跨文化交际
Chapter I Culture
1.1 Define culture from different perspectives.
From Intellectual Perspective
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, culture is "the arts and other manifestations of human
etc. When you talk etc., you are talking about culture.
From Anthropologic Perspective
anthropologist's definition.
From Social Perspective
Culture is what a society does and thinks. Culture covers everything of a society.
From Psychological Perspective
of people from another.
From Intercultural Communication Perspective
Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.
1.2 Characteristics of Culture
Culture Is Learned
We learn culture from ________, ________, ____________________________________. （parents, other family members, friends, and even strangers who are part of the culture）
Culture Involves Beliefs, Values, and Norms
a. Beliefs
Beliefs refer to the basic understanding of a group of people about what the world is like or what is true or false.
b. Values
Values involve what a culture regarded as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.
c. Norms
Norms refer to rules for appropriate behavior, which provide the expectations people have of one
another and of others.
Culture Affects Behaviors
Cultural differences are evident in various ways in which people conduct their everyday activities, as people “perform” their culture in their behavioral routi nes.
Culture Involves Large Groups of People
The term culture involves a much larger, societal levels of organization. And the term is also often used to refer to other types of large groups of people.
1.3 Cultural Identity
Cultural identity refers to on e’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People consciously identify themselves with a group that has a shared system of symbols and meanings as well as norms for conduct.
Formation of Cultural Identity
a. Unexamined cultural identity
b. Cultural identity search
c. Cultural identity achievement
Characteristics of Cultural Identity
Cultural identity is central to a person’s sense of self.
Cultural identity is dynamic.
Cultural identity is also multifaceted components of one’s self-concept.
1.4 Subculture, Co-culture, and Subgroup
Subculture and co-culture
A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. In a sense, a subculture can be thought of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture.
“Sub” implies inferior so “co” is used to indicate the idea of equality.
Generally speaking, the subgroup members usually have the characteristics of temporality and deviant label and having wanna-be hehaviors.
2. Additional Information:
People identify with being a member of a group. Being a member of a group helps to define who we are. We all are members of groups of different sizes. One of the largest groups that a person can belong to is a culture. Everyone belongs to a culture. No one chooses which culture to belong to. We simply are born into one.
Other groups that people may be a member of are subcultures (sometimes called co-cultures) and subgroups. Subcultures can be based on race, ethnicity, economic or social class, or geographic region.
Subgroups also help define who we are. Subgroups can be as small as a few people or as large as a major religion. For example, a high school student might identify with being a member of the
football team or drama club, or a person might identify with being a Christian, a Buddhist, or a Jew. People can be members of many different groups at the same time, so a person might identify with being a Christian, a football player, and a member of the drama club. Subgroups also provide their members with norms that tell people how to behave and even think. So, for instance, a Christian cannot be a Buddhist because Christians have rules that tell them they cannot be members of a different religion. People often make friendships based n their memberships in subgroups.
关于文化的定义
关于文化的定义，一直是一个令人头痛的问题，这主要反映在文化定义的众说纷纭及其内容的丰富多彩方面。因此，对于文化研究中的文化定义，进行梳理和分析是非常有必要的。我们不能对由文化定义问题形成的文化定义现象绕道而行。
文化定义现象主要体现在对于文化定义的众多观点上。目前，学术界公认的意见认为，被称为人类学之父的英国人类学家E·B·泰勒，是第一个在文化定义上具有重大影响的人。泰勒对文化所下的定义是经典性的，他在《原始文化》“关于文化的科学”一章中说：“文化或文明，就其广泛的民族学意义来讲，是一复合整体，包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及作为一个社会成员的人所习得的其他一切能力和习惯。”显然，这个定义将文化解释为社会发展过程中人类创造物的总称，包括物质技术、社会规范和观念精神。从此，泰勒的文化定义成为文化定义现象的起源，后人对这个定义褒贬不一，同时亦不断地提出新的观点。关于什么是文化？到目前为止竟然已经多达200多种的定义。文化定义本身成为一个有趣的、争论不休的学术现象。
在文化定义现象中还有一种典型的情况，就是各种学科对于文化的不同定义。关于人类学家对文化所作的定义，美国人类学家克莱德·克鲁克洪在《文化与个人》一书中作了一些总结：（1）文化是学而知之的。（2）文化是由构成人类存在的生物学成分、环境科学成分、心理学成分以及历史学成分衍生而来的。（3）文化具有结构。（4）文化分隔为各个方面。（5）文化是动态的。（6）文化是可变的。（7）文化显示出规律性，它可借助科学方法加以分析。（8）文化是个人适应其整个环境的工具，是表达其创造性的手段。他认为：“人类学家对文化的描述可以和地图作个比较。地图显然不是一片具体的块，而是特殊地域的抽象表示。地图如果绘制得精确，人们看了它就不会迷失途径。文化如果得到正确的描述，人们就会认识到存在一种具有特殊性质的生活方式，认识这些性质之间的相互关系。”
社会学家在文化的定义方面与人类学家最为相近，美国社会学家戴维·波普诺在分析文化定义时认为，社会学家与人类学家对文化的共同定义是：文化是人类群体或社会的共享成果，这些共有产物不仅包括价值观、语言、知识，而且包括物质对象。
在不同学科对于文化的定义方面，诸如政治学、经济学、历史学、哲学、语言文学等等，都有许多有益的观点。总的来看，各个学科对文化的定义有共同点，也有不同点。尽管如此，由众多学科对文化的定义所产生的文化定义现象，是一个极好的现象，只有有了许多不同的观点，才会有文化研究的发展。而且，各种不同的观点的存在，有助于相互之间的交融和互补，使人们在理解什么是文化的时候，具有一个更为开阔的视域。
除此以外，在文化定义中，还有一种与此密切相关的现象，就是在对文化进行区别和划
分的时候，存在着各种不同的观点。
关于文化的区分，最为常见的说法就是广义文化和狭义文化，也有人把它称为是大文化和小文化。在这一点上，日本著名社会学家富永健一认为：“正如我们将社会区分为广义的社会和狭义的社会那样，有必要将文化也分为广义的文化和狭义的文化。广义的社会是与自然相对应的范畴；同样，广义的文化也是作为与自然相对应的范畴来使用的。在这种情况下，技术、经济、政治、法律、宗教等等都可以认为是属于文化的领域。也就是说，广义的文化与广义的社会的含意是相同的。但另一方面，狭义的文化与狭义的社会却有不同的内容。后者是通过持续的相互关系而形成的社会关系系统；而前者如我们上文中提出的定义那样，是产生于人类行动但又独立于这些的客观存在的符号系统。”
此外，还有一种关于显形文化和隐形文化的划分。这一区分的代表性作者是美国人类学家克莱德·克鲁克洪，他说：“对文化作分析必然既包括显露方面的分析也包括隐含方面的分析。显型文化寓于文字和事实所构成的规律之中，它可以经过耳濡目染的证实直接总结出来。人们只须在自己的观察中看到或揭示其连贯一致的东西。人类学家不会去解释任意的行为。然而，隐型文化却是一种二级抽象。……只有在文化的最为精深微妙的自我意识之处，人类学家才在文化的承载者那里关注隐型文化。隐型文化由纯粹的形式构成，而显型文化既有内容又有结构。”
社会学对于文化的区分还有一种“亚文化”的概念，“当一个社会的某一群体形成一种既包括主文化的某些特征，又包括一些其他群体所不具备的文化要素的生活方式时，这种群体文化被称为亚文化。亚文化可以围绕着职业种类发展而成，如医学或军事部门的亚文化。亚文化还可能是基于种族或民族的差异，如美国黑人亚文化。亚文化还可能是源于地区的差异，如美国南部各州的亚文化；也可能基于原来的国籍，如美籍墨西哥人和美籍意大利人亚文化。”“每一个复杂社会都包括着许多亚文化，社会成员常常是在一个以上的亚文化中发挥作用，反过来说，他们在一生中也会经历许多种亚文化。”
文化哲学把文化结构区分为物质文化、制度文化、精神文化三个层面。物质文化实际是指人在物质生产活动中所创造的全部物质产品，以及创造这些物品的手段、工艺、方法等。制度文化是人们为反映和确定一定的社会关系并对这些关系进行整合和调控而建立的一整套规范体系。精神文化也称为观念文化，以心理、观念、理论形态存在的文化。它包括两个部分，一是存在于人心中的文化心态、文化心理、文化观念、文化思想、文化信念等。二是已经理论化对象化的思想理论体系，即客观化了的思想。
关于文化的区分，还有一种广为流传的“文化模式论”。克鲁克洪在其《文化研究》一文中认为，是克罗伯以同等的眼光看待历史、功能和心理学，划分出三种文化模式：全局性模式、总体性模式、类型性模式。文化的全局性模式指的是“文化特征之间的关系，它具有确定的连贯结构，执行着有效的功能，并且在历史进程中将这种作用持续保留下来。很显然，文化的全局性模式不囿于单一的文化而涉及横贯交错的文化。”文化的类型性模式指的是“一条路数，沿着它在人类事物的几种可能性过程中，选择出或引导出来并紧紧扣住它不放，从而使这种事务得以确定和实现。”“每一种类型都必须预先有所限制，它力主一种方式而排斥其他方式。”现代工业化世界的类型性模式包括机器（它相对手工业操作而言）、信贷，以及大规模生产。文化的总体性模式，其概念类似于社会（或民族、制度等）的精神气质和时代
精神。
在较近的文化研究中，对文化的区分出现了高雅文化、精英文化、通俗文化、大众文化、流行文化、产业文化、商业文化等新概念，并且迅速拥有了大量的专家学者和论著。此外，在各个学科领域内都有相应的文化概念，如政治文化、经济文化、企业文化、行政文化、管理文化、法律文化等等。
文化定义现象所反映的，文化对于人类及社会的密切关联度，不仅揭示了文化与人类社会进程的关系，而且还揭示了文化与人类社会整体的联系，这种联系涉及到社会的各个层面和领域。同时，也揭示了文化对于人类每一个人的个人权利、利益、自由、生存状况的关注。学校文化是什么？
我们不妨先思考这样一个问题：有一群人，他们的性别、年龄、性格、嗜好、利益各不相同，但却能有序地生活在一起，并且构成了一个集体，是什么因素使他们凝聚成这样一个集体呢？有这样三个层面的因素。一是信仰层面，他们可能有共同的信仰；二是规范层面，他们可能分享同一种由伦理、习俗、制度、法律构成的规则体系，并且，这个规则体系，还有一个由舆论、社团、机构、家庭、军队、法庭、监狱等构成的监管体系来维持着；三是语言、活动、器物层面，他们使用同一种语言(音乐、建筑也是语言)，共同参加活动，生活在一定的场所中。“活动”可以增强个体与群体之间的联系，这对信仰与规则是一种情感上的强化，活动中的新生因素则会促进信仰与规范的演变。“信仰”、“规范”、“语言活动器物”三者，构成了一个群体的整合机制，它们的统一体，就是我们常常说的“文化”。显然，“文化”是针对一个有相对明确边界人群而言的，它如同这个群体的“神经系统”。
在这个“神经系统”中，“信仰”是中枢神经，“规范”是神经网络，而“语言活动器物”则是具体的组织器官。在这个意义上的“文化差异”，就是不同群体的“神经系统”之间表现出的差异。群体有“核心部分”和“边缘部分”，因此就有“主流文化”、“边缘文化”和“亚文化”之别。
学校文化及其框架
作为社会的亚文化，学校文化与军队文化、政府文化、企业文化、家庭文化等区别之处是：在“信仰”层面，学校以“教书育人”为天职，把社会中的价值观、伦理、知识的精髓系统地传递给学生，并转化为学生的人生追求和道德信念；在“规范”层面，学校有教师与学生两个群体，设立相应的组织制度，并倡导“心灵交流”、“尊重知识”等价值观念；在“语言活动器具”层面上，学校也形成了由教室、黑板、教材等构成的独具风格的一套体系。
可以把学校看作是一个群体，但也可以分出几个亚群体。这些亚群体与其对应的学校亚文化具体就是：1.“教师群体”与教师文化；2.“学生群体”与学生文化。若再作细分，还可以分出“班级”、“学生社团”、“学生非正式群体”及其相应文化等；3.“教师-学生群体”，其对应的文化包括“课堂教学文化”和“课下师生关系”；4.“管理者-教师-学生群体”与“管理文化”；
5.“课程”与“课程文化”；
6.“校方-家长”，其对应文化为“家校文化”或“家校关系”。值得说明的是，学校的课程若为国家课程，它所代表的“群体”则为“国家”，其“课程文化”则应看作国家意识形态在学校层面上的投射；若为“校本课程”，“课程文化”则加入了体现学校理念的自身选择成分。出于学校教育的特殊性，把“校方-家长群体”看作学校的“亚群体”，并将其纳入“家校文化”也是合理的。
Ⅴ References
1．跨文化交流Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter 北京大学出版社2004 Page 28—33
2. 跨文化交际学贾玉新上海外语教育出版社1997 Page 16—23
3. 跨文化交际导论宋莉哈尔滨工业大学出版社2004 Page 25—39
4. 全球环境中的跨文化沟通Linda Beamer & Iris Varner 清华大学出版社2003 Page 3—20
5. 跨文化英语教程许力生上海外语教育出版社2004 Page 9—11
6. Intercultural Communication in Contexts Judith N.Martin & Thomas K. Nakayama.
McGraw-Hill Publishing House1997, Page 75—77
7. American Cultural Patterns Edward C. Stewart & Milton J.Ben nett Intercultrual Press.Inc. Page 6—12
Chapter 3
Culture’s Influence on Perception
A: human perception
?Sensation:
?It is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment. It refers to the initial detection of energy from the physical world.
感觉：感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程,是对物质世界的第一察觉。
?Perception:
?It is the process by which we become aware of objects, events, and especially people and their behavior through our various senses and involves
higher-order cognition in the interpretation of the sensory information.
知觉：知觉是一种人们通过各种感觉来觉察事物、事件、人和人的行为的过程。它是解释感觉信息更为高阶的认知过程。
?Selection:
?It is a process in which we screen out what we need from all the stimuli and information around us.
选择:选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。
?Organization:
?It is the process during which we need to organize and impose structure on what we observe in a meaningful way.
组织：组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。
?Interpretation:
?It refers to attaching meaning to sense data and is synonymous with decoding.
?释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程，类似于解码过程。
Discuss perceiving
(1) Perception refers to the process of the becoming aware of o______, e______, and p______, especially their b_____ through our senses.
(2) Our perceptions are only in a part of function of the outside world; in large measure they are a function of our own c_______, e_______, our d_______, our n_______ and our love and hatred.
B Cross-cultural Differences in Sensation & Perception Physiological filters include the natural or genetic differences in how one sees, hears, smells, tastes, or feels. According to some scholars, there are four explanations for intercultural differences in the perception of sensory stimuli.
(1) Conditions of the Physical Environment
(2) Indirect Environmental Conditions
(3) Genetic Differences
(4) Cultural Differences in How People Interact with Their Environment Sociological filters represent demographic data and one’s membership in groups, including one’s culture, microculture, and hometown.
The psychological filters refer to the psychological factors, including the attitudes, beliefs, and dispositions of the individual.
C Barriers to Accurate Perception in Intercultural Communication
(1) Ignoring Details
We give too much weight to information that is obvious and superficial. We tend to explain the motives for a person's actions on the basis of the most obvious information rather than on in-depth information we might have. When meeting someone new from another culture, we perceive his or her physical qualities: color of skin, body size and shape, age, sex, and other obvious physical characteristics. We focus on these qualities, because they are so vivid and available. In doing this, we are just ignoring some important details.
(2) Over-generalizing
We treat small amounts of information as if they were highly representative. This tendency also leads us to draw inaccurate, prejudicial conclusions. And also we can even get some general predictions about the people in a certain culture. But in doing this, we are over-generalizing as well.
(3) Holding on to Preconceptions and Stereotypes
We distort or ignore information that violates our expectations, preconceptions, or stereotypes. We see what we want to see, hear what we want to hear. Once we develop our impression on something, we have preconceptions about what we expect from another person. These preconceptions and stereotypes can be so strong that we will distort the way we process our perceptions in order to remain faithful to them.
(4) Imposing Consistency
We overestimate the consistency and constancy of others' behaviors. When we organize our perceptions, we also tend to ignore fluctuation in people’s behaviors, and see them as consistent. We believe that if someone acted a certain way one day, he or she will continue to act that way in the future. In fact, everyone's behavior varies from day to day.
(5) Preconnecting Causes and Effects
We rely on preexisting ideas about underlying causes and what we observe. We’ve already seen how preconceptions about a person can shape our attributions. We also develop a particular type of preconception that reflects both our implicit personality theory and our personal constructs. We create beliefs about what particular causes are linked to what particular effects. This keeps us from investigating and collecting additional information to explain an individual's action. To avoid imposing our own preconceptions on others, we must be ready to listen to alternative explanations. (6) Preferring Simple Explanations
We prefer simple explanations to complex ones, for simple explanations tend to be more believable and easier to use in making sense of another's actions. But in reality our behaviors are affected by many factors. Unfortunately, it takes a lot of efforts to understand what makes another person do what he or she does - more efforts than we are typically willing to give.
(7) Ignoring Circumstances
We diminish the effect of external circumstances on another's behavior. We also fail to compare one person's behavior with that of others under the same circumstances. This tendency also represents our desire for simplification. We are often unaware of the circumstances that affect others, and we do not want to take the trouble to investigate them.
(8) Crediting Irrelevant Information
We treat irrelevant information as if it were relevant. In truth, most exchanges are filled with irrelevant information, and it requires skill and experience to separate the irrelevant information from information that really does help explain another's actions.
(9) Focusing on the Negative
We give more weight to negative information than to positive information,We seem to recognize this bias and compensate for it when we first meet someone by sharing only positive information about ourselves. One piece of negative information can have a disproportionate effect on our impressions and negate the effect of several positive pieces of information.
(10) Seeing Good or Bad
We distort our attributions to match our like or dislike for someone. You would attribute the behavior to an internal cause. You relieve your friend of responsibility by attributing his or her action to external causes. And also, if someone we like does something positive, we attribute it to his or her personality, but when those we dislike do something positive, we attribute it to external reasons or to some darker motivation.
D How to Improve Your Perceptual Skills in Intercultural Communication
(1)Increase Your Understanding of the Perceptual Process
You need to understand the process through which you make sense of the world and other people. Don't take your conclusions about others for granted. Question your perceptions and analyze the process through which you arrive at perceptual conclusions. And use your knowledge of the perceptual process to sharpen your own perceptions and conclusions.
(2) Increase Your Observational Acuity
You can increase the amount of information that you process from your senses by consciously attending to the input. When you interact with others, try to identify one new thing each time to focus on and observe. Each observation will provide information that potentially can improve the quality of your interactions. Try to notice
as much detail as possible, but keep the entire picture in view.
(3) Recognize the Elements to Which You Attribute Meaning
The perception process involves attributing meaning to what we perceive. We do this so automatically that we often fail to realize that we have attributed meaning to something. Therefore, we also fail to recognize the effect it might have on what we do and say. Try to become aware of the stimuli to which you attribute meaning. Take an inventory of your own perceptual tendencies. When you become more aware of what you attend to and when you are attributing meaning, you can then decide whether you are giving proper weight to the elements you perceive.
(4) Check Your Perceptions
You can check out the accuracy of your perceptions and attributions indirectly and directly. Indirect perception checking involves seeking additional information through passive perception to either confirm or refute your interpretations. Direct perception checking involves asking straight out whether your interpretations of a perception are correct. This is often not easy to do for several reasons: we don't like to admit uncertainty or suspicions to others; we might not trust that they will respond honestly; if our interpretations are wrong, we might suffer embarrassment or anger. But asking someone to confirm a perception shows that you are committed to understanding his or her behavior.
(5) Increase Your Awareness of Perceptual Inaccuracies and Compensate for Them
As you read through the list of distorting factors above, some of them should have struck a familiar chord. Keep in mind which distortions tend to color your perceptions of others and be aware of their effect. For example, if you know you are likely to interpret the behavior of people you don’t like in a negative way, regardless of their intentions, then you can question your interpretations and correct them if necessary. (6) Increase Your Awareness of Others’ Perceptions of you
The best athletes don't avoid hearing criticisms and observations from their coaches. Instead, they seek out as much feedback as they can about what they are doing right and wrong. Olympic training often involves the use of videotaped replays and computer analysis so that athletes can see themselves as others see them and use that perspective to improve their performance. It is difficult to be objective about our own behavior, so feedback from others can help us with our self-perceptions. The strongest relationships are those in which the partners are both willing to share and be receptive to the perceptions of the other.
(7) Develop Social Decentering, Empathy, and Other-Orientation
Effective interpersonal perception depends upon our ability to understand where others are coming from, to get inside their heads, to see things from their perspective. We have already introduced the importance of social decentering and empathy in interpersonal communication. They enable us to increase our understanding of others,
and they improve our ability to predict and adapt, to increase our communication effectiveness, and to achieve our interpersonal goals. To improve your ability to decenter (to focus on the thoughts of others), strive for two key goals: (1) gather as much knowledge about the circumstances that are affecting the other person as possible; and (2) gather as much knowledge about the other person as possible.
Chapter VII Intercultural Communication Barriers
1. Emotional problems and barriers in intercultural communication
Anxiety
Anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction.
Case Analysis: Unnecessary Anxiety or Not?
Sugawara (1993) surveyed 168 Japanese employees of Japanese companies working in the United States and 135 of their U.S coworkers. Only 8% of the U.S. coworkers felt impatient with the Japanese coworkers’ English. Whil e 19% of the Japanese employees felt their spoken English was poor or very poor and 20% reported feeling nervous when speaking English with U.S. coworkers, 30% of the Japanese employees felt that the U.S. coworkers were impatient with their accent, and almost 60% believed that language was the problem in communicating with the U.S. coworkers. For some Japanese workers, anxiety over speaking English properly contributed to avoiding interactions with the U.S. coworkers and limiting interactions both on and off the job to other Japanese only.
Assuming similarity instead of difference
It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. Each culture is different and unique to some degree.
On the other hand, assuming difference instead of similarity can also result in one’s not recognizing important things that cultures share in common and it hinders people in IC.
2. Attitudinal problems
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture to be ethnocentric is to believe in the superiority of one’s own culture.
Various forms of ethnocentric attitude:
My culture should be the role model for other cultures.
I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.
Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.
People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.
I do not cooperate with people who are different.
I do not trust people who are different.
I dislike interacting with people from different cultures.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes.
The consequence of stereotyping is that the vast degree of differences that exists among the members of any one group may not be taken into account in the interpretation of messages. dimensions of stereotypes
Stereotypes vary along 5 major dimensions: direction, intensity, specificity, consensus, and accuracy.
?Direction refers to whether the stereotype is positive or negative.
?Intensity refers to how strongly the stereotype is held.
?Specificity relates to the nature of the stereotype.
?Consensus deals with how well accepted or well known certain stereotypes are within a
community.
?Accuracy refers to how correct a stereotype is in describing the other group.
Prejudice
Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.
Prejudice involves an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people.
An example might be that women should not be in positions of power because they are not as logical or competent as men.
The root of prejudice is seeing difference as a threat.
Racism is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.
Racism
Racism is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.
It involves not only prejudice, but also the exercise of power over individuals based on their race. It can be conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional.
Reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism are commonly viewed as being rooted in the child’s early socialization and fostered in communication with other people w ho are prejudiced or racist.
Researchers have suggested various reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudiced or racist. They are socialization, social benefits, economic benefits and psychological benefits.
?Socialization means that they are learned. Many of them are passed on from parents to
children, sometimes in subtle messages such as “we don’t associate with people like that” or “be careful when you are with them”.
?Social benefits means that they may bring support from others who share them.
?Economic benefits refers to that they can be strong when there is direct competition for
job.
?Psychological benefits means that they can be used to generate a feeling of superiority
and to explain a complex world in terms of simple causes a s in saying “those people are the source of all our problems”.
3. Translation problems
The lack of
a.V ocabulary equivalence
b. Idiomatic equivalence
c. Grammatical-syntactical equivalence
d. Experiential equivalence
e. Conceptual equivalence.
Overcoming Intercultural Communication Barriers
1 Raise awareness
a.Self-awareness
b.Consciousness of one’s values and biases and their effect
c.Necessity of becoming comfortable with differences
d.Sensitivity to circumstances
2 Obtain knowledge
We can obtain knowledge by reading books, surfing on the internet and communicating with people from different cultures.
3 Enhance motivation
4 Master skills
Cultural-general skills
Cultural-specific skills
Step4
Supplimentary Materials
1. Key Terms:
1 焦虑
焦虑产生的原因：在新的环境下，人们不知道如何应对，过多的关注自己情绪。例如：第一天到大学报到或第一天到新环境上班时的情绪。
2 假定一致性
从自己看待事物的角度来判断别人的想法被称之为认知角度的假定一致性.例如：一位丹麦女性将自己14月大的孩子放在餐馆外，被涉嫌侵犯当地法律而被监禁。这是因为她出到纽约，感到周围的外部环境与哥本哈根的相似，因此，她误认为这里的一切都与自己的家乡一样，自己的这种行为不有不当之处。
3 民族优越感从本文化的角度片面的审视其他民族的文化。例如：“西方”“东方”的界定被称为典型的欧洲中心种族主义。所谓“东方”是在欧洲的东面，换言之，是以欧洲为参照物来界定的
4 定势:针对目标群体的成员所持有的（过于简单的）正面或反面的判断。人们经常认为定势只含有否定贬义的意思。然而，定势还包括盲目积极方面的判断，例如：认为所有的医生都是聪明机智的。
5 偏见：对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教、或性取向的无端地憎恶和怀疑。例如：对非裔美国人和西班牙裔美国人的报到普遍都是否定的。
5.1 种族主义/种族偏见
指基于种族把性格特点或地位归因于个人的任一政策、做法、信仰或态度。
2. Additional Information:
翻译障碍
a 缺乏词汇的对等性
b 缺乏成语的对等性
c 缺乏语法和句法的对等性
d 缺乏相应的经历
e 缺乏概念的对等性
References
1．跨文化交流Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter 北京大学出版社2004 Page 209—229
2. 跨文化交际学贾玉新上海外语教育出版社1997 Page 28—49
3. 跨文化交际导论宋莉哈尔滨工业大学出版社2004 Page 223—234
4. 全球环境中的跨文化沟通Linda Beamer & Iris Verner 清华大学出版社2003 Page 79—81
5. 跨文化交际英语教程许力生上海外语教育出版社2004 Page 87—101
6. Intercultural Communication in Contexts Judith N.Martin & Thomas K. Nakayama..
McGraw-Hill Publishing House1997, Page .167—172
7. American Cultural Patterns Edward C. Stewart & Milton J.Ben nett Intercultrual Press.Inc. Page 15--17
Chapter 5 Verbal Intercultural Communication
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
?Understand the definition of verbal communication.
?Describe the relation between language and culture.
?Summarize the verbal communication styles.
?Understand the phenomenon of language diversity.
?Evaluate the written communication pattern.
A: Significance of Verbal Communication
V erbal intercultural communication
Verbal intercultural communication happens when people
from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.
We use words to
communicate with the outside world.
share the past.
exercise some control over the present.
form images of the future.
B: Language and Culture
Word differences are obvious
in various languages. The
relation between word and its
meaning is arbitrary. For
example, in Chinese, we live
in a 房子. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live in a casa. In Thai, we live in a ban.
1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
linguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure
controls thoughts and cultural norms.
linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.
Eg. In Arabic, the camel plays
significant roles in people’s life,
so there are more than 40 words
for “camel”.
Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢” and “铁饭碗”.
2. Language as a Reflection of the Environment
The environment influences the appropriate vocabulary.
Language reflects the environment in which we live.
Eg. In the Amazon area snow is not a part of the environment; therefore, people in that region do not have a word for snow.
Most Americans use terms such as snow, powder snow, sleet, slush, blizzard, and ice.
3. Language as a Reflection of V alues
Language reflects cultural values.
Eg. Time does not play a role in Navajo life. As a result, the Navajo do not have the differentiated vocabulary connected with time and clocks.
One of the problems in dealing with people from other
cultures is that we translate concepts from a foreign
language and culture with words that fit our expectations.
Eg. For Americans “tomorrow” means midnight to midnight, a very precise time period. To Mexicans, in contrast, ma?ana means in the future, soon.
4. The Meaning of Words
Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings. The results can be humorous, annoying, or costly, depending on the circumstances.
Eg. For the American, “administration”
in the university context means
department chair or dean. For the
French, “administration” means
upper-level clerical staff.
C: Verbal Communication Styles
Culture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style is
concerned with the use of language.
1.Direct and Indirect V erbal Interaction Styles
In the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.
Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.
In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.
Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.
2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement V erbal Styles
The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.
Eg. In the classifie d ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, athletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”
The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.
Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “Although I am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”
Different Ways of Serving Tea
3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct Styles
An elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-American cultures.
An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.
A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements, and
even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some Native American cultures
4. Personal and Contextual Style
The personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.
The contextual style highlights one’s role identity and status.
Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).
5. Instrumental and Affective Style
An instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental
speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. The burden of understanding often rests with the speaker.
An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but with the process.
The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.
D: Language Diversity
The notion of a language is not monolithic and there really exist many types or varieties of the same language. Some language variations result from the language user, that is, his or her geographical origin (dialect), or his or her social condition (sociolect). However, some language variations result from the circumstances of communication, such as pidgin and Lingua Franca, taboo and euphemism as well as jargon.
1. Dialects and Sociolects
Dialects refer to geographical differences and these differences can be national, regional or local.
Eg. American English and British English; Northern English dialects and Southern English dialects; London dialect and Manchester dialect.
Sociolects refer not only to one’s social condition but also to one’s style according to the communicative situation.
Eg. So-called “Received Pronunciation” in British English has become characteristic of upper class speech in Britain in the 19th century. In a formal situation, one might say “How do you do, Mr. Mullins?” but, in an informal situation, one could say “Hi, Jim” or “How’re things going?”
2. Pidgin and Lingua Franca
A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages for restricted
purposes such as trading.
Pidgin languages possess two characteristics. First, they have no native speakers. Second, the linguistic and grammatical structure of pidgin languages is always simple and based on one or two other languages.
Eg. “Long time no see!” is an example
of a pidgin expression coined by
early Chinese immigrants in the
United States.
A Lingua Franca is also used for communication purposes between different groups of
people, each speaking a different language. It is viewed as an international means of communication.
Eg. Latin was a Lingua Franca in the Middle Ages and French became a Lingua Franca in the 18th century. Today English is
considered a Lingua Franca.
3. Taboo and Euphemism
Taboo refers to prohibition of a set of behaviors that should be avoided because they are offensive and impolite.
Eg. Number 4 is taboo to the Chinese.
Euphemism is the linguistic counterpart of taboo because it substitutes the offensive and disturbing vocabulary.
Eg. “senior citizen” instead of “old people”;“deprived” or “underprivileged” instead of “poor people”.
4. Jargon
Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law. Jargon may change over time.
Eg. “touch-and-go” used by pilots.
In a gambling casino “stiff” is now used to replace “Tom” to describe a poor tipper, and “live one” rather than “George” is used to describe a good tipper.
E: Cultural Influence on Written Communication
People should be aware that culture has some unavoidable impact on written communication. Business writing is an important aspect of written communication. The organization of routine messages organization has basically two styles: direct plan and indirect plan.
1. Direct Plan
In direct-plan reports, people should avoid ambiguity, get the message across clearly, and be concise. Sentences are short and use a subject-verb-object pattern instead of complex structures. Active-voice verbs are considered more effective than passive voice verbs. The main message is put in the first sentence. This plan is favored by results-oriented cultures. Eg. American business messages.
2. Indirect Plan
The indirect plan does not put the main message in the first sentence. This plan has other priorities than the quick delivery of ideas, such as nurturing a relationship or developing some other context for the message. Indirectness is often accompanied by deliberate ambiguity. This plan is favored by relationship-oriented culture.
Eg. Japanese business messages.
Chapter 6 Nonverbal Intercultural Communication
Learning objectives :
1.to understand the significance of nonverbal intercultural communication
2.to perceive the definition of nonverbal intercultural communication
3.to describe the functions of nonverbal intercultural communication
4. to summarize the categories of nonverbal intercultural communication
A:Significance of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal behavior is a significant area of communication study for at least three reasons.
?Nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from conversations.
?Nonverbal behavior spontaneously reflects the subconsciousness.
?We cannot avoid communicating through nonverbal signals.
?Besides, nonverbal behavior is significant because nonverbal communication can be open
to many interpretations.
B:Definition and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Definition of Nonverbal Communication
The Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Definition of Nonverbal
Communication
The messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication.
The Functions of Nonverbal Communication
a. Repeating
People use nonverbal communication to repeat, clarify, and emphasize their point of view. For example, nod as saying “yes”.
b. Complementing
Nonverbal communication cues can add to or complement a verbal message.
For example, scratch head.
Smiling and saying “Hi, how are you”
c. Substituting
Nonverbal messages may substitute
verbal ones in certain settings.
There are situations in which words
cannot be used. In a very noisy street, for
example, police officer might use hand
gestures to replace spoken messages.
d. Regulating
Nonverbal behaviors can help control verbal interactions by regulating them, such as turn-taking signals (hand raised, breaking eye contact) in conversations
e. Contradicting
Certain nonverbal behaviors can contradict spoken words.
For example, Breaking your eye contact while saying, “Nice talking to you,” contradicts a speaker’s po sitive verbal message.
Shrinking back and frowning while saying, “I love you”
Yawning as someone talks
nonstop. The yawn suggests
that you are getting bored.
C:Paralanguage and Silence
1. paralanguage(副语言)
2. silence (沉默)
Paralanguage
the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.
跨文化交际论文题目
1.英文原声电影赏析与跨文化交际能力的培养 2."跨文化非语言交际语用失误研究 3."公示语翻译中的语用失误探析 4.国内广告语言语用失误研究现状与分析 5."全球化语境下跨文化交际失误语用归因 6."跨文化交际中的语用失误类型及对策研究 7."基于礼貌原则的跨文化语用失误分析 8."跨文化言语交际中的语用负迁移 9."浅析化妆品广告中的语用预设 10."中西方饮食文化的比较研究 11."中美时间观之对比 1 2."浅析汉英问候语中的文化差异 13."英汉词汇的文化内涵差异探析 14."英语身体语的交际功能研究 1 5."浅谈英汉身势语的表意功能之差异 16."目标语文化的理解与跨文化交际 1 7."中西文化差异对中国学生英语学生的影响 18."跨文化交际中的文化误读
9."浅析文化差异对商务谈判的影响 20."英语禁忌语的文化内涵异同研究 21."英语学习中的文化习得 2 2."英汉思维模式的差异对跨文化交际的影响 23."外语学习者的思辨能力与跨文化交际之成效 24."培养英语学习者跨文化交际能力之策略 25."英汉道歉语差异及原因 26."中西跨文化礼貌语差异探析 27."英汉语言中礼貌表达法之比较 28."英汉习惯用语的文化内涵探源 29."英语称赞语及其回应的异同研究 3 0."中美（西）家庭教育理念的差异及其对孩子的影响 31."中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的主要障碍研究 32."试析跨文化交际中角色互动的作用 3 3."本土文化与异国文化的冲突对跨文化交际的影响 34."跨文化交际中的时间观差异 35."论跨文化交际中的中西餐桌礼仪
6."关于提升英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的培养 37."涉外婚姻中的中西文化冲突 38."论跨文化广告传播中食品商标的翻译439."多媒体教学与跨文化交际能力的培养40."中西方儿童文学的差异 4 1."中西体育文化的差异及其受全球化发展的影响 42."中西传统休闲文化及其价值观的对比分析 43."简爱与林黛玉不同命运的文化透析 44."国际商务活动中礼貌原则的应用 4 5."论文化背景知识在外语阅读教学中的作用 46."国际商务交际活动中的非语言交际 47."浅析英汉汽车商标的特点及其翻译 48."英汉隐喻差异的文化阐释 49."文化语境下的英汉植物词 50."文化语境下的英汉动物词 51."从体态语探析中西文化差异 52."浅析英汉颜色词的文化内涵 53."文化视野下英语谚语的比较
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
Unit 1 Page 22 The growth of intercultural communication as a field of study is based on a view of hi story that clearly demonstrates people and cultures have been troubled by a persistent i nability to understand and get along with groups and societies removed by space, ideol ogy, appearance, and behavior from their own. What is intriguing about many of huma n civilization's failure is that they appear to be personal as well as global. The story of h umankind is punctuated with instances of face-to-face conflicts as well as international misunderstanding--major and minor quarrels that range from simple name-calling to i solationism or even armed conflict. It is obvious that increased contact with other cultures and subcultures makes it impe rative for us to make a concerted effort to get along with and to try to understand peop le whose beliefs and backgrounds may be vastly different from our own. The ability, thr ough increased awareness and understanding, to peacefully coexist with people who do not necessarily share our lifestyles or values could benefit us not only in our own neigh borhoods but could be the decisive factor in maintaining world peace. 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰 和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在 发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充 满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去 理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我 们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的 安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 Unit 2 Page 60 Culture is sometimes referred to as our mental programming，our “software of the mind. ” But we can take that computer analogy further and say that culture is the operating environment that enables software programs to run. Culture is like DOS or Unix or Windows：it is what enables us to process information in various specific application. The metaphor of windows seems to be very appealing to describe culture: culture is a mental set of windows through which all of life is viewed. It various from individual to individual within a society, but it shares important characteristics with menbers of a society. Culture is like the water fish swim in┄a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. it is in the air we breath and is as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life. Culture is the property of a community of people, not simply a characteristic of individuals. Societies are programmed by culture, and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean. If culture is mental programming, it is also a mental map of reality. It tells us from early childhood what matters, what to prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. Culture
跨文化交际基础知识
跨文化交际基础知识
跨文化交际基础知识 【复习指南】 这部分内容主要涉及跨文化交际的基本理论及较为常见的日常交际礼仪，在选择题、填空题、判断题中所占比例较少，但与案例分析部分紧密结合；建议考生复习此块内容时，注意相关理论概念在实际案例中的运用。考生可重点看胡文仲《跨文化交际学》或吴为善的《跨文化概论》，这两本书对于跨文化交际的基本概念、基础理论等都有全面介绍。 【知识点归纳】 1.重点概念： （1）文化：culture，涉及内容十分广泛，不同研究者有不同定义。 广义文化：指人类社会实践过程中所获得的物质、精神的生产能力和创造的物质、精神财富的总和。 狭义文化：精神生产能力和精神产品，包括一切社会意识形式；自然科学、技术科学、社会意识形式。英国人类学家泰勒1871年在《原始文化》中提到的定义影响很大。 总的来说，文化是人类社会创造的财富，包括食物、器具，也包括信念、价值观、习俗、知识。可分为物质文化、制度文化和观念文化。 其特性是：人类独有；来自后天习得；大部分存在于人的潜意识；是行动的指南；动态，与一定历史时期相联系。 （2）交际：就是人与人之间的往来交际活动，文化在交际中得到发展与传播。跨文化交际中的交际主要指人际间通过语言等交际工具进行的直接或间接的信息交流和沟通活动。 （3）编码与解码 交际是一个编码和解码的过程；编码是把思想、感情、意识等编成语码的过程，解码是对外界接受的符号或信息赋予意义或进行解释的过程。
“他定势” 定势概念应用到跨文化交际上后，称为文化定势(又译文化定型或刻板印象)，是指人们在跨文化交际研究或跨文化实际交往中对不同文化背景的民族和国家成员的笼统的、先验的看法。 （4）文化冲突 指两种或者两种以上的文化相互接触所产生的竞争和对抗状态。最早由由哈佛大学国际关系教授萨缪尔·亨廷顿（Samuel Huntington )在《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》中提出。 （5）文化曲解 不同民族、社区和集团的的文化，有不同的价值目标和价值取向，并且常常各自以自己的文化为优越，视其他文化为危险物；当其他文化在传播、接触的时候，便会有不顾客观事实歪曲原意或作错误理解。文化曲解既是文化冲突的诱发因素，也是文化冲突的表现。 （6）主流文化与亚文化 主流文化是一个社会、一个时代受到倡导的、起着主要影响、具有群体认同的文化。 亚文化（subculture）:又称小文化、集体文化或副文化，指某一文化群体所属次级群体的成员共有的独特信念、价值观和生活习惯，与主文化相对应的那些非主流的、局部的文化现象。 （7）文化距离 是指不同文化之间的差异程度，主要包括语言方面的差异、生活习惯的差异、社会文化方面的差异等。 （8）文化休克 “文化休克”，Cultural Shock，是1958年美国人类学家奥博格(Kalvero Oberg)提出来的概念。是指一个人进入到不熟悉的文化环境时，因失去自己熟悉的所有社会交流的符号与手段而产生的一种迷失、疑惑、排斥甚至恐惧的感觉。 文化休克常见于移民当中或者是在一个社会内，不同文化背景的民族因文化生活环境发生根本性改变的时候。
新编跨文化交际期末复习资料
1.Iceberg:{Edward. 7. Hall.--
如何培养英语跨文化交际能力
如何培养英语跨文化交际能力 中宁五中张永宏 摘要：本文通过分析我国英语教学现状，探索英语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的必要性，具体分析“跨文化交际能力”的三大组成，思考培养英语跨文化交际能力的具体方法。 关键词：跨文化交际语义文化语用文化 多年来，我国的英语教学主要采用传统的教学方法，即传统的听说法“with its end less and mind-numbing repetitive drills”和古老的以教师为中心的语法—翻译法。教师往往只注重学生语言形式的正确与否或使用是否流畅，而较少注重结合语言使用的场合来培养学生综合运用的能力。学生在这种教学模式下，经过十几年的英语学习，即使是有些成绩很好的学生也不能用所学的英语同外国人进行有效地交流。为了改变这种现状，人们必然对英语教学提出新的要求。而跨文化交际能力的培养却能在一定程度上弥补传统教学的这种缺陷。 首先，何为跨文化交际呢？“跨文化交际”的英语名称是“intercultural communication”或“cross-cultural communication”，它既指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际，也指任何在语言和社会文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。由于不同的民族所处的生态、物质社会及宗教等环境的不同，因而各自的语言环境产生了不同的社会文化、风土人情和语言习惯等诸语境因素，造成人们不同的说话方式或习惯话语。这就可能使交际双方对对方的话语做出不准确地推论，从而产生冲突、误会或交际的故障。 跨文化交际能力就是针对文化冲突提出来的，它是一种在理解、掌握外国文化知识与交际技能的基础上，灵活处理跨文化交际中出现的实际问题的能力。 一、英语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的必要性。 1、近年来, 随着改革开放步伐的加快, 对外交往日益频繁, 国与国之间的交流也越来越 广泛, 特别是社会信息化提高, 国际互联网的开通使更多的人足不出户便涉及到跨 文化交际。中国成功地加入WTO后，国际市场对能用英语熟练有效地交际的复合型人才的大量需求给外语教学提出了新的挑战，所以培养跨文化交际能力有其现实意义。 2、培养跨文化交际能力有助于我们要打破以往“就语言教语言”的模式，把交际因素引 进到英语教学中来，在英语教学过程中揭示那些隐伏在语言背后的，易引起误会和冲突的文化因素。掌握语言不只是掌握语法、音位和语义规则，还必须考虑到外国社会文化背景造成的语言之外的规则。 3、培养跨文化交际能力有利于处理好语言和文化的关系。语言和文化是不可分割的，二 者相互依存、相互影响。语言是文化的载体，又是文化的重要组成部分，也是文化的
《跨文化交际》_名词解释
1.Globalization is considered as a process of increasing involvment in international business operations. 经济学视角中的全球化表现为不断增加的国际商务往来过程。 2.Macroculture:The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming one large society. 宏观文化意味着种族差异的消失和一个大社会的形成。 3.Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationlities. 熔炉:不同背景和国籍的人们之间的社会文化的同化。 4.Microcultures:cultures within cultures 微观文化：文化中的文化 5.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. 跨文化交际:指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人文之间进行的交际。 Chapter 1 6.Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. 文化是习得的一套关于信仰，价值观，规范的公认的解释，这些信仰，价值观，规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。 7.Culture identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. 文化身份：指有意识地把自己归为某一特定文化或种族群体。 8.Subculture are formed by groups of people possessing characteristic traits that set apart and distinguish them from others within a larger society or dominant culture. 亚文化:具有能在更大的一个社会范围内或主流文化中使自己有别于他人的特点的人类群体所形成的文化。 9.Subgroup are groups with the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communication problems. 亚群体:与主流文化不一致，并与主流文化有交际障碍的交际群体。 10.Rules may refers to socially agreed-on behavior or to individual guidelines for behavior. 规则:社会认同的行为或行为的个体原则。 11.Norms are culturally ingrained principles of correct and incorrect behaviors which, if broken carry a form of overt or covert penalty. 规范指的是正确和不正确行为根深蒂固的文化原则，这种不正确的行为一旦发生，就意味着一种显性或隐性的处罚。 Chapter 2 12.Enculturation is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society. 社会文化适应：人们学习适应自己所在社会的文化的社会化过程。 13.Acculturation refers to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and
跨文化交际期末试题[完整]
考试需知：考试前每一列学生把课本放在第一排。考试时间为2．5个小时，试卷1为闭卷考试，前面40分钟用于完成试卷1。待老师收上试卷1后，发下课本，学生做试卷2，试卷2 为开卷考试。可携带纸质词典进考场，不许携带电子词典及手机进考场。 Test Paper 1 Ⅰ. Filling the blanks: 1.Generally speaking, in terms of contextuality, the communication in the West is low-contextual while that in the East is high-contextual 2.Generally speaking, in terms of world views, the West adopts Dualistic view, while the East adopt s holistic view 3.Generally speaking, in terms of thought patterns, the West follows Analytic and abstract thinking, while the East follows synthetic and concrete thinking 4.Generally speaking, in terms of discourse patterns, the West uses Deductive pattern, while the East uses inductive pattern 5In the Axial Age, the great thinkers in China are Confucius,
跨文化交际研究现状
跨文化交际研究现状 中国跨文化外语教学的研究有近 60年的历史，近些年来有了更快的发展。如今，外语教学中有关跨文化交际能力的培养已经引起了许多教育家，语言学家的极大关注。外语教学应当结合相关文化来进行，这一点似乎已经成为当今外语教学界的共识。近年来，文化成了热门话题，文章和论著都有不少。无论是讨论教学还是教材，教学大纲还是课程设计，几乎无一不强调外语教学中的文化导入，强调在习得语言的同时习得相关的文化。而我们的英语教学侧重于语言教学，对文化方面涉及不多致使学生一开口常常是“汉语思维，英语形式”。在跨文化交际中，交际双方若不能进入同一文化背景之中，就容易产生不解或误解，导致交际失败。正如托马斯(Thomas)指出:“语法错误从表层上能看出，受话者很容易发现这种错误，这种错误一旦发现，受话者便会认为说话者缺乏足够的语言知识，因此可以谅解。语用失误却不会被像语法错误一样看待。如果一个能说出一口流利英语的人出现语用失误，他可能会被认为缺乏礼貌或不友好，他在交际中的失误便不会被归咎于语言能力的缺乏，而会被归咎于他的粗鲁或敌意。” 跨文化交际能力的培养需要在外语教学中进行文化教学。现在外语教学中对跨文化交际能力的培养以及文化教学很多只停留在文化知识层面，这就要求教师在教学中必须加大文化信息量的导入，引导学生主动发觉文化差异方面的信息。只有这样，教师才能从根本上提高英语教学的质量，学生也才能有掌握实际运用语言的能力。如今跨文化交际能力的培养是勿庸置疑的，关键问题是在于如何培养。高一虹教授指出，新的跨文化交际能力的培养模式应该有以下特点:1.它以文化意识的培养为中心，有对文化多元性的意识和对差异的宽容态度，对异文化共情能力，以及对自身文化价值观念及行为方式的觉察和反省。2 .注重态度和情感层面，也包括认知层面，特别是批判性的反思能力。3. 不限于目的语文化，而是通用于与任何
跨文化交际
【知识点归纳】 1.重点概念： （1）文化：culture，涉及内容十分广泛，不同研究者有不同定义。 广义文化：指人类社会实践过程中所获得的物质、精神的生产能力和创造的物质、精神财富的总和。 狭义文化：精神生产能力和精神产品，包括一切社会意识形式；自然科学、技术科学、社会意识形式。英国人类学家泰勒1871年在《原始文化》中提到的定义影响很大。 总的来说，文化是人类社会创造的财富，包括食物、器具，也包括信念、价值观、习俗、知识。可分为物质文化、制度文化和观念文化。总的来说，文化是人类社会创造的财富，包括食物、器具，也包括信念、价值观、习俗、知识。可分为物质文化、制度文化和观念文化。 其特性是：人类独有；来自后天习得；大部分存在于人的潜意识；是行动的指南；动态，与一定历史时期相联系。 （2）交际：就是人与人之间的往来交际活动，文化在交际中得到发展与传播。跨文化交际中的交际主要指人际间通过语言等交际工具进行的直接或间接的信息交流和沟通活动。 （3）编码与解码 交际是一个编码和解码的过程；编码是把思想、感情、意识等编成语码的过程，解码是对外界接受的符号或信息赋予意义或进行解释的过程。 （4）言语交际与非言语交际言语交际是指使用语言作为交际媒介； 非言语交际是指使用除语言以外的交际工具作为交际媒介，例如：文字、盲文、手语、手势、旗语、号语等。 （5）跨文化交际 广义：具有不同文化背景的人们之间进行的交际往来或信息传播与沟通活动。 狭义：在特定的交际情景中，具有不同的文化背景的交际者使用同一种语言进行的口语交际。 影响跨文化交际的主要因素：民族的历史与传统、宗教思想、价值观念、社会组织形式、风俗习惯、政治制度、社会发展阶段；阶层、职业、年龄、性别等方面。（6）文化模式分为特殊的文化模式和普遍的文化模式两类。 特殊的文化模式是指各民族或国家具有的独特的文化体系。 普遍的文化模式是指一切文化都是由各个不同的部分组成的，这种文化构造适用于任何一个民族的文化。美国人类学家C．威斯勒尔认为，普遍的文化模式包括：①语言；②物质特质；③美术；④神话与科学知识；⑤宗教习惯；⑥家庭与社会体制；⑦财产；⑧政府；⑨战争。 （7）文化深层结构 亦称为“文化潜意识”，相对于文化表层结构而言。指一个民族族体在历史的积淀中形成的固定心态，在一种文化中既不产生律动也不产生突变的心理层次。有些学者认为，西方文化的深层结构是“不断地追求变动，渴望不断地超越”；而中国文化，乃至东方文化则具有静态的目的性，寻求天下太平，维持整个结构的平稳和不变 （8）文化定势 “定势”的概念，最先是由美国政治评论家Lippmann 在1922 年出版的《公
(完整版)新编跨文化交际英语教程翻译1-10单元
1 Translation 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 2 Translation 文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，我们“头脑的软件”。但是，我们可以进一步引申这个用电脑所做的类比，把文化看作是支持运行的操作环境。文化就像电脑使用的DOS或者Unix或者“视窗”（Windows）等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样的实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵的视窗，透过它我们审视生活的方方面面。一个社会中不同个体的视窗是不大一样的，但都有着一些重要的共同特征。 文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中的水一般，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在的事实，因而很少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸的空气之中，文化对于我们了解我们自身之为何物是必不可少的，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体的共有财产，而不单是个体的特征。社会按照文化设定的程序运作，这种程序来自于相似的生活体验以及对这种生活体验之含义的相似阐释。 如果文化是一种心智程序，那么它也是现实的心灵地图。从我们很小的时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、规避什么和做些什么，文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样。文化为我们提供超越个体经验可能的理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑的人或事。文化为我们建立起行为准则，并视遵守这些准则的行为为正当、合法。 3 Translation 43
跨文化交际(胡超版)期末试题
跨文化交际(胡超版)期末试题
Test Paper Ⅰ. Filling the blanks: 1.G enerally speaking, in terms of contextuality, the communication in the West is low-contextual while that in the East is high-contextual 2.G enerally speaking, in terms of world views, the We st adopts Dualistic view, while the East adopts holistic view 3.G enerally speaking, in terms of thought patterns, the West follows Analytic and abstract thinking, while the East follows synthetic and concrete thinking 4.Generally speaking, in terms of discourse patterns, the West uses Deductive pattern, while the East uses inductive pattern 5In the Axial Age, the great thinkers in China are Confucius, Lao Tze, Mo Tze, and the great thinker in India is Siddhartha Gautama, the great figure in Palestine are Hebrew prophets, and the great thinkers in the West are Plato, Homer and Archimedes Ⅱ. Choose the best answer: 1.Non-verbal messages are classified into two comprehensive categories: those that are primarily produced by the body, such as_________,________,_______; and those that the individual combines with the setting, such as _______, _______, _______.D A.physical contact, eye contact, paralanguage; space, time, man B.facial expression, touch, taste; space, time, silence C.appearance, movement, gesture; surrounding, occasion, man D.movement, smell, paralanguage; space, time, silence 2.In Chinese writing, there are usually more adjectives, proverbs and allusions than in English writing. Some Western scholars name this style “flowery”, stating that its aim is to give a more fanciful impression than information, and the information is usually of beauty, fragrance, happiness, and any other “goodness”aspects so as to attract people. We may term this style as_______-oriented. Western writing is more direct with objective inform ation. To them, much-repeated words may mean less after a while. We may term the Western writing as ________-oriented.C A. adjective, objective B. Chinese, Western C. impression, information C. indirect, direct 3. As to the human nature orientation, the traditional Western belief holds that _______, while the Asian people believe that_______.B A. basically good; basically bad B. evil but perfectible, basically good C. the mixture of good and evil; the mixture of good and evil; D. unknown 4. As to the Man-Nature orientation, the traditional Western belief holds that _______, while the Asian people believe that_______.D A. subjugation to nature; harmony with nature B. harmony with nature; mastery over nature
浅析跨文化交际能力
跨文化交际导论课程论文 Abstract With the gradual development of the economic globalization’s trend, exchanges between countries become more and more closer, and the shock or conflicts among countries is inevitable. It is very significant to master the intercultural communication competence so that we can exchange and cooperate people from different regions much better. This article may give a brief overview on what is intercultural communication, the real function of getting the communicative skills, the basic information of university students’ cross-cultural communication, what capabilities we need to know，and how to improve abilities in cross-cultural communication. Keywords: intercultural communication, communication competence, present situation, methods of improving intercultural communication competence.
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
Unit 1 Page 22 The growth of intercultural communication as a field of study is based on a view o f history that clearly demonstrates people and cultures have been troubled by a pers istent inability to understand and get along with groups and societies removed by sp ace, ideology, appearance, and behavior from their own. What is intriguing about m any of human civilization's failure is that they appear to be personal as well as globa l. The story of humankind is punctuated with instances of face-to-face conflicts as w ell as international misunderstanding--major and minor quarrels that range from si mple name-calling to isolationism or even armed conflict. It is obvious that increased contact with other cultures and subcultures makes it i mperative for us to make a concerted effort to get along with and to try to understan d people whose beliefs and backgrounds may be vastly different from our own. The ability, through increased awareness and understanding, to peacefully coexist with p eople who do not necessarily share our lifestyles or values could benefit us not only i n our own neighborhoods but could be the decisive factor in maintaining world peac e. 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 Unit 2 Page 60 Culture is sometimes referred to as our mental programming，our “software of the mind. ” But we can take that computer analogy further and say that culture is the operating environment that enables software programs to run. Culture is like DOS or Unix or Windows：it is what enables us to process information in various specific application. The metaphor of windows seems to be very appealing to describe culture: culture is a mental set of windows through which all of life is viewed. It various from individual to individual within a society, but it shares important characteristics with menbers of a society. Culture is like the water fish swim in┄a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. it is in the air we breath and is as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life. Culture is the property of a community of people, not simply a characteristic of individuals. Societies are programmed by culture, and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean. If culture is mental programming, it is also a mental map of reality. It tells us from