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Parallel Hierarchical Radiosity On Cache-Coherent Multiprocessors

Parallel Hierarchical Radiosity On Cache-Coherent Multiprocessors
Parallel Hierarchical Radiosity On Cache-Coherent Multiprocessors

If no source interactions were subdivided:

For each source interaction:

Gather radiosity from source interaction.

If not a leaf interaction:

Push specular radiosity to each child.

Create a radiosity gathering task for each

child.

Else (interaction is a leaf):

Set interaction's radiosity

Pull specular radiosity up the interaction tree.

Else (some source interactions were subdivided):

Record that the destination interaction needs to gather radiosity from its list of source interactions with uncalculated visibility.

If count of source interactions with uncalculated visibility

has already dropped to 0:

Create a radiosity gathering task for the destination interaction Visibility Task

For each child of the interaction that was just subdivided:

If child interaction's visibility has already been computed or a task

to compute its visibility has already been created.

Return.

Compute the source and destination patches' mutual visibility.

For each destination interaction waiting for this interaction to have

its visibility computed:

Decrement the destination interaction's count of source

interactions with uncomputed visibility.

If the count has dropped to 0:

Create a radiosity gathering task for the destination

interaction.

Create a radiosity gathering task for the source interaction.

APPENDIX A: PSEUDO-CODE FOR SPECULAR-DIFFUSE RADIOSITY PROGRAM (for reviewers only - not for publication)

Initialize the Interactions

Create each patch's list of destination interactions and calculate the

the visibility of each destination interaction.

Create each destination interaction's list of source interactions.

Task to Refine a Destination Interaction

#Handle diffuse radiosity:

If interaction is diffuse and needs to be refined:

Subdivide the interaction.

Create a radiosity gathering task for the children.

If interaction is diffuse:

Gather radiosity from the source patch.

If this is the last destination interaction for the destination

patch to be refined this iteration:

If destination patch has been subdivided:

Push diffuse radiosity to its children.

For each of the destination patch's diffuse

interactions:

If the interaction has children interactions in

which the destination patch was subdivided:

Create a radiosity gathering task for each

child.

Else (destination patch is a leaf patch):

Set patch’s radiosity.

Pull radiosity up the patch quadtree.

#Handle specular radiosity:

For each of the destination interaction's source interactions whose visibility has been computed:

If this pair of interactions does not need to be refined:

Continue to the next source interaction.

Select a patch to be subdivided.

Subdivide the patch and interaction(s).

If interaction(s) have not been previously subdivided:

Create visibility task(s) for children.

If source interaction subdivided:

Add destination interaction to source child's list of interactions

waiting for the child’s visibility to be computed.

Add source child to destination interaction's list of source

interactions with uncalculated visibility.

Remove source interaction from destination interaction’s list of

source interactions.

If destination interaction subdivided:

Add source interaction to child destination interaction’s list of

source interactions with uncalculated visibility.

Remove source interaction from destination interaction’s list of

source interactions.

varying the relative sizes of the three shared pool segments could yield slight improvements in the performance of the specular-diffuse program. Allocating 60% of the shared lock pool to one segment (the one containing the lock that prevents two tasks from simultaneously refining an interaction) improves performances 2.5% compared to the control case where each of the three segments is given an equal allocation. Deadlocks were tedious to debug but the process would not be difficult to automate. A tool could assist in deadlock detection by attaching to all active processes and writing to a file both their stack traces and the lock ids of the locks they are blocked on. These data, along with trace information that shows which locks each process currently holds, can be used to determine a deadlock cycle. If the processes stored the lock ids of their currently held locks in a well known location, the deadlock cycle could be detected automatically.

CONCLUSIONS

The hierarchical method to compute the equilibrium distribution of specular and diffuse radiosity in a scene achieves good speedup on medium sized cache coherent parallel machines despite the irregular data accesses and dynamic nature of the algorithm. The program has sufficient parallelism and high enough degree of temporal locality that smart data placement in main memory, which would be very difficult, is not important. Because the decline in the lock wait percent time levels off quickly as the number of patches is increased, the speedup for larger scenes would not necessarily improve but should at least be no worse. The steady increase in the lock overhead as the number of processors is increased, and in particular the increase in lock wait time for the task queue lock, suggests that adding additional processors will gradually degrade the speedup attained unless the execution time per task is increased.REFERENCES

[1] Pat Hanrahan, David Salzman and Larry Aupperle, “A Rapid Hierarchical Radiosity Algorithm”, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1991. [2] Larry Aupperle and Pat Hanrahan,.”A Hierarchical Illumination Algorithm for Surfaces with Glossy Reflection,”Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1993.

[3] Jaswinder Pal Singh, Anoop Gupta, and Marc Levoy, “Parallel Visualization Algorithms: Performance and Architectural Implications”, IEEE Computer27(7):45-55, July 1994.

4] Thibault, W., Naylor, B., “Set operations on polyhedra, using binary space partitioning trees”, Computer Graphics 21(4).

[5] Daniel Lenoski, James Laudon, Kourosh Gharachorloo, Wolf-Dietrich Weber, Anoop Gupta, John Hennessy, Mark Horowitz, and Monica Lam, “The Stanford DASH Multiprocessor”,IEEE Computer 25(3):63-79, March 1992.

[[6] Margaret Martonosi, Anoop Gupta and Thomas Anderson, “Memspy: Analyzing Memory System Bottlenecks in Programs”,ACM SIGMETRICS Conference on the Measurement and Modeling of Computer Systems, June 1992. [7] Aaron J. Goldberg and John L. Hennessy,“Performance Debugging Shared Memory Multiprocessor Programs with MTOOL”, Proceedings of Supercomputing ’91, pp. 481-490, November 1991.

The “update vertex radiosity” lock could be eliminated by running the small task it is used in serially.

DISCUSSION

Several of the techniques used in the specular-diffuse program are of general interest to people writing parallel programs, particularly those that have similar complex synchronization requirements. In this section we discuss the debugging techniques we used, how we measured lock wait times, and the implementation of the task queues and the shared lock pool. We also propose a simple parallel programming tool that could have saved some time debugging deadlocks. The debugging relied heavily on trace statements and sanity checks. The items traced included each lock and unlock operation. The sanity checks were mostly to verify that a pointer that was about to be dereferenced did not have a null value. Null pointers were usually symptomatic of a critical region not having been protected by locks.

We attempted to measure the lock and memory overhead of the program using two parallel performance monitoring tools (Memspy [6] and Mtools [7]) on both real machines and simulators. However, the tools have not been exercised previously on a program of this complexity, and they either produced no output or output that was inconsistent and clearly spurious. This may have been because of the program’s large and complex memory requirements. We ended up using explicit timing calls in the source code to measure both lock waits and load imbalances. Timestamping every lock operation doubled the execution time of the program when using 90 patches and 32 CPUs, and it made the lock wait data unreliable. Consequently, we used statistical sampling on the most frequently used locks which reduced the overhead to 30%; the lock wait data was consistent across multiple runs and a range of reasonable sampling frequencies.

The lock wait data was instrumental in increasing the speedup of the program because it pinpointed what locks needed to have their critical regions tightened. For example, it was discovered that when a task was removed from the tail of a task queue, the entire queue was traversed while the lock was held so that the queue’s tail could be set to the second to last task in the queue. To fix this problem the task queue was converted from a singly linked list to a doubly linked list. This reduced the execution time by 25% for a 109 patch scene running on the SGI Challenge with 16 CPUs. Tightening the critical region around one highly contended lock (the one used to determine if all the preconditions for refining a task have been met) reduced the execution time by 5.1% on DASH using 90 patches and 32 CPUs. The lock was moved from outside an if-else clause to within the else block. In a few cases, closer examination showed that some uses of the busiest locks were not, in fact, necessary. The timestamps identified a load imbalance problem during the initialization of the destination interactions which we were able to correct, improving performance by 4.5%, and they also showed that the visibility and radiosity gathering tasks had no load balancing problem.

Our programming environment limits a program to using 4096 locks. The program, however, can require over a half million locks. Most of the locks are used by the data structures that represent the over 100,000 interactions, each of which contains five locks. A shared pool of locks was used to overcome the 4096 lock limitation. The shared pool contains 4000 locks and when a data structure is initialized it sets pointers to locks from the shared pool. Hence, each lock entry in the pool is used by many data structures. If a task tries to hold two locks at the same time and the two locks happened to use the same lock from the shared pool, then the program would deadlock. To prevent this, the shared lock pool is segmented, and any two locks that a task may hold concurrently must be allocated from different segments. When the specular-diffuse program refines a specular computation, it must lock both a source and a destination interaction concurrently. Since both locks are of the same type, they must reside in the same shared pool segment. To prevent deadlock in this case, each lock is assigned a number and the task always grabs the lock with the greater number first. We found that

Performance Measurements Array To measure the performance of the program, we primarily used a scene with 90 input patches, containing a desk with some shelves, some mirrors on the walls, and some light sources. The 90 input patches are dynamically subdivided into about 2700 patches. The program is quite memory intensive and this was the largest scene that would fit in the DASH machine’s 256 MB of physical memory (about 200 MB available to the application). Most of this was used by the data structures that represent each interaction and each patch-triple. With 90 initial patches there were about 100,000 interactions and 1,500,000 patch triples. Our measurements show that the overheads due to parallelism—particularly the most significant one, lock contention—decrease with larger scenes (see Figure 12b) since it is less likely that two tasks will simultaneously need to subdivide or schedule the same interaction. Hence, we are confident that parallel speedup will be at least as good for larger scenes.

For the refinement criteria and convergence tolerance we used, the specular+diffuse program’s sequential time with 90 patches is 1531.8 seconds. The variation of speedups with the number of

initial patches (up to 90) and CPUs is shown in

total radiosity is less than a specified tolerance value then the algorithm has converged, so it averages and normalizes the radiosity at the vertices and completes.

THE PARALLEL ALGORITHM The amount of work associated with a patch or interaction—or even how many there are—is impossible to predict and unfolds as the subdivision proceeds. We therefore have to manage parallelism dynamically using distributed task queues with task stealing. Efficient parallel implementation requires that the algorithm be decomposed into tasks that are small enough to achieve good load balance yet large enough to not cause too much task management overhead or communication. We rejected any design that required each iteration to be processed in phases, such as diffuse gathering, specular gathering, pushing radiosity, etc., where each phase would have to begin with a synchronization barrier. We also rejected using separate tasks to collect diffuse and specular radiosity because doing so would increase the chance that two tasks would simultaneously need to subdivide the same patch. Instead, our implementation uses one task to gather both diffuse and specular radiosity for each destination interaction. A task gathers specular radiosity from all the currently available source interactions of the destination interaction, but it gathers only the diffuse radiosity that is transmitted over the destination interaction (i.e. from intermediate to destination patch, see Figure 4). This destination interaction is only one spoke in the wheel of diffuse interactions centered at the destination patch. Since multiple tasks are therefore needed to compute a destination patch's diffuse radiosity, a counter is necessary to determine when all of the diffuse radiosity has been gathered for a destination patch. Updates to this counter must be mutually exclusive (protected by locks), as must the updates to the destination patch's radiosity and the updates to its list of source patches.

Besides the task that gathers specular and diffuse radiosity for a destination interaction, the only other type of task that runs while radiosity is being computed is the visibility computation task. This task computes the mutual visibility of a single pair of patches, and is created whenever a patch and hence interaction are subdivided (we experimented with making a task be a few visibility computations, but this did not affect performance much). It is possible for two tasks to be simultaneously subdividing the same interaction so locks are used to ensure that only one task performs the subdivision and only one task performs the associated visibility computation. Figure 10 shows a technique used to prevent two tasks from both performing the visibility computation for the same pair of source and destination patches.

Every process (processor) has its own task queue which initially contains tasks for a subset of the root destination interactions (for every N th root patch, each of the N processes is assigned all of the root destination interactions in which the root patch is the destination patch). Processes create tasks as they proceed, i.e. as interactions are subdivided, and put them in their own task queues, and task stealing is used for load balancing.

The development and testing of the programs was done on a Stanford DASH multiprocessor [5], a hardware cache-coherent distributed shared memory machine with 32 processors organized in 8 clusters. The performance of the program was also measured on a commercial SGI Challenge XL machine with 16 processors, 1 MB of two-way set associative cache per processor and 512 Mb of centralized memory connected by a shared bus.

PERFORMANCE AND ANALYSIS The speedup of the specular+diffuse program is 26.3 using 32 processors and 90 input patches. Of the four factors that can limit the speedup of a parallel program - the fraction of code that is executed serially, load balancing of tasks among processors, synchronization cost including contention, and data access cost including communication - almost all the loss in speedup can be attributed to synchronization overhead.

Figure 9 - The source patch and hence source interaction are subdivided

Figure 8 - The intermediate patch and hence both interactions are subdivided

Figure 7 - The destination patch and hence destination interaction are subdivided

Figure 10: Source patches with lists of waiting destination interactions. Both destinations D1 and D2 require

that Source 1 be subdivided creating four new source interactions. Each of the new source interactions has D1 and D2 added to its list of waiting destination interactions and D1’s and D2’s count of source interactions with uncalculated visibility increases by four. When source interaction S1a-Reflector has its visibility computed, it traverses the waiting interaction list (D1 and D2) and decrements the uncalculated visibilities by one. When this count reaches zero for D1 or D2, a radiosity gathering task is created for the destination interaction.

Waiting destination interactions D1 and D2

specular computation, the destination patch can again be visualized as the hub of a wheel with the destination interactions forming the spokes radiating to each intermediate patch (Figure 3). In addition, each intermediate patch itself is the hub of a wheel, with each source interaction forming a spoke between the intermediate patch and a source patch (Figure 4).

To help explain the radiosity algorithm we first provide some background on radiosity computations and patch refinement. The diffuse computation computes a form factor from the sizes and relative orientations of the two patches to determine what fraction of a source patch's radiosity might reach the destination patch. Other patches may occlude the two patches, so a visibility factor is computed to determine how much of the radiosity is blocked by intervening patches. To compute these visibility factors, the patches are placed in a binary space partition (BSP) tree [4] during initialization. Test rays are then fired from the source to the destination patch and the BSP tree is used to determine if a ray will be blocked along the way. The fraction of rays that reach the destination patch is used as the visibility factor, which is multiplied by the form factor and the source patch’s radiosity to compute the radiosity arriving at the destination patch. Because the diffuse computation uses approximations to compute the visibility factor and the distance between patches, an error term is estimated to see if one of the patches should be subdivided to make the computation more accurate. Patches that are large or close together are more likely to require refinement. If the error term exceeds a threshold, the larger of the two patches is selected for subdivision provided that it is not too small and that the patch pair has not already been subdivided for a specular computation. The patch is subdivided into four patches and the interaction between the source and destination patch is subdivided into four interactions (Figure 5), creating another level in both the patch and interaction quad-trees. If the diffuse computations are still not accurate enough the patches and interactions may be subdivided further (Figure 6). Thus, each patch in the original scene becomes the root of a patch quad-tree and each interaction between a pair of mutually visible root patches becomes the root of an interaction quad-tree.

The algorithm to compute specular radiosity proceeds as follows. For each destination interaction, specular radiosity is gathered from the wheel of source interactions centered at the intermediate patch (Figure 4). If the destination or intermediate patch is subdivided then the source patch or patches are added to the list of source patches for the new destination interactions (Figures 7 and 8). If the source patch is subdivided then the new source interactions are added to the destination interactions list of source interactions (Figure 9). However, the destination interaction cannot gather radiosity from its new source interactions until each one has had the visibility between its source and intermediate patches computed. Once a destination interaction has gathered specular radiosity from all its initial source interactions, it computes the visibilities of all its newly created source interactions and gathers radiosity from them, perhaps creating even more (subdivided) source interactions, and so on. Once the destination interaction has completed gathering specular radiosity from all its source interactions, it pushes its share of the destination patch’s specular radiosity down to its children if it has any; otherwise, one-fourth of its radiosity is pulled up to its parent's radiosity, which in turn is pulled up the tree until the root interaction is reached.

The algorithm to compute diffuse radiosity is similar at a high-level to the algorithm that computes specular radiosity except that patches replace interactions and radiosity is computed between two patches instead of among three. Each destination patch gathers diffuse radiosity from its source patches and then the diffuse radiosity is pushed down the patch quad-trees and pulled back up to the root of the quad-trees.

The current iteration of the algorithm completes when radiosity has been pulled up to the root of all the patch and interaction quad-trees. The algorithm then compares the total radiosity in the scene with the total radiosity at the end of the previous iteration. If the percentage change in the

Figure 1: A destination patch gathers diffuse radiosity from each of its source patches. A

Figure 3: Specular radiosity from one source patch S1 is reflected off of each intermediate patch (I1 to I4) to the destination patch.

Figure 4: A destination patch gathers specular radiosity from each of the source patches that reflects radiosity off a given intermediate patches. The destination patch also gathers diffuse radiosity

from the intermediate patch. This figure depicts the work done by each radiosity gathering

task in the specular+diffuse program, as we shall see.

INTRODUCTION

The radiosity method for rendering scenes into images is a complex and computationally expensive application that can not be parallelized in a straightforward manner. Developing a parallel program for such an irregular application presented two challenges. First, a parallel algorithm that avoids some synchronization overhead pitfalls had to be designed, and second, lock wait data from the completed program had to be carefully analyzed to identify performance bottlenecks. By correcting these performance problems we were able to improve the speedup on a 32 CPU machine from about 20 to 26.3. In this paper we describe a parallel program for computing diffuse and specular radiosity, and present performance measurements of the program, including those used to improve its speedup. We also discuss some parallel programming issues of general interest.

Serial hierarchical algorithms for computing diffuse and specular radiosity were described in [1] and [2]. Performance results for a parallel hierarchical program that computes only the diffuse radiosity were presented as part of a study of several parallel visualization algorithms in the July 1994 issue of IEEE Computer [3]. The specular+diffuse program has markedly different characteristics from this diffuse-only program - it spends much less time computing visibility (6% vs. 90%) and must handle the three-way specular computation as well as the two-way diffuse computation.

In the next section we describe the sequential specular+diffuse algorithm. The third section describes the parallel algorithm. The fourth section presents performance results on the two cache coherent multiprocessors used. The fifth section comments on the parallel programming techniques we used in this complex program that are of general interest. The last section presents our conclusions.

We now turn to the combined specular and diffuse algorithm and its implementation.THE SEQUENTIAL SPECUAR+ DIFFUSE ALGORITHM

An object in a scene can disperse radiosity in two ways. Some of the radiosity that arrives at an object is dispersed evenly in all directions. This is called diffuse radiosity. Alternatively, when radiosity reaches a shiny surface such as a mirror or glass, it reflects off the surface similarly to the way a billiard ball bounces off the side of a billiards table. This is called specular radiosity. A single object can spread both types of radiosity. The total radiosity of a patch is the sum of the diffuse and specular radiosity that reaches it. The specular+diffuse algorithm computes radiosity one patch at a time and calculates the two types of radiosity separately. The diffuse radiosity of a patch is the sum of the diffuse radiosity transmitted to the patch from every other patch in the scene (Figure 1). A patch’s specular radiosity (Figure 2) is the sum of the specular radiosity transmitted from each source patch and reflected off each intermediate patch (Figure 3). Every original patch in the scene is considered as both a source of radiosity and as an intermediate reflector. Thus, a destination patch’s source patches for a diffuse computation are its intermediate patches for a specular computation (Figure 4). In a scene that initially contains k mutually visible patches, there will be k2 diffuse computations and k3 specular computations before considering the additional computations that result from patch subdivisions.

To unify the diffuse and specular components of the algorithm, we construct the following framework. Each pair of mutually visible patches in a scene forms an interaction in which radiosity is transmitted from the source patch to the destination patch. For the diffuse computations, the destination patch can be visualized as the hub of a wheel in which each spoke is an interaction with a source patch (Figure 1). The three patches involved in a specular radiosity computation form two interactions. The source and intermediate patch pair form a source interaction and the intermediate and destination patch pair form a destination interaction (Figure 2). For the

Parallel Hierarchical Radiosity On Cache-Coherent

Multiprocessors

Jim Richard Jaswinder Pal Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Computer Science

Stanford University Princeton University

181 Weddell Drive, #5435 Olden Street

Sunnyvale, CA 94089Princeton, NJ 08544

jamesr@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/185528191.html, jps@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/185528191.html,

Phone: (408) 746-3411Phone: (609) 258-5329

Fax: (408) 746-7633Fax: (609) 258-1771

ABSTRACT

Computing radiosity is a computationally very expensive problem in computer graphics. Recent hierarchical methods have greatly speeded up the computation of first diffuse and now also specular radiosity. We present a parallel algorithm for computing both diffuse and specular radiosity together, and discuss the techniques we used to improve its performance. The algorithm is both irregular and highly unpredictable. Despite this, by carefully designing a parallel algorithm that minimizes synchronization and memory access overhead and by identifying and correcting several synchronization bottlenecks that we did not anticipate, we were able to obtain speedups of 26.3 on a 32-processor machine with distributed memory and 14.2 on a 16-processor machine with centralized memory. We demonstrate how lock wait data can be used to significantly improve the performance of complex, irregular parallel applications.

Keywords: radiosity, parallel, hierarchical, multiprocessors, performance, graph-ics, load balance, locality, synchronization.

There are two ways of spreading light: to be the candle or the mirror that reflects it. - Edith Wharton

There are two kinds of light - the glow that illuminates and the glare that obscures. - James Thurber

七年级数学下册 10.2平行线和它的画法(第9课时)学案 青岛版

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C D A . B , C , D , (1)你能找出一对互相平行的棱吗? (2)你能找出一对互相垂直的棱吗? (3)你能找出一对既不平行也不垂直的棱吗? 2、过角AOB 内一点P 画OA 、OB 的平行线。 (三) 系统总结。 限时作业: 1在同一平面内,两条不重合直线的位置关系可能是( )(2分) A 、平行和相交 B 、垂直或相交 C 、垂直和相交 D 、平行、相交或垂直 2、下列说法正确的是( )(2分) A 、经过一点有一条直线与已知直线平行 B 、经过一点有无数条直线与已知直线平行 C 、经过一点有且只有一条直线与已知直线平行 D 、经过直线外一点有且只有一条直线与已知直线平行 3、按要求作图:(每题3分,共6分) (1)过三角形ABC 的顶点C 画MN ∥AB (2)过三角形ABC 的边AB 的中点D ,画平行于AC 的直线,交BC 于点E ·P O B A

对油田公司全面深化改革的几点建议

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以“润物细无声”的方式融入到党员干部群众的生活之中,倡导良好社会新风。四是“咬耳朵扯袖子”强化节日纪律教育,开启正风肃纪“节点模式”。X区纪委在重大节假日前和中考、高考时段下发提醒通知,并发送廉政短信万余条,亮明纪律要求,为党员干部“提个醒”,防止犯错,周期性传递遵守纪律的信号,推动党员干部绷紧纪律这根弦。 创新监督方式,遏制腐败蔓延势头。X区纪委畅通信访监督举报渠道,充分运用互联网技术布下天罗地网,使那些无视纪律要求,不收手不收敛的党员干部无处遁形。一是建立“四风”问题“随手拍”平台,群众通过点击微信公众号上的投诉举报菜单,即可随时随地对身边的“四风”问题录音、拍照、录像,进行投诉举报,后台维护人员接到投诉后快查快办,严肃问责。平台建立以来已答复办理群众投诉举报XX件。二是建立公务车辆信息档案,联合交警部门,借助公安智能监控、智能交通系统科学监控,不定时对节假日期间我区各部门、单位公车管理使用情况进行有效监督。三是进一步促进社会监督,借助公众舆论平台,对作风问题严格问责问效问速,让作风得到转变,为群众切实解决问题,办好实事。今年以来,X区纪委开播“X政情民意直通车”电视问政节目三期,用电视问政栏目带出干部队伍求真务实、言出必践的良好作风。 强化执纪刚性,让法规制度落地生根。一是转变执纪观念,

#pragma data code ICCAVR的使用

#pragma data:code 在Keil中为了节省数据存储器的空间,通过“code”关键字来定义一个数组或字符串将被存储在程序存储器中: uchar code buffer[]={0,1,2,3,4,5}; uchar code string[]="Armoric" ; 而这类代码移值到ICCAVR上时是不能编译通过的。我们可以通过"const" 限定词来实现对存储器的分配: #pragma data:code const unsigned char buffer[]={0,1,2,3,4,5}; const unsigned char string[]="Armoric"; #pragma data:data 注意: 《1》使用ICCAVR6.31时,#pragma data :code ;#pragma data:data ; 这些语法时在"data:cod"、"data:data"字符串中间不能加空格,否则编译不能通过。 《2》const 在ICCAVR是一个扩展关键词,它与ANSIC标准有冲突,移值到其它的编译器使用时也需要修改相关的地方。 在ICCAVR中对数组和字符串的五种不同空间分配: const unsigned char buffer[]={0,1,2,3,4,5}; //buffer数组被分配在程序存储区中 const unsigned char string[]="Armoric" ; //stringp字符串被分配在程序存储区中 const unsigned char *pt //指针变量pt被分配在数据存储区中,指向程序存储区中的字符类型数据 unsigned char *const pt //指针变量pt被分配在程序存储区中,指向数据存储区中的字符类型数据 const unsigned char *const pt //指针变量pt被分配在程序存储区,指向程序存储区中的字符类型数据 unsigned char *pt //指针变量pt被分配在数据存储区中,指向数据存储区中的数据 请问#pragma data:code和#pragma data:data是什么意思? 前者表示:随后的数据将存贮在程序区,即FLASH区,此区只能存贮常量,比如表格之类。

对油田公司全面深化改革的几点建议

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作用,而稳定是企业存在和发展的首要前提。企业是员工依托。企业兴、员工兴,企业衰则员工衰。我们广大油田公司员工应该始终把企业的命运与自己的命运紧密结合,作为公司,要保证一线员工的稳定和工作积极性,才能做到员工与企业同艰辛、共患难,才能实现双方的共同发展。 四、把成本管控作为最主要经营内容。生产企业的最终目标永远是实现效益最大化。在油价低迷的时期,我们更要把效益作为主题,紧紧围绕企业效益这个中心思想,大力开展单井生产成本核算工作,确定单井效益最大化的临界值,低产单井关井,保障潜力井的投资,以最少的成本投入实现最大的产出,确保企业效益。 五、放眼于未来,着手于现在,积极解决人力资源问题。发挥内部员工的巨大潜力,科学的推行劳务输出制度,积极拓展外部市场。在同行业中树立自身的形象。 从油气市场发展的历史看,油价波动是常态。从发展的角度看,当前虽然国际油价低迷,但油价反弹的可能性并非没有。如果我们能够在油价反弹之前深化改革,将公司的油气发展机制理顺,待他日油价上扬,届时国内强大的油气供应能力发挥作用了,公司的经营业绩会有一个较大的提升,同时也会树立一个良好企业形象。

pragma的用法

#pragma的用法 在所有的预处理指令中,#Pragma 指令可能是最复杂的了,它的作用是设定编译器的状态或者是指示编译器完成一些特定的动作。#pragma指令对每个编译器给出了一个方法,在保持与C和C++语言完全兼容的情况下,给出主机或操作系统专有的特征。依据定义, 编译指示是机器或操作系统专有的,且对于每个编译器都是不同的。 其格式一般为: #pragma para。其中para为参数,下面来看一些常用的参数。 1)message 参数 message参数是我最喜欢的一个参数,它能够在编译信息输出窗口中输出相应的信息,这对于源代码信息的控制是非常重要的。其使用方法为: #pragma message("消息文本") 当编译器遇到这条指令时就在编译输出窗口中将消息文本打印出来。 当我们在程序中定义了许多宏来控制源代码版本的时候,我们自己有可能都会忘记有 没有正确的设置这些宏, 此时我们可以用这条指令在编译的时候就进行检查。假设我们希望判断自己有没有在源代码的什么地方定义了_X86这个宏, 可以用下面的方法: #ifdef _X86 #pragma message("_X86 macro activated!") #endif 我们定义了_X86这个宏以后,应用程序在编译时就会在编译输出窗口里显示"_86 macro activated!"。 我们就不会因为不记得自己定义的一些特定的宏而抓耳挠腮了。 (2)另一个使用得比较多的pragma参数是code_seg 格式如: #pragma code_seg( ["section-name" [, "section-class"] ] ) 它能够设置程序中函数代码存放的代码段,当我们开发驱动程序的时候就会使用到 它。 (3)#pragma once (比较常用) 只要在头文件的最开始加入这条指令就能够保证头文件被编译一次,这条指令实际上 在VC6中就已经有了, 但是考虑到兼容性并没有太多的使用它。 (4)#pragma hdrstop 表示预编译头文件到此为止,后面的头文件不进行预编译。BCB可以预编译头文件以 加快链接的速度, 但如果所有头文件都进行预编译又可能占太多磁盘空间,所以使用这个选项排除一些头文

stm32中使用#pragma pack(非常有用的字节对齐用法说明)

#pragma pack(4) //按4字节对齐,但实际上由于结构体中单个成员的最大占用字节数为2字节,因此实际还是按2字节对齐 typedef struct { char buf[3];//buf[1]按1字节对齐,buf[2]按1字节对齐,由于buf[3]的下一成员word a是按两字节对齐,因此buf[3]按1字节对齐后,后面只需补一空字节 word a; //#pragma pack(4),取小值为2,按2字节对齐。 }kk; #pragma pack() //取消自定义字节对齐方式 对齐的原则是min(sizeof(word ),4)=2,因此是2字节对齐,而不是我们认为的4字节对齐。 这里有三点很重要: 1.每个成员分别按自己的方式对齐,并能最小化长度 2.复杂类型(如结构)的默认对齐方式是它最长的成员的对齐方式,这样在成员是复杂类型时,可以最小化长度 3.对齐后的结构体整体长度必须是成员中最大的对齐参数的整数倍,这样在处理数组时可以保证每一项都边界对齐 补充一下,对于数组,比如: char a[3];这种,它的对齐方式和分别写3个char是一样的.也就是说它还是按1个字节对齐. 如果写: typedef char Array3[3]; Array3这种类型的对齐方式还是按1个字节对齐,而不是按它的长度. 不论类型是什么,对齐的边界一定是1,2,4,8,16,32,64....中的一个. 声明: 整理自网络达人们的帖子,部分参照MSDN。 作用: 指定结构体、联合以及类成员的packing alignment; 语法: #pragma pack( [show] | [push | pop] [, identifier], n ) 说明: 1,pack提供数据声明级别的控制,对定义不起作用; 2,调用pack时不指定参数,n将被设成默认值; 3,一旦改变数据类型的alignment,直接效果就是占用memory的减少,但是performance会下降; 语法具体分析: 1,show:可选参数;显示当前packing aligment的字节数,以warning message的形式被显示; 2,push:可选参数;将当前指定的packing alignment数值进行压栈操作,这里的栈是the internal compiler stack,同时设置当前的packing alignment为n;如果n没有指定,则将当前的packing alignment数值压栈; 3,pop:可选参数;从internal compiler stack中删除最顶端的record;如果没有指定n,则当前栈顶record即为新的packing alignment 数值;如果指定了n,则n将成为新的packing aligment数值;如果指定了identifier,则internal compiler stack中的record都将被pop 直到identifier被找到,然后pop出identitier,同时设置packing alignment数值为当前栈顶的record;如果指定的identifier并不存在于internal compiler stack,则pop操作被忽略; 4,identifier:可选参数;当同push一起使用时,赋予当前被压入栈中的record一个名称;当同pop一起使用时,从internal compiler stack 中pop出所有的record直到identifier被pop出,如果identifier没有被找到,则忽略pop操作; 5,n:可选参数;指定packing的数值,以字节为单位;缺省数值是8,合法的数值分别是1、2、4、8、16。 重要规则: 1,复杂类型中各个成员按照它们被声明的顺序在内存中顺序存储,第一个成员的地址和整个类型的地址相同; 2,每个成员分别对齐,即每个成员按自己的方式对齐,并最小化长度;规则就是每个成员按其类型的对齐参数(通常是这个类型的大小)和指定对齐参数中较小的一个对齐; 3,结构体、联合体或者类的数据成员,第一个放在偏移为0的地方;以后每个数据成员的对齐,按照#pragma pack指定的数值和这个数据成员自身长度两个中比较小的那个进行;也就是说,当#pragma pack指定的值等于或者超过所有数据成员长度的时候,这个指定值的大小将不产生任何效果; 4,复杂类型(如结构体)整体的对齐是按照结构体中长度最大的数据成员和#pragma pack指定值之间较小的那个值进行;这样当数据成员为复杂类型(如结构体)时,可以最小化长度; 5,复杂类型(如结构体)整体长度的计算必须取所用过的所有对齐参数的整数倍,不够补空字节;也就是取所用过的所有对齐参数中最大的那个值的整数倍,因为对齐参数都是2的n次方;这样在处理数组时可以保证每一项都边界对齐; 对齐的算法:由于各个平台和编译器的不同,现以本人使用的gcc version 3.2.2编译器(32位x86平台)为例子,来讨论编译器对struct 数据结构中的各成员如何进行对齐的。 在相同的对齐方式下,结构体内部数据定义的顺序不同,结构体整体占据内存空间也不同,如下: 设结构体如下定义: struct A { int a; //a的自身对齐值为4,偏移地址为0x00~0x03,a的起始地址0x00满足0x00%4=0;

平行线和它的画法优质课教案

一、教与学目标: 1. 理解平行线定义,了解平行线的表示方法,经历从现实世界中抽象平行线 的过程,认识平行线的广泛应用。 2 .通过动手操作,掌握平行线的画法,培养学生做图能力及基本技能。 3. 了解:“经过直线外一点有切只有一条直线与已知直线平行”的结论 二、教学重难点及突破 1. 重点 平行线的概念及平行公理 2. 难点 平行线的概念和平行线的画法 3. 教学突破 平行线的概念是本节的一个重点也是难点,在教学时,展开表示两直线平行的事物图片,使学生对平行线有一个直观的感受,形成平行线的印象,出示实物模型“立方体”,通过直观感受概括出平行线的概念,然后,学生自主探究平行线的画法,教师利用课件演示平行线的画法,使学生掌握要领。 平行公理是几何中的重要公理,这个公理的得出,主要采取动手操作和启发指导相结合的方式,通过画平行线的活动,让学生体验平行公理。 三.. 教学准备 1.教师准备 课件,立方体模型,游戏棒,一副三角板,一张白纸。 2学生准备 一副三角板 四、教与学方法: 自主探究、合作交流。 五、教与学过程: (一)情境导入 数学来源于生活,而数学知识又用于生活。很多数学知识都是人们在日常生活中通过实物发现,观察,探索,研究和分析,等,总结出来的规律。现在我们也来观察一些实物,看能不能找到什么,(教师利用课件) (二)合作交流,探究新知: 1.问题导读: 观察课件中的图案:先观察比较,再小组交流。 得: 归纳:什么叫平行线?--不相交的两条直线叫做平行线? 2.再通过图片观察,合作交流 到底什么是平行线呢?需要具备什么条件呢? 这就是我们今天所要讲的内容:平行线和它的画法

关于学校深化内部治理体系改革的几点建议

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#pragma指令用法汇总和解析

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向量化的方法

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县发改局关于全面深化改革工作情况的总结

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(四)进一步完善大众创业万众创新引导机制。持续推动大众创业、万众创新,新建一批“双创”示范基地和专业化众创空间。加强对创新型中小微型企业支持,打造面向大众的“双创”全程服务体系等情况。我县利用京津创新资源,采用一区多园、依托中小企业创业园、包装机械园区孵化基地和XX众创基地为支撑平台,推动大众创业、万众创新。 二、存在的问题及下步举措 今年的我局的经济体制改革工作,虽然取得了一定成绩,但与省市县深化改革的要求相比,仍存在一些差距和不足:一是工作推进力度还不够有力,个别改革领域进展缓慢,甚至有的领域还处于起步阶段。二是深化经济体制改革的方法不多,改革内容比较空,不够深入。三是对深化改革工作重视不够,致使有些改革只浮在表面,没有什么实质进展。 下步,我局将在县全面深化改革小组的正确领导下,坚持问题导向,紧紧围绕全县发展稳定大局推进改革。一是按照责任分工,认真抓好落实。对我局全面深化改革所承接的项目内容,进一步加强调度和协调,督导牵头单位和责任单位按分工抓紧时间落实,确保各项任务能够按时保质的完成。二是针对各项改革任务,下步主要形成健全相关领域实名登记制实施方案、深化投融资体制改革的实施方案和促进全县民间投资的实施意见、加快县

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