外文翻译译文

对整体叶盘加工柔性磨削头的自适应性

Pengbing Zhao & Yaoyao Shi

收稿日期：20135月21日

接受：2013年10月15日

在线发表时间：2013年11月8日

＃施普林格出版社伦敦2013

摘要：为提高机械加工时的质量、稳定性、一致性，以及其他加工表面的机械性能，现设计出一款新式的气动的柔性磨头，现分析这款柔性磨头的工作原理，可加工的区域以及实时定位技术。考虑到非直线区域加工死区、未知系统功能以及气动伺服系统性能的不确定干扰的影响，提出一种基于扩张状态观测器(ESO)的自适应滑模控制（ASMC），ESO是被用来估计系统状态变量以及采用一种自适应率来补偿输入加工死区。最后，闭环系统的稳定性由李亚普诺夫理论（Lyapunov theory）确定。实验结果表明了ESO的完美估计，以及ASMC与传统的PID控制相比有着更强的抗干扰能力，ASMC可以实现亚微粒级别之内控制的精确程度。磨削实验说明这种方法可以缩减近乎50%的叶片表面波状起伏和粗糙度，以及降低大约22.93%的形状误差。

关键词：叶片磨削工艺气动系统滑模控制

1 介绍

叶片是为航空发动机设计的一种新式零件，是一种薄壁整体结构的复杂零件，复杂曲面以及难切割材料。考虑到不同的几何尺寸，材料以及叶片的批量大小，以下有几种加工方法，例如磨削，电化学加工（ECM），以及可以分为水槽电火花加工（SEDM）和电缆电火花加工(WEDM)的电火花加工（EDM）。有几种铣削加工过程依靠特殊的叶片几何形状。次摆线铣削是其中一种最新发展的方法，这种方法可以实现很高的材料切除速率和低的工具磨损。SEDM是一种经

济的叶片粗加工方式，特别是Ni基合金材料的叶片。随着电机的发展，WEDM 可以实现高的材料切除率和切割率，同时也可以应用于叶片的粗加工上。为了大批量生产，ECM或许是叶片生产最高效的方法，ECM没有工具磨损而且可以实现更好的表面加工质量同时不会产生白层或者热影响区。

以上提到的几种加工方法主要是用于叶片的粗加工，且对叶片的表面质量有很高的需求。本文的重点是叶片表面的加工完成过程，例如最后的加工，通过磨削来保证尺寸精度和表面质量，这个过程可以提升表面平滑度和完整性，改善残余应力分布，也可以增强疲劳强度和抗腐蚀性。超声振动磨削的作用已经清楚，其可以显著降低工件表面的粗糙度而且在加工硬脆性材料时特别有效。实验证明超声振动磨削可以减少磨削时的正应力和相当的热损害。现提出电缆电火花磨削和一种由此而生的表面粗糙度在线估计方法。金刚石电火花磨削将金刚石磨削和电火花加工结合起来，是一种加工电传导性硬质材料的新式加工工艺。在实现超精密表面硬化和电解磨削修整的脆性材料的加工过程中，其有效地增加了材料切除效率以及砂轮的磨损。对于提出的电化学磨削（ECG），和电解液浓度、工作电压、切割深度的影响，以及加工过程中的电解液流动速率已经做了研究，以及依靠响应曲面法的ECG多响应优化已经被设计出来了。流动磨料加工是用来完成加工高的内表面质量，难以进入的零件，以及外轮廓的一种方法。由阿尔门试片被介质影响完成可塑性变形振动模型的过程调查，和数值模型的边缘舍入的脆性材料振动建立完成。拖动研磨表面改性的研究，以及减少径向前角和拖后整理工序前沿的准备导致硬质合金立铣刀刀具寿命增加。机械化学磨削是一个优异的加工过程，是将化学和机械磨削的优点相结合的固定磨料加工。一种机器人的从几何复杂的工件去除材料的砂带磨削的有效过程，以及仿真平台设计的最优区磨削参数。为了在整个磨削过程中保持一个恒定的接触力，提出了一种机器人砂带磨削的新方法。

本文提出了一个新式的多轴数控磨削方法，可以提高加工质量，稳定性，一致性以及叶片其他表面的机械性能，降低生产成本，提高加工效率。作为一个必要的装配，在这个数控磨削试机时，柔性磨头是一个复杂的气动伺服系统，表面的加工精度取决于磨头的定位精度。然而，可压缩气体，活塞与气缸壁之间的摩擦,阀的死区，和其他非线性区域严重影响系统的控制精度，许多文献都集中在

解决这个问题上。为气压传动装置提出了一种基于LuGre摩擦观测器的摩擦补偿定位技术。为一个有效的长冲程气动系统非线性控制系统的设计提出了一个强大的回路成形的模糊增益调度控制。为解决伺服控制的气动执行机构，提出了一个全球稳定和负载独立压力观测器，为气动系统提出了一种非线性压力观测器，在气动系统和基于观测器的控制位置和刚度时需要压力传感器和力传感器。两个伺服阀是用来改善气动力的控制精度。多模型控制器设计和实现一个基于PD控制不定地加载气动执行机构。滑模控制方法为气动控制系统开发，使用四个电磁开关阀和一个位置反馈传感器。为解决变量载荷和气动系统不确定的干扰提出一种基于自适应控制器的函数近似技术。

由于完整的自适应性和更强的稳定性到不确定性和外部干扰，滑模控制(SMC)已广泛应用于气动伺服系统。然而，系统输出变量的衍生品对设计SMC 的控制律是必要的，这将导致设计控制系统的便利。关于这一点，扩张状态观测器(ESO)被用来估计不可估量的变量和系统中的不确定性，与此同时，自适应法是用来估计输入死区模型参数；最后，提出了一种基于ESO的自适应滑模控制(ASMC)。实验结果表明该方法可以显著提高气动磨头的定位和跟踪精度，有效提高磨削表面质量。

本文的其余部分组织如下：柔性磨头的设计在第2节。气动系统的非线性动力学模型的建立在第3节。基于ESO 的ASMC设计在第4节。该ASMC的实验验证在第5节。第6节是结论。

2 气动柔性磨头的设计

2.1 磨头的结构

表面铣削后叶片表面如图1所示，加工微锋残留在表面会严重影响叶片的质量和服务性能，这将造成航空发动机的质量和性能恶化。因此，需要磨削过程来改善叶片表面的平滑度和完整性。设计的龙门五轴数控磨床在图2中，是气动弹性磨头的基本组装。

图1 表面铣削后叶片表面

如图3所示，磨头由左、右轴组成，用于连接轴套，电主轴，电主轴支持机制，气缸，和位移传感器。左右轴套轴是固定的，那么所有这些都是连接到轴，磨头可以绕着x旋转。连接设备的左轴和右轴穿过整个机制的重心，可以保证机制的稳定。气缸和传感器分布见图4，磨头的内部结构见图5。磨头的高速电主轴所提供的三个气缸安装在轴套上用于调整径向位置，调整使用气缸的轴向位置是安装在整体机制的顶部。轴向传感器放置在轴套的顶部，三个径向传感器放置在三个径向缸的对面。电动主轴的位置数据反馈到由传感器、控制主轴的控制器控制，位置误差根据反馈和指定的输入计算，然后控制输出根据控制算法可以计算出来。

图2 数控磨床的结构

图3 磨头的结构

控制器的控制指令将通过D / A转换器和伺服驱动以及驱动比例阀发送。通过控制气流进入气缸，活塞运动可以实时控制的阀门，因此，可以控制电主轴的位置。

2.2 磨头的可通过区

实时控制这些圆柱体对磨削过程是至关重要的，三个径向缸的协调为柔性磨削奠定基础。向前和向后的气瓶彼此限制对方,可以完成磨头在任何方向的微小位移。如图6中所示，当一个径向缸达到最大的行程，磨头将达到其极限位置,这是最大的位移。A、B和C表示1、2和3气缸的位置,分别为O(0,0)，是磨头的初始位置；现在，这三个气缸在半行程状态。当气缸1达到全行程时，它的伸长是r，气缸2和3实际伸长为 d = rcos60°。因此，可以确定电主轴的可通过区域，也就是，磨头的位移半径为r。

2.3 磨头的实时位置

研磨头的任何的径向位置O′（x，y）都可以由这三个位移确定，公式（1）可以由图6得到。

其中，x2 + y2≤R2，a,b和c表示气缸1，2和气缸3的伸长量，分别为（正面和反面表示气缸的扩张和收缩），两个互相限制且满足a+c=b。

在磨削的过程中，a，b和c可以由这三个半径传感器实时监测。另外，磨头的半径位置也可以由公式（1）获得。

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Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much

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原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,

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(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文：

DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.

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外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much

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外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is