得更强。 恒大多元帝国的崛起，带给了我们种种启示。恒大集团的核心优势是恒大的管理模式，恒大以标准化运营来保证执行力，所以，本文主要来分析恒大集团的管理模式和品牌战略，同时分析恒大的优势、劣势、潜在的机会和挑战、以及在多元化世界的发展。
目录 一、恒大集团简介 (1) 二、恒大的管理——标准化保证执行力 (2) 1.恒大的早期管理战略，为其品牌打下基础 (2) 2.恒大系统化的管理模式 (3) 3.标准化管理保证执行力 (3) 4.精心策划，狠抓落实，办事高效 (4) 三、恒大在多元领域上的管理 (4) 1.恒大在地产方面的管理 (5) 2.恒大在足球方面的管理 (5) 四、恒大集团的优劣、机遇与挑战 (7) 1.恒大集团的核心优势 (7) 2.恒大的不足 (9) 3.恒大所拥有的潜在的机会及威胁 (9) 五、恒大多元帝国的发展 (10) 1.恒大的体育营销 (10) 2.恒大的品牌效应 (11) 六、多元帝国崛起带来的启示 (12)
恒大集团战略管理案例分析
“恒大”集团战略管理案例分析 摘要：本案例在分析“恒大”集团的发展现状和既定发展战略的基础上,指出了企业在执行发展战略的过程中遇到的问题和挑战；在对“恒大”集团发展轨迹和发展战略分析的基础上,通过对“恒大”集团的STOW分析,评价了公司目前面临的机会与威胁,优势与劣势,并得出了“恒大”集团的SWOT分析矩阵,提出了公司在新形势下的战略调整措施。 关键词：战略管理；案例分析；“恒大”集团
目录 1 战略管理理论依据 (3) 1.1战略制定 (3) 1.2战略实施 (3) 1.3战略评价 (3) 2“恒大”集团战略管理案例描述 (4) 2.1“恒大”集团简介 (4) 2.2“恒大”集团的发展轨迹分析 (4) 2.3“恒大”集团的SWOT分析 (5) 2.4“恒大”集团对战略的选择 (5) 3“恒大”集团战略管理案例 (5) 3.1“恒大”集团战略管理问题分析 (5) 3.2“恒大”集团改进战略管理的措施 (6) 结论 (7) 参考文献 (8)
1 战略管理理论依据 战略管理是企业为保证目标的正确落实和实现,根据外部环境和内部条件，确定其使命进行谋划,设定企业的战略目标,并将谋划和决策依靠企业内部能力付诸实施,以及在过程中对实施进行控制的一个动态管理过程。战略管理过程包括战略制定、战略实施和战略评价三个阶段。 1.1战略制定 战略制定包括拟定公司使命和远景、确定公司外部所面临的机会与威胁,以及内部具有的优势与劣势、提出供选择的战略、建立长期目标并据此选择具体的战略方案。战略决定着企业的长期竞争优势。 1.2战略实施 战略实施是战略管理过程中最艰难的一个阶段, 是战略的行动阶段,战略实施要求企业确定年度目标并在此基础上制定政策、配置资源和激励员工,以保证企业上下能够有效贯彻制定的战略，该阶段要求企业全员具有良好的纪律性、责任心和奉献精神。只有公司管理者和员工感到自己是企业的一部分进而去主动了解企业,并自觉地承担了帮助企业成功经营的责任，通过参与战略制定活动,这一转变才会变成现实。反之,如果员工的不理解管理者的意图、不愿承担责任,那么战略实施工作就会变得很艰难。这样一来，战略制定的再好也是不能付诸实施的,同样也是达不到任何预期目标的。 1.3战略评价 战略决策一旦出错将会给企业带来严重的后果和不可估量的损失,且即使仍然存在着改变的可能性这种结局也是很难改变的。在什么时候制定的什么战略出了什么问题是管理层特别需要知道和掌握的。作为战略管理的最后阶段，战略评价对企业来说有着极其重要的意义,管理当局往往需要在局势恶化之前通过及时评价来釆取有效措施对现有问题和潜在问题进行应对。
恒大地产财务分析报告docx
财务报表分析案例 恒大地产（03333） （一）研究对象及选取理由 （一）研究对象 本报告选取了房地产行业上市公司——恒大地产（03333.HK）作为研究对象，该上市公司公布的2011年度—2013年度连续三年的财务报表进行了简单分析及对比，以及对该公司财务状况及经营状况得出简要结论。 （二）行业概况 在中国房地产的概念是从1981年开始的，1981年之后，中国房地产有了雏形。从国务院下达了停止银行贷款政策后，房地产受到了严重的创伤，一直到1998年，中国房地产始终波澜不兴。1998年，国务院作出了重大的决策，取消了分房，这一政策一出台，房地产在短期内大爆发，房地产产业迅速上升，于此同时，银行也在不断调低利率。随着房地产迅速发展，导致了严重的社会矛盾，也因如此，房地产业也称为了现在人们所关注的焦点！为此，中央于2004年开始对房地产业做出了宏观调控，主要针对土地和信贷两个方面，以调控为主！ 在2004年作出了一些调控见到成效后，国务院于2005年对房地产进一步加大了宏观调控的力度，这次从供求关系进行双向调控，主要以需求为主，虽然从2005年到2006年，房地产成交量开始上升，但是这种状况并没有维持太长，由于自然原因对长江三角洲影响很大，但是其他一线大城市却是一片明媚的天气，房价恢复到以前暴涨的速度，以至于使得调控政策进一步加强！在2006年房地产的政策主要是以调整房地产产品的结构为主，到目前为止，房地产正在进行一系列的转变：买卖双方发生的转变，以前是以卖方占主导地位，但是逐渐转向了买房、消费主导取代了投注主导、长期投资取代了短期投资、产品代替了土地、存量市场取代了以增量为主的市场、笼统的房地产市场转向了细分的市场。 房地产在价格方面的走势，从1998年到2003年这期间，房地产价格到达了一个顶峰，然后从03年到07年处于一个调控阶段，随着2008年奥运后后，新一轮房地产价格再次到达一个峰值，但是政府作出了一系列的措施，对其进行调控，相信新一轮的增长，不会再像以前那样暴涨，将会是一个台阶式的上扬，综上为中国房地产的大体概况.我们选取了这一重点行业为研究对象来分析。 （三）公司概况 恒大地产即恒大地产集团，是在香港上市，以民生住宅产业为主，集商业、酒店、体育、金融、健康及文化产业为一体的特大型企业集团，逾百家国际知名投资银行，财团，基金股东遍布全球，拥有3万余名员工，92%以上工程技术及管理人员为大学本科以上的学历。恒大集团已在全国25省会城市和3个直辖市设立分公司，在全国100多个主要城市拥有200多个大型住宅项目。 1996年,确立“小面积、低价格”的发展模式,这也是因应当时企业发展战略“规模取胜”而作出的决定。2004年开始,由于中国房地产巿场渐趋成熟及竞争日益激烈,转变了原来的企业发展战略。公司于2006年6月26日在开曼群岛注册成立为所有运营及项目子公司的最终控股公司,另外于2006年6月26日在英属维尔京群岛成立了安基(BVI)
恒大冰泉案例分析
自2013年11月9日,恒大队在广州夺得亚冠冠军,赛后“恒大冰泉”横空出世、一炮而红。到今天恒大冰泉广告随处可见，恒大冰泉全面铺开。可总结出恒大冰泉的营销策略，如下： 借势营销： 2013年11月9日，恒大亚冠夺取冠军的新闻沸腾了整个中国。作为长期以来相对薄弱的体育项目，恒大登冠无疑是国足史上一次“意外惊喜”。也是继1990年辽宁队后，中国球队再度称霸亚洲。这次的夺冠，让广州恒大家喻户晓。“恒大足球”、“恒大集团”、“许家印”等一时间成为关注度和搜索率极高的新闻热词。就在这举国瞩目的“惊喜”发生的第二天，恒大集团迅速采取趁热打铁之势，举行恒大冰泉上市发布会。 通过足球来打出恒大冰泉的知名度，对其广度是很有帮助的，只要有足球的地方就会让人想到恒大和恒大冰泉。 悬念营销： “我们公司将在本周日发布一重大新闻。”—据说，早在11月8日，恒大地产相关工作人员向一些媒体记者发出采访邀请，但是拒绝透露任何其他信息。在9日晚的亚冠决战之中，恒大悄然更换了队员们的亚冠比赛球衣，不仅所有球员的比赛服装印上了“恒大冰泉”的胸前广告，教练员、工作人员的服装也同样如此。就在工作人员忙着将亚足联颁奖仪式的用具搬离绿茵场的时候，四只超大的矿泉水瓶被人扛进体育场绕场庆祝，而上面“恒大冰泉”字样赫然在目。于此同时，亚冠决赛当晚，无论电视、网络，只要与亚冠决赛有关的版面均会出现“恒大冰泉”的广告。 那个时候很多人知道恒大冰泉，但并不知道多少钱，哪里有卖的。培养了消费者对恒大冰泉的饥渴性。 爆破性营销： 恒大冰泉能做到一出世就引领全国人眼球的原因之一，就是它那令人惊叹的大手笔营销手段。在这方面，恒大冰泉以全媒体立体式多方位的宣传攻势覆盖全
恒大案例分析(1)
恒大冰泉营销案例分析 自2013年11月9日,恒大队在广州夺得亚冠冠军,赛后“恒大冰泉”横空出世、一炮而红。到今天恒大冰泉广告随处可见，恒大冰泉全面铺开。可总结出恒大冰泉的营销策略，如下： 借势营销： 2013年11月9日，恒大亚冠夺取冠军的新闻沸腾了整个中国。作为长期以来相对薄弱的体育项目，恒大登冠无疑是国足史上一次“意外惊喜”。也是继1990年辽宁队后，中国球队再度称霸亚洲。这次的夺冠，让广州恒大家喻户晓。“恒大足球”、“恒大集团”、“许家印”等一时间成为关注度和搜索率极高的新闻热词。就在这举国瞩目的“惊喜”发生的第二天，恒大集团迅速采取趁热打铁之势，举行恒大冰泉上市发布会。 通过足球来打出恒大冰泉的知名度，对其广度是很有帮助的，只要有足球的地方就会让人想到恒大和恒大冰泉。 悬念营销： “我们公司将在本周日发布一重大新闻。”—据说，早在11月8日，恒大地产相关工作人员向一些媒体记者发出采访邀请，但是拒绝透露任何其他信息。在9日晚的亚冠决战之中，恒大悄然更换了队员们的亚冠比赛球衣，不仅所有球员的比赛服装印上了“恒大冰泉”的胸前广告，教练员、工作人员的服装也同样如此。就在工作人员忙着将亚足联颁奖仪式的用具搬离绿茵场的时候，四只超大的矿泉水瓶被人扛进体育场绕场庆祝，而上面“恒大冰泉”字样赫然在目。于此同时，亚冠决赛当晚，无论电视、网络，只要与亚冠决赛有关的版面均会出现“恒大冰泉”的广告。 那个时候很多人知道恒大冰泉，但并不知道多少钱，哪里有卖的。培养了消费者对恒大冰泉的饥渴性。 爆破性营销： 恒大冰泉能做到一出世就引领全国人眼球的原因之一，就是它那令人惊叹的大手笔营销手段。在这方面，恒大冰泉以全媒体立体式多方位的宣传攻势覆盖全国人口，形成爆炸式的传播效应。CCTV-1、CCTV-2、 CCTV-3、 CCTV-5 、CCTV-
恒大案例分析
背景资料 1 行业基本情况 2 恒大集团基本情况： 恒大集团是在香港上市，以民生住宅产业为主，集快消、商业、酒店、体育、文化等产业为一体的特大型企业集团。 快消：恒大冰泉 商业：旅游综合体 酒店：广州恒大酒店重庆酒店 体育：04年，赞助广州当地的龙舟、乒乓球，09年入主广州女排，10年入主中国足球。 文化：恒大音乐，宋柯。高晓松加入恒大音乐。恒大影视有限公司《建党伟业》《天台爱情》 恒大总资产超3500亿元，员工48000多人，在广州、北京、上海、天津、重庆、深圳、合肥、济南、沈阳、长沙、南昌、南京、太原、郑州、成都、海口、哈尔滨、武汉、石家庄、长春、兰州、南宁、福州、贵阳、呼和浩特、西安、昆明、乌鲁木齐、银川、西宁、大连、桂林等4个直辖市、29个省会及重要城市设立分公司（地区公司），在全国147个主要城市拥有大型项目291个。2013年，公司销售1004亿元，向国家纳税134亿元，创造就业岗位60万个。 恒大在创立之初即确立企业文化。恒大宗旨：质量树品牌、诚信立伟业；恒大精神：艰苦创业、无私奉献、努力拼搏、开拓进取；恒大作风：精心策划、狠抓落实、办事高效。恒大文化的传承与弘扬，推动企业高速发展。 恒大有信心到2020年成为世界上行业内“规模最大、队伍最优、管理最好、文化最深、品牌最响”的“五个之最”国际顶级企业。 恒大的发展历程：三个战略 第一阶段【规模取胜】战略阶段 1997年，恒大基于行业竞争、目标市场、消费者负担能力、资金状况等因素的客观分析，确立了“小面积、低价格”的早期发展模式，采取快速销售、加快资金周转，快速实现企业规模壮大的发展战略。1997年，恒大只在广州开发1个项目；而至2004年，公司开始同时开发十多个项目，公司的员工人数由1997年不足20人上升至2004年超过2000人。凭借初创阶段的持续努力，公司逐步跻身广州房地产十强企业、广东省房地产企业竞争力第1名、中国房地产十强企业及中国房地产品牌价值十强企业。 ?第二阶段【规模+品牌】战略过渡阶段 2004年开始，中国房地产市场渐趋成熟、竞争日益激烈，恒大转变原有发展战略，开始进入“规模＋品牌” 的战略过渡阶段，确保企业持续发展。在规模方面，公司跨越广东，将地理版图扩充至其它战略性城市，使房地产开发面积从几十万平方米大幅增加至几百万平方米，在此过程中，公司在同时管理遍布全国多个项目方面取得了宝贵的经验及能力。在品牌建设上，公司对所开发项目全部实施精品战略，并开始实施全国标准化运营模式。 ?第三阶段【规模+品牌】标准化运营战略阶段 自2007年起，恒大继续专注实施“规模＋品牌”战略，进一步完善标准化运营模式，逐渐形成了极具竞争力的七大企业核心优势，并在深入拓展中国二三线城市的过程中实现迅速拓展。经过多年实践及调整，恒大标准化运营模式行之有效，助推恒大实现持续跨越式发展。发展至今，恒大已经成为中国销售面积最多、在建工程量最大、进入省会城市最多、城市布局最广的房地产龙头企业。