1.Introduction
The Scientific English emerged in the 1950s (Feng Mei,2000:13) It was the outcome of the rapid development of science and technology after World WarⅡ. Since the 1970s, the Scientific English has drew attention from all over the word and led to much research among different nations. With more and more science papers published in English, the Scientific English, and a major variety of English, which is different from the daily English and literary English, has emerged as the times require with its own typical characteristics. And now it has become a quit important language variety.
The Scientific English generally refers to both written language and spoken language about science and technology. It includes scientific books, papers, reports, experimental records and schemes; various scientific intelligence and scripts; the practical scientific handbooks (operative means including instruments, machines and tools); scientific films, videos and sound materials with the caption, etc. An important and perhaps surprising feature of Scientific English is that its normal style is common to both written and spoken communication (Liu Biqing,1998: 132)
The Scientific English has its own characteristics such as high-level specialization, new concepts, complicated structure, simple and clear language, more declarative sentences, extensive use of the passive voice, many complicated and long sentences, etc. Compared with other literary forms, it has higher-level scientific nature, organization, accuracy and closeness.
2. Features of Scientific English
2.1 The Vocabulary of Scientific English
With rapid and remarkable advances in modern science and technology, an increasingly large number of English technical terms have arisen in our daily life, giving rise to a new genre of register with vocabularies outside the range of ordinary educated man — Scientific English.
The development of science and technology provides an extremely abundant vocabulary for Scientific English. This is also the main and most essential source of
the modern new words.
The most remarkable characteristic of Scientific English is extensive use of technical terms. There are several characteristics of Scientific English vocabulary.
2.1.1 Specialization of the W ords in Common Use
Technical terms are used widely in Scientific English. A great number of them come from the words used commonly in our daily life. But they have strict technical meaning in Scientific English. Scientific English borrows words in common use to explain the professional t echnical concepts. This was called ―building by imagination‖ in semantics.。After careful research, we will find that the new meaning origins from the basic meaning of a word. It is the extensive meaning of ―pattern‖ and ―gauge‖. Chinese is different from E nglish in this aspect. In Chinese, new meanings give rise to new words.
2.1.2 One W ord with Multiple Meanings
Polysemy is another characteristic of the Scientific English vocabulary. One word with multiple meanings means that many may adopt a common-used word subjects or has different meanings in one subject. For example, ―transmission‖, in radio engineering, it means ―传送‖ or ―播送‖; in mechanics, it means ―传动‖ or ―变速‖; in physics, it means ―透射‖; in medicine, it means ―遗传‖, etc. But there is no such a word with multiple meanings in Chinese for science and technology.
Besides these two, there are several other word-building methods for Scientific English vocabulary. That is what we will talk about next.
2.2 W ord-Building of Scientific English
There is no special requirement for the translation of Scientific English in comparison with general English except wording and characteristic structures.
From the respect of linguistics, the vocabulary of Scientific English was formed by way of functional shift, borrowing, deriving, compounding, acronym, blending and so on. The word building methods include compounding, blending, affixation, acronym and borrowing. Beside, there are some other ways of word-building like clipping, back-formation, coinage, functional shift and borrowing from the foreign words.
2.2.1 Affixation
Affixation is an important way of coining new English words and technical terms, with prefix and suffix as inseparable elements of the words being coined. The advantage of affixation is evident: it is the most flexible means of forming new words and its potential of creation is almost boundless, therefore it is extensively used in the formation of technical terms. Besides prefix and suffix of English origin, there are some foreign borrowings, noticeably the Latin ones, e.g. mini- (微) ,bio- (生命、生物) ,thermo- (热), electro- (电), aero- (空气), carbo- (碳), hydro- (水), -asis (表示疾病), -mania (狂热), etc. if we are familiar with these prefixes and suffixes, many technical terms can be translated appropriately. We can use the translation method of transplant. Here are some examples.
Minicell= mini + cell
Minicrystal= mini + crystal
Reagency= re + agency
Microbicid= mocro + bicid
2.2.2 Compounding
Compounding is the way of combining at least two words to form a new word(Liu Biqing, 1998: 135).English technical terms formed by compounding generally take three forms: with a hyphen;compounds without hyphen, E.g.: With hyphen with no hyphen
Splashdown hot-press
Waterleaf pulse-scaler
Software hot-press
Greenhouse pick- up
lunch box 便携式计算机,
aircraft carrier 航空母舰,
space cell 太阳能电池,
space junk 太空垃圾
Most of such compound words may be translated literally, i.e. put the Chinese equivalents of separate elements together and we get the Chinese equivalents of the
co mpound words. Sometimes, however, there are exceptions. For example, bull’s eye (靶心), cat and house (航向与指挥的), dog house (高频高压电源屏蔽障), etc. Literal translation in tackling such terms may lead us astray. Therefore whenever we are confronted with unfamiliar terms and are not sure of their meaning, we should frequently consult dictionaries of relevant specialties. In many cases some additional expressions are needed to make the original meaning clear and accurate.
2.2.3 Blending
Blending is a variant of compounding, omitting the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first of the second word (Liu Biqing, 1998: 239). The translation method of transplant can be used in this case. e.g.
Contrail=condensation+ trail
Smog= smoke+ fog
Telex= teleprinter+ exchange
Medicare= medical+ care
Gravisphere= gravity+ sphere
In many compounding words, either the first part or the second part of the overlapped word could be a full monosyllabic word or disyllabic word. E.g.: Zincode= zine+ platicode
Escalift= escalator+ lift
Copytron= copy+ electron
Generally speaking, this blending of words possesses the combined meaning of both; therefore, literal translation is used in translating such terms, with one element modifying the other.
Blended words are used more commonly in the Scientific English than in other language texts. People with a professional knowledge of science think that it is easy to understand the meaning of the original word by imagination. E.g.: biorhythm is compounded with biological and rhythm, and it means ―生理节奏‖, etc.
Blending, in a way, can be considered as another form of compounding.
2.2.4 Acronym
An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something.
Since it is very convenient to use this brief form, acronyms are widely adopted in English technical terms. With the rapid development of science and technology, more and more acronyms are extensively used in various fields; therefore, it is up to the translator to discern their actual meaning in different context.
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 艾滋病
WTO World Wide Trade Organization 世界贸易组织
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access 码分多址
CIA Central Intelligence Agency 美国中央情报局
Besides the above ways of word-building, there are some other ways to form technical terms in English, such as clipping, borrowing, back-formation, coinage, functional shift and so on. In whatever circumstances, the discrimination of the original meaning and the contextual analysis are of vital important. Only we can an accurate understanding of them, can we put them into Chinese exactly as they actually mean.
2.2.5 Proper Noun
Many of the technical terms in English are borrowed from proper nouns such as names of people, places, firms, trade marks, organizations, and so on. In such cases, consulting relevant dictionary will be of great help. Transliteration is usually adopted in dealing with such terms, and at the same time, labels that indicate the nature of such words are added to the corresponding translation.
John F. Kennedy 约翰·F·肯尼迪
Bill Clinton 比尔·克林顿
IBM System IBM系统
Washington 华盛顿
Vietnam 越南
2.3 General Use of Nominalization
2.3.1 Nominalization
A nominalization is a noun phrase that has a systematic correspondence with a clausal predication, which includes a head noun morphologically related to a corresponding verb.
English is static, and nouns are frequently used to replace verbs, while Chinese is dynamic, using more verbs in a single sentence. As a comprehensive language with abundant variety in morphology, English has many strict rules for the predicative verb to Scientific English restriction its variety. For example, one sentence is permitted to have only one predicative verb. So many nouns in English are changed from verbs. By this, nominalization came to be used commonly.
2.3.2 Nominalization in Scientific English
Compared with general English, noun phrases are more frequently used in Scientific English. When expounding the Scientific English, Points out that the nominalization is one of the characteristics of the Scientific English. The Scientific English should have a simple and direct style of writing, very objective ideas, accurate contents, and plenty of information and facts.
This is because scientific literature contains more abstract concepts such as definitions, principles, laws, conclusions, etc., and manifold modification and Scientific English friction are required to elaborate these concepts or ideas. As the semantic meaning of a noun phrase that consists of several words is usually complicated, the translation should go beyond the surface structure.
2.4 Extensive Use of the Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an action in Scientific English. It is often used in Scientific English where the object of the action is more important than those who perform the action. For Example: We have produced over 20 different models in the past two years.
Changes to:
Over 20 different models have been produced in the past two years.
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er nor be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed. If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, use "by" For Example: Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunswick" in 1987. Tim Wilson wrote changes to:‖ The Flight to Brunswick in 1987.
The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in Scientific English such as scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor
is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Science and technology documents put emphasize on recounting and reasoning. The readers pay their attention on the ideas and contents in the texts. In order to achieve objectivity, the passive voice is widely used in Scientific English. In accordance with the different language situation, the passive sentence can be translated flexibly into the active form or just be kept in passive form. In Chinese, the passive voice usually is expressed by ―把‖ and ―被‖. The passive voice in Chinese is less commonly wider used in comparison with the English on account of the flexible syntax of the Chinese language. Therefore, when dealing with English-Chinese translation, we should avoid sticking to the original pattern, and try to convert the passive voice into various ―active‖ patterns.
2.5 The Long and Complicated Sentences
In Scientific English there are always a great mount of usages of long and complicate sentence, the understanding and translation of these long and complicated sentence take great importance in the process of translation.
2.5.1 Extensive Use of Long and Complicated Sentence in Scientific English
When dealing with the complex concepts, the long and complicated sentences are used more frequently in Scientific English than the general English. This is decided on the characteristics of Scientific English. The definition, laws, theorems, concepts or the techniques in Scientific English must be accurate and precise. So the sentence in Scientific English has many modifiers, qualifiers and additional elements. This makes the sentence long and complicated. Sometimes, a sentence could be as long as a paragraph. Extensively using long and complicate is a remarkable feature of Scientific English.
The long sentence in Scientific English is complicated and hard to read and understand. Translating long and complicated sentence is perhaps the most difficult in English-Chinese translation. The prerequisites for correct handling of long and complicated sentences in English-Chinese translation lie in the correct comprehension of the logic and structure of the original sentences. The usual method adopted in translation is cutting the sentence into several short and simple sentences. We should
recognize the ideas and the layers of the structure of the original sentences. Then we reset the elements of the sentence in Chinese version to make sure it is up to Chinese expressive way.
The method normally employed for free electronics to be produced in electron tubes is thermionic emission, in which advantage is taken of the fact that, if a solid body is heated sufficiently, some of the electrons that it contains will escape from its surface.
2.6 More Non-Finite Forms of Verbs
The non-finite forms of a verb have no tense, person or singular \ plural. The infinitive and present and past participles are the non-finite parts of a verb; to do; doing; done. As a mentioned before, Scientific English requires simple and clear expression and close structure. So Scientific English frequently uses non-finite forms of verbs instead of attributive clauses and adverbial clause, using independent structure instead of adverbial and parataxis clauses, using infinitive phrases instead of kinds of clauses or using pronoun + verb-ing forms instead of attributive clauses and adverbial clause. These make the sentence short and striking.
Today the electronic computer is widely used in solving mathematical problems having to do with weather forecasting and putting satellite into orbit.
Numerical control machines are most useful when quantities of products to be produced are low or medium; the tape containing the information required to produce the part can be stored, reused, or modified when required
Translating this non-finite of verbs, we can use translation methods referred above, such as converting passive voice into active voice, converting the –ing form into verbs, etc.
3. Brief Introduction to Translation
3.1 What is translation?
Translating is rending from one language into another, i.e. the faithful representation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Translation covers a very broad range. Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art; and yet many consider it a craft or rather, a skill. Nida, a famous American
translator, says that translation is not only an art, a technique or a creation of literature but also a science. If the word ―translation‖ refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translator to abide by.
3.2 Principles of Translation
The main principles of translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance which were first proposed by Y an Fu in1898. The Scientific English, which will be discussed later, emphasizes particularly the principles of faithfulness and elegance. 3.2.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation
Literal translation and free translation are two familiar approaches of translation. The so-called literal translation, laterally speaking, means, ―Not to alter the original words and sentences‖; strictly speaking, it strives ―to keep the sentiments and style of the original‖. For example, crocodile’s tears(鳄鱼的眼泪), chain reaction(连锁反应) and gentlemen’s agreement(君子协定) are translated in a literal way.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech(比喻). For example, the following are translated by acting on the approach of free tran slation: Adam’s apple(喉结), at sixes and sevens(乱七八糟), It rains cats and dogs.(大雨滂沱) Do you see any green in my eye? (你以为我是幼稚可欺的么?).
Literal translation and free translation are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute ―literal‖ or entirely―free‖ version in the practice of translation. They are usually adopted simultaneously in the process of translation.
4. Some approaches of Translation of Scientific English
The translation target of Scientific English is scientific documents. The scientific materials are characterized by preciseness. So the Scientific English requires accuracy and logicality of its translation. Objectivity means that the translator cannot change the original ideas, neglect the information or put own comments in the process of translation. He must translate the original into Chinese version accurately. By
standardization it is meant that he should always use some professional expressions like technical terms. The translators are required to use the official translations to the original. By realism, the translation of Scientific English is closely related to our daily life. As we know, newly created technical terms are pouring into Scientific English. The accumulation of new words is quite important. The characteristics of Scientific English will be discussed in following chapters.
For the translation of Scientific English, two criteria are almost always accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/ accuracy and that of smoothness. In the process of translating the Scientific English, translators acquire adequate knowledge of Scientific English and the relevant background. And then according to its characteristics, the translators convey the information to the readers or the audience by using standard, professional and logical target language. It is quite necessary to make better translation of the Scientific English.
4.1 Translation Methods of Vocabularies
Generally, there are two methods in the translation of Scientific English vocabularies: literal translation and free translation. The literal translation includes transplant, transliteration and pictographic translation, etc. The free translation includes deduction, extension and explanation, etc. By transplant, we find the meanings of morphemes of a word and put them together. By transliteration, we translate the word by its pronunciations in English. By pictographic translation, we describe the shape of the article indicated by the English word. By deduction, we conclude the meaning of words by both contextual meaning and the explanation in dictionary. By extension and explanation, we translate the word in its extensive meanings. We will have further discussion with the word building of Scientific English in the followings.
4.1.2 Translation of Normalization in Scientific English
Expressing much accurately in few words is very important in translating the Scientific English. In the original, nominalization is used to simplify the structure of the sentence. Different methods of translation will be adopted in different situations for examples.
Archimedes first discovered the principle of displacement of water by solid bodies.
―Of displacement of water by solid bodies‖ is the nominalization of this sentence. This not only simplifies the appositive sentence, but also stresses the fact of displacement. In Chinese version, this noun phrase should also be translate in noun form―固体排水原理‖ to make a short sentence.
If you use firebricks round the walls of the boiler, the heat loss can be considerably reduced.
炉壁采用耐火砖可大大降低热耗。
The Scientific English explains the laws of nature. The translator should avoid using the first person or the second person in Chinese version and put the topic information in the head of sentence.
The rotation of the earth on its own axis causes the change from day to night.
―The rotation of the earth on its own axis‖ is the nominalization of this sentence. We translate the noun ―rotation‖ into the verbs ―自转‖ in Chinese. Thus we use two verbs in Chinese sentence to makes the complex sentence simple, clear and close.
地球绕轴自转,引起昼夜的变化。
Going with the nominalization of verbs, the prepositions are also used frequently in Scientific English in form of ―V erb+ Object+ Prep‖ or ―Prep. + Object+ Prep.‖
1) V erb+ Object+ Prep
make use of(利用), pay attention to(注意), Obtain support from(得到支持), Keep watch over(密切注视), Make a claim to(主张), have a look at, give no evidence of(不足以说明), take warning from(从中引以为戒)
From these phrases, the meanings of Chinese verbs all come from nouns, which are objects in the originals. The verbs in originals are called ―Empty V erbs‖(空心动词), including have, get, make, do, take, etc. Their function in syntax is more important than their thematic function(主题功能). In English-Chinese translation, we should pay more attention to the noun in the originals to prosing to Chinese concept.
2) Prep. + Object+ Prep
Preposition is very active and it can express the meaning of verbs together with
nouns. In this form of nominalization, the ―Empty V erbs‖ are replaced by a preposition. E.g.: with a view to (根据), in accordance with (依照), for lack of (缺少), in proportion to (成比例), on account of (基于…原因), by means of (凭借), at the expense of (由…负担). For this form, we should focus on nouns after the first preposition and convert the nouns to Chinese accordingly.
4.2 On Translation of Passive Voice
There are much more Chinese verbs with the passive voice than those in English. So the passive voice is used more extensively in English.
4.2.1 Change to Active Voice in Chinese V ersion
Sometimes, in English-Chinese translation of Scientific English, the Chinese verbs can express the passive voice without using the passive structure and the subject of the original sentence will be unchanged in Chinese version. E.g.:
(1) Official from the national aeronautics and space administration said 300 researchers in industry; government and education would be permitted to use the system. 美国宇航局官员说,工业、政府和教育部门的300名研究人员将获准使用这个系统。
(2) The world health organization states that 1.7 billion people are infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 世界卫生组织估计有17亿人感染上了肺结核。
(3) The basic theory of the traditional Chinese medicine is adopted from the theory of yin and yang theory of the five elements.
4.2.2 Changing Original Subject into Object
In some cases, the passive sentences should be changed into the active voice in Chinese version to make it readable in Chinese. The subject of the original sentence is changed to the object in the translated text. The agent (the performer of the action), prepositional phrase as adverbial modifier and other phrases in the original sentence will be translated into the subject accordingly. E.g.:
(1) By the end of the war, 800 people had been saved by organization, but at a cost of 200 Belgian and French lives.
大战结束时, 这个组织拯救了八百人, 但那是以二百多比利时人和法国人的
生命为代价的。
(2)In chemistry, symbols are used represent elements.
化学用符号代表元素。
4.2.3 Adding a Proper Subject to Make the Chinese V ersion Smooth
Some Chinese verbs cannot be properly used in the passive voice. In this case, the subject of the original sentence is changed to the object of the translated sentence with added subject. E.g.
(1) The full meaning of cloning will be felt only when we get the taste of abuse. (―Be felt‖ cannot be translated directly as ―被尝到‖ in Chinese. Translating this kind of sentence, we should add a new subject ―我们‖ in Chinese version according with the context. The translation should be‖只有当我们尝到克隆被滥用的恶果之后,我们才会彻底明白其价值所在.‖)
(2) New computer viruses and logic bombs are discovered every week.
每个星期,我们都能发现新型计算机病毒和逻辑炸弹。
(3) Gases are frequently regarded as compressible, liquid as incompressible.
人们通常认为气体是可以压缩的,而其体则不可以压缩。
4.2.4 The Passive Structure Converted Into the Sentence with No Subject
The original subject is changed to the object in the translated version. And there is no subject in the translated sentence. E.g.:
1) Great efforts should be made to inform young people especially the dreadful consequences of taking up the habit.
This sentence aims at the fact of making good efforts to inform young people of the dreadful consequences of taking up the habit. In translation, we can remove the subject to emphasize this important information.
应该尽最大努力告诫年轻人吸烟的危害, 特别是吸上烟瘾后的可怕后果。Many strange new means of transport have been developed in our century,
the string of them being perhaps the hovercraft.
在我们这个世纪内研制了许多新奇的交通工具, 其中最奇特的也许就是气垫船了。
4.2.5 The Passive Structure Remaining Unchanged
In this conversion, there are two circumstances:
First, in order to emphases the original passive meaning, the original passive sentence will keep its passive voice in Chinese version. We should add some words which carry passive meaning, such as ―被‖ ―受‖ ―得到‖ ―以‖ ―加以‖ ―予以‖ ―为…所…‖ And so on. E.g.
The discovery is highly appreciated in the circle of science.
这一发现在科学界得到很高的评价。
The finished products must be carefully inspected before delivery.
成品在出厂前必须予以仔细检查。
Second, the subject together with the predicate is translated into the subject of the translated text.
Attention must be paid to environmental protection in developing economy.
发展经济必须注意保护环境。(Feng Mei,2000:126)
4.3 Translation of Long and Complicated Sentence in Scientific English
In the process of translating long and complicated sentences, the first step is to have an extensive reading about the whole text to understand the structure and the general idea of the text. And then analysis the syntax and make sure of the relationship between the clauses to get a complete understanding of the whole sentence. At last, we translate the long and complicated sentence into a correct, accurate and readable Chinese sentence. There are three main methods about the translation of long and complicated sentence in Scientific English 顺序法,reversing and splitting.
4.3.1 Translate in Sequence
If the narrative layers of long sentence are in sequence and close to Chinese, we can translate the original sentence in sequence. On the basis of the different circumstances, we can add or omit some connectives. For example:
In the course of designing a structure, you have to take into consideration what kind of load to above mentioned structure would be subjected, where on the structure the said load will do, what is expected or applied by degrees.
在设计建筑物时,必须考虑到建筑物将承受什么样的荷载,在建筑物的什么地方荷载将起作用,以及这荷载是徒然是假的,还是逐渐施加的。
4.3.2 Translate by Reversing
If the structure of the long sentence is contrary to Chinese version, we should translate the original sentence in contrary sequence. In most situations, the English sentence structures are contrary to the Chinese sentences. So the reversing is used more frequently in the translation of Scientific English. We can see that from the example of 2.4.1.
4.3.3 Translate by Splitting
Between principle clause and subordinate clause or between the words modified by preposition phrases or participial phrases, the connections are not so tight sometimes. And these elements may have their own meanings respectively. We can split the long and complicated sentence into several units and recast these units in Chinese thought pattern and expressive manner.
5. Main Points of Translation of Scientific English
Now we have a general idea about Scientific English and its English-Chinese translation. At last, I want to discuss the main points in the process of English-Chinese translation of Scientific English.
5.1 Giving accurate meanings to words
Considering the characteristics of Scientific English vocabulary, the translator should be serious and careful in the course of translating the vocabulary of Scientific English. The translator cannot take Scientific English vocabulary for the words that are used commonly without professional meanings, or cannot take the words in common use for the Scientific English vocabulary. For example, ―light show‖ means ―光显示‖ but not ―灯光展‖, ―feedback‖ means ―反馈‖ in Scientific English and means ―反应‖ in modern English.
We should pay attention to some special groups of technical words in science and technology and the word building in modern English. The translator should keep learning the new created words in Scientific English and do researches in translation
techniques of words.
5.2 Familiar with the Commonly Used Forms of Sentences
Scientific English as many commonly used forms of sentences like the passive sentence, and ―it…that…‖ being familiar with these sentence structures and mastering their translation techniques will be helpful to improve the translation. For example, Scientific English pays attention to the logic of the text and frequently use the participle connectors such as ―supposing that(假定、假设)‖, ―provided that(倘若、只要)‖, ―seeing that(由于、鉴于)‖, etc. It is necessary to know well about t hese sentence structures for the Scientific English translators.
5.3 Analysis of the Layers of the Text to understand the text fully
The key point in the translation of Scientific English is to understand the text completely. It will be so much easier to translate if we know what the text means. And it is also the central problem of all translating, for most mistakes arise because translators do not understand the text full. Understanding, however, means more than knowing the meanings of words or recognizing the function of grammatical constructions. (Eugene A. Nida, on translation) in order to analysis and understand the text completely, the translators are required to know some main points as follows: The meaning of a sentence consists of three layers: meaning of words, grammatical relations and thematic relations. Have a clear idea of form words (nouns, verbs, ads. and adv.) and structure words (prepositions, connectives, articles, relative pronouns, relative adv.) recognizing the function of grammatical structures.
5.4 Improvement of Chinese
When translating English to Chinese, besides the perfect ability of understanding English text, the translator should improve his Chinese language ability so as to become competent in his work. The translator of English and Chinese should be qualified in both of the languages.
Conclusions
The translation of Scientific English is quite a challenge for learners of English. But with the development of our science and technology and the increasing status of Scientific English in our society, more and more learners are becoming interred in this subject. The theory and knowledge of translation of Scientific English are becoming richer and richer. So we can get many kinds of information about the trans lation of Scientific English. The Scientific English is very useful in our life for different status of people to get to know our scientific development of the world.
This paper has discussed some main points about the translation of Scientific English. The translation of Scientific English has many rules and principles like other kinds of translation. And it also has its own characteristics.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to give my sincere thanks to all those people who have helped me so much with my paper, and I should express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Y an Fengxia, for her guidance, instruction, encouragement, patience, and support. I would like to view the writing of this thesis as an academic experience during which Professor Y an, with her comprehensive knowledge and great patience in correcting my draft again and again, instructed me how to read and write, and more importantly how to think.
I am also indebted to all the teachers who have been instructing and encouraging me during my four-year study.
My sincere thanks are also given to my classmates, who shared with me the insightful opinions on this issue.
翻译期末作业论文 浅析科技英语中长句的翻译 A brief analysis on translation of long sentence in scientific English 浅析科技英语中长句的翻译 摘要 如今随着社会的不断发展,科学技术也越来越尖端并且正在不断的更新中。同时随着经济全球化发展,各国的科学技术也在互相补足与融合。而这时候,为了能有更准确的理解,标准的科技英语翻译工作自然就成了科学技术的重要生产力。科技英语翻译的重要性也越发突出。本文将分析科技英
语中长句和复合句的使用及分类,然后重点解析科技英语中长句的几种翻译技巧,从而能将复杂的科技英语中长句准确的译为汉语。 引言 科技英语是用来陈述自然界、科技界所发生或出现的事情, 描述其规律、特点、过程等的语言, 其表达客观准确、逻辑性强、结构严谨。为了更好地记录自然界的现象和科技界的动态, 用来记录的句子往往偏长、结构复杂。所以在科技英语的翻译实践中遇到的具体问题之一就是科技英语长句的翻译,那么如何处理长句呢?这不仅需要掌握一定量的词汇,而且最重要的必须掌握相应的翻译技巧方可能更准确的翻译。本文包含五个部分:首先,介绍了科技英语中长句的特点;其次,讲述了科技英语中长句和复合句的分类;再次,则分析了科技英语中长句的应用和在科技英语中英语长句的优点;接下来,这也是本文的重点,也就是浅析了科技英语中长句的几种翻译技巧;最后,则是全文的一个总结概述。 1.科技英语中长句的特点 科技英语的特点主要是术语繁沉、论证严密,翻译时要特别注意逻辑是否严谨、术语是否准确、表达是否简练明确。在实践过程中,科技英语长句的翻译是一个比较复杂、棘手的难题。不仅限于并列句和复合句,简单句有时也很长,它的一个重要特点就是修饰语较长,这些修饰语一般都是短语和从句,它们或是位于名词后面的短语或从句,或是位于动词后面的短语或从句。 因此,为了兼顾译文的准确性和可读性,我们就要掌握一定的方法和技巧。 2.科技英语长句的分类 2.1Sentence with a number of subordinate clauses of different levels. E.g.Perhaps the factor thatmakes a positive outcome most likely is the clear recognitin by the Japane se government and business community that there is an emergent need for innovation, and a wide agreem entthat the national interest requiredthatmajor effort be concentrated in this area. 也许,带来积极结果的因素很大可能上是日本政府和商业界对当前急切需要创新和国家利益要求需在该领域投入更多的努力的认知。 2.2The sentence with a series of past-modifiers, like a chain E.g. Each cylinder is encased in a water jacket, which forms part of circuit through which water is
科技英语综合教程课后谜底及课文翻译[资料] 科技英语综合教程课后答案及课文翻译 科技英语综合教程课后答案及课文翻译 Unit 1 Translation Practice II. Words and Phrases Translation A. Translate the following expressions intoChinese: 1. mutual gain game and mutual harm game 互赢博弈和互败博弈 2. sequential-move game 连续策略博弈 3. simultaneous-move game 联立策略博弈 4. linear reasoning 直线推理 5. circular reasoning 循环推理 6. Nash equilibrium 纳什均衡 7. dominant strategy 支配性策略 8. optimal result 最优化结果 9. breakdown of cooperation 合作分裂 10. strategy of brinkmanship 边缘化策略 B. Translate the following expressions intoEnglish: 1. 完全博弈 pure conflict 2. 竞争与合作 competition and cooperation 3. 策略性相互作用 strategic interdependence 4. 囚徒困境prisoners’ dilemma 5. 长远性损失 long-run loss 6. 针锋相对策略 tit-for-tat strategy 7. 混合性策略mixing one’s moves 8. (网球)斜线球或底线球 hita passing shot cross-court or down the line 9. 垄断性市场 monopoly market
小议科技英语翻译技巧 科技文体崇尚严谨周密,概念准确,逻辑性强,行文简练,重点突出,句式严整,少有变化,常用前置性陈述,即在句中将主要信息尽量前置,通过主语传递主要信息。科技文章文体的特点是:清晰、准确、精练、严密。那末,科技文章的语言结构特色在翻译过程中如何处理,这是进行英汉科技翻译时需要探讨的问题。现分述如下: 一、大量使用名词化结构 大量使用名词化结构(Nominalization)是科技英语的特点之一。因为科技文体要求行文简洁、表达客观、内容确切、信息量大、强调存在的事实。而非某一行为。 Archimedes first discovered the principle of displacement of water by solid bodies. 阿基米德最先发展固体排水的原理。 句中of displacement of water by solid bodies 系名词化结构,一方面简化了同位语从句,另一方强调displacement 这一事实。 The rotation of the earth on its own axis causes the change from day to night. 地球绕轴自转,引起昼夜的变化。 名词化结构the rotation of the earth on its own axis 使复合句简化成简单句,而且使表达的概念更加确切严密。 If you use firebricks round the walls of the boiler, the heat loss, can be considerably reduced. 炉壁采用耐火砖可大大降低热耗。 科技英语所表述的是客观规律,因之要尽量避免使用第一、二人称;此外,要使主要的信息置于句首。 Television is the transmission and reception of images of moving objects by radio waves. 电视通过无线电波发射和接受活动物体的图象。 名词化结构the transmission and reception of images of moving objects by radio waves 强调客观事实,而"谓语动词则着重其发射和接受的能力。 二、广泛使用被动语句 根据英国利兹大学John Swales 的统计,科技英语中的谓语至少三分之一是被动态。这是因为科技文章侧重叙事推理,强调客观准确。第一、二人称使用过多,会造成主观臆断的印象。因此尽量使用第三人称叙述,采用被动语态,例如:Attention must be paid to the working temperature of the machine.应当注意机器的工作温度。而很少说:You must pay attention to the working temperature of the machine .你们必须注意机器的工作温度。此外,如前所述,科技文章将主要信息前置,放在主语部份。这也是广泛使用被动态的主要原因。试观察并比较下列两段短文的主语。 We can store electrical energy in two metal plates separated by an insulating medium. We call such a device a capacitor, or a condenser, and its ability to store electrical energy capacitance .It is measured in farads. 电能可储存在由一绝缘介质隔开的两块金属极板内。这样的装置称之为电容器,
南京航空航天大学 EST论文题目科技英语翻译之增补法
科技英语翻译之增补法 摘要 增补是科技英语翻译中为确保译文的规范、明确、地道而经常使用的方法。在翻译科技英语文献时,经常会遇到照字面直译无法保证汉语译文的通顺、明晰,有时就需要增添补充必要的词语。通常按照目标与的行文表达习惯,采取“增补”、“重复”、“一词多译”的方式。 关键词:增添、重复、一词多译 Abstract Supplement is the translation of EST translation norms, to ensure clear, authentic and frequently used method. In the translation of English for science and technology literature, often encounter literally literal translation can not guarantee the Chinese translation of the fluent, clear, sometimes need to add supplement necessary words. Usually according to writing goal and the habit of expression, adopt a "supplement", "repeat", "one word more translation" mode Key words:supplement、repeat、one word more translation
翻译是把一种语言里已经表达出来的事物用另一种语言准确流畅地进行重新表达的过程。与其他题材的文章相比,科技专业文章在内容、表达形式和风格上有很大的差别,具有科技性强、专业性强、逻辑严密、表达要求简练的特点,在翻译上力求准确全面、严谨明确和通顺简练。 1科技英语翻译遵循的基本原则 从科技文章的特点来看,大多具有以下几个特征:述说事理、逻辑性强、结构严密、术语繁多,语言严谨、数据精确。这就要求译文必须概念清楚、条理分明、逻辑正确、数据无误,尤其对定义、定律、公式、图表、结论等更应特别注意。科技英语作为特殊英语的一个分支,在词汇构成、遣词造句等方面都有其自身的特点,其语法结构不十分严密、语言习惯和汉语也有不少差别、词汇量大、词语繁多,因此科技英语翻译起来比较困难。另外,科技文章比较重视叙事逻辑上的连贯及表达上的明晰与畅达; 避免行文晦涩,避免表露个人感情,避免论证上的主观随意性。因此,科技英语翻译力求少用或不用描述性形容词以及具有抒情作用的副词、感叹词及疑问词,而是大量使用科技词汇、专业技术用语,译者应尊重客观事实,不能随意改动数据、回避不易翻译的文字,更不能加进自己的主观想象,进行自由翻译。 我国著名翻译家严复提出的“信、达、雅”三准则一直为不少翻译工作者所接受。 “信”指的是译文要忠实于原文,“达”是指译文的通顺达意,“雅”指的是译文的用词修辞。三准则体现了译文和原文信息等值这一基本要领。 “信、达、雅”的翻译准则对各种英语文体的翻译实践都具有指导意义,是衡量一篇译文好坏的标准,也同样适用于科技文献的翻译。由于科技文章特有的文体特征,与其他类文章相比,其“达”和“雅”的内涵不同,它要求在准确传达信息的基础上,使译文更加简洁明快,流畅通顺。2科技英语翻译的基本方法
1.Here great disturbances at the heart of the earth caused mountains and volcanoes to rise above the water. 这里,由于地心的剧烈活动,使山脉和火山升出水面。 2.After the Australian Taxation Office made its taxation forms simpler, it actually received praise from taxpayers who could finally understand it. 澳大利亚税务局将其表格文字简化后,受到了纳税人的广泛称赞,因为他们终于能看懂这些表格了 3.Although people are born to win, they are also born helpless and totally dependent on their environment. Winners successfully make the transition from total helplessness to independence, and then to interdependence. Losers do not. 虽然人们生来要成功,然而,他们同样生来就是无助的,完全依靠环境。成功者成功地从完全不能自立过渡到了独立,然后过渡到相互依靠。失败者则不然。 4.Darwin was convinced that the loss of the tastes in music and drawing was not only a loss of happiness, but might possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character. 达尔文认为,失去对音乐和绘画方面的兴趣,不仅失去了幸福,而且还可能损伤智力,甚至可能会伤害道德。 5.No eating tools on the Chinese dinner table are more magical and distinctive than the chopsticks. 中餐桌上最神奇,最有特色的用餐工具莫过于筷子. 6.It is not on the shores of continents, nor in the coastal islands, however, that the soul of the great Pacific is found. It lies far out where the fabled South Sea Islands are scattered over the huge ocean like stars in the sky. 然而,浩瀚的太平洋最精美之处不在其大陆海岸,也不在沿海诸岛,而是在远离陆地的海域。在那里,富有神奇色彩的南太平洋诸岛像天上的繁星一样散布在广阔的海面上。 7.Circumstances and people are constantly changing. Some friendship last “forever”; others do not. 环境与人都在不断地改变。有些友谊地久天长,有些则如昙花一现。
东大学外国语学院2013-2014学年第二学期 《科技英语翻译》课程论文 课程号:1400622-100 任课教师于德英成绩
摘要:文章主要就科技英语的特征、科技英语翻译的标准和方法进行了探讨,说明了加强科技英语翻译研究和探索的日益重要性。旨在提醒科技翻译者在实践基础上加强理论研究,以便更好更准确地做好翻译工作。 关键词:科技英语翻译;标准;方法 随着国际学术交流的日益广泛,科技英语已经受到普遍的重视,掌握科技英语的翻译技巧是非常必要的。科技英语 (English for Science and Technolgy ,简称EST)作为一种重要的英语文体,与非科技英语文体相比,具有词义多、长句多、被动句多、词性转换多、非谓语动词多、专业性强等特点,这些特点都是由科技文献的内容所决定的。因此,科技英语的翻译也有别于其他英语文体的翻译。 一、首先要拥有一本好的科技词典 学习普通英语几年以后,你大约掌握几千个单词的词汇量,这时你就会发现英语拥有极其丰富多彩的词汇,但在科技文章中,又会对大量的专业词汇和术语而头疼。有些词晦涩难懂,大而长,看起来吓人,如posttention(后张拉力),prefabricate(预制),意义比较简单,只要查一下词典就行。有些词在文章中起着举足轻重的作用,所以翻译时选择在具体语言环境中最恰当。一本好的科技词典可以成为你的良师益友,为此笔者推荐《英汉道路词典》《汉英科技大词典》两本较好的词典。 二、在翻译时采用增词法和词序处理法 1.根据句法上的需要:由于英汉两种语言表达方式存在差别,在英语中需要省略的成分而在汉语中需要补出才能符合汉语的习惯。例如:在翻译案例中增词现象“与普通的线波相比,微波有较高的频率,从而被用于跨远距离定期发送成千上万的电话和的电视节目“,比原文中增添了“与普通的线波相比”“从而被”等词,来更好的表达原文。 2.根据意义上的需要:(1)英语复数名词的增译:复数名词前后增译“许多”、“一些”等,使其复数意义更明确;(2)英语中表示动作名词的增译:翻译时可根据上下文语境,补充一些表示动作意义的名词:“作用”、“现象”、“方案”等;(3)在英语名词或动名词前后增译汉语动词:(4)增译解说性词:英语中常因惯用法或上下文关系。省去了不影响理解全句意义的词句。为了使译文清晰起见,翻译时必须增译一些词。 3.词序处理法英汉两种语言的词序规则基本相同,但也存在着某些差别。不同的英语句子,在翻译中的词序处理方式也常常不同。例如:” are used routinely in sending thousands of telephone calls and television programs across long distances从远距离发送成千上万的电话和电视节目。这里将“across long distance”(从远距离)改序翻译为“发送成千上万电话和电视节目”之前较为合理。三.句型的使用 1.非限定动词的应用和大量使用后置定语如前所述,科技文章要求行文简练,结构紧凑,往往使用分词短语代替定语从句或状语从句;使用分词独立结构代替状语从句或并列分句;使用不定式短语代替各种从句;介词+动名词短语代替定语从句或状语从句。这样既可缩短句子,又比较醒目。 2.大量使用常用句型科技文章中经常使用若干特定的句型,从而形成科技文体区别
浅析科技英语翻译的术语 科技术语翻译历来是另许多科技公司或科技翻译工作者头痛却不得不面对的问题,应用语言学的研究表明,当一篇文章的生词量超过总词汇量的7%时,阅读起来就非常费力。而若这些生词为关键词,则生词占总词汇量的5%就会让读者感到文章理解起来困难。一般认为,科技英语文章中的术语(含科技新词和转义词)相对其他词汇而言所占的比率大致为4%-5%之间,这也难怪许多的译者在科技术语处止步。随着新技术、新材料、新设备和新工艺的不断产生,科技新名词、新术语大量涌现,比比皆是。目前使用的英汉科技词典,包括哪些专业性很强的分类词典,已很难全面满足科技翻译的需要,选收新词往往要落后至少3年,而且很多词典本身的质量尚需提高。因此,翻译达人认为有必要对科技术语翻译做一个相对系统的分析。 任何语言符号都是由概念(所指,signified)和音响形象(能指,signifier)结合而成。《剑桥国际英语词典》对术语这一概念的定义是“special words or expression used in relation to a particular subject or activity”,即某一学科中运用的专有名词或表达方式。顾名思义,科技术语就是科技技术领域中的专有此或表达方式,然而,与一般语言符号不同的是,科技术语的理解往往要比其它语言符号更为艰深和费力一些。正如德国语言雪娇洪堡特所说:语言是有限符号的无线运用。现在人们一般不再使用像deutrrium氘,tritium氚等这类生僻的词汇为科技术语命名,而是注重“挖潜”。科技术语的构成途径主要有以下三条:一是非科技术语转化为科技术语,如:shield本意为古代作战时使用的“盾”,现在则多指“盾构”(开掘隧道用语),而在磁化工艺中则译作“屏蔽”,又如swan neck 作为科技术语应译作“鹅颈管”或(弯管);二是利用
科技英语翻译论文精编 W O R D版 IBM system office room 【A0816H-A0912AAAHH-GX8Q8-GNTHHJ8】
浅谈科技英语翻译的忠实性摘要:随着各国科学技术交流的不断深化,科技英语翻译的任务也日益艰巨。由于科技文章文体具有清晰,准确,精炼,严密的特点,忠实性成为科技英语翻译必须遵 守的原则。要确保忠实性的实现,在翻译过程中就应遵循分析,转换和重构的 “三步走战略”,使译文具有可读性。 关键词:翻译重视性原则原文译文 翻译有直译和意译之分,直译比较倾向于保持原文的结构成分和意义的某些隐含成分;而意译则注重意义的准确传达,如果必要,可以不顾及原文的结构成分和意义的某些隐含成分。鉴于科技英语文体的特点,进行翻译时,采用直译方式居多,但并不排除意译的使用。无论是直译还是意译,忠实是必须遵守的原则。 早在18实际末叶,国外的着名翻译理论家泰特勒在《翻译的原则》一书中提出了着名的三原则;A,译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容;B,译文的风格,笔调应与原文的性质相同;C,译文应该像原文一样流畅自然。他强调的是译文与原文在思想,风格,笔调,行文等方面的对等,实质上就是“忠实性”中“一致性”的反映。这是忠实性最初也是最重要的阶段。在进行案例翻译过程中,译者客观地分了原文内容,也谨以科技文体要求。用中文再现了空气三大污染物的来源及危害。 但是在翻译过程中,译者发现根据原文做出的译文有多处不符合汉语使用规范。意识到翻译的忠实性不只停留在对原文的完全对等输出状态。翻译时还应考虑译文读者的接受力,这样译文才有可读性和可接受性。科技英语文章大量使用名词化结构,广泛使用被动语句,常用前置性陈述,但是汉语行文结构中少有这样的语法现象。如果按原文结构翻译,译文将有些句子主语缺失,陈述对象前后不一致等弊病。因此,译者在翻译过程中,补全了原文缺失的主语,宾语,以及意义,对有些句子语序做了调整,使其更符合汉语读者的
科技英语翻译 1.1 翻译的标准 第1节翻译练习1 The power plant is the heart of a ship. The power unit for driving the machines is a 50-hp induction motor. 动力装置是船舶的心脏。 驱动这些机器的动力装置是一台50马力的感应电动机。 第1节翻译练习2 Semiconductor devices, called transistors, are replacing tubes in many applications. Cramped conditions means that passengers’ legs cannot move around freely. All bodies are known to possess weight and occupy space. 半导体装置也称为晶体管,在许多场合替代电子管。 我们知道,所有的物体都有重量并占据空间。 空间狭窄,旅客的两腿就不能自由活动。 第1节翻译练习3 The removal of minerals from water is called softening. A typical foliage leaf of a plant belonging to the dicotyledons is composed of two principal parts: blade and petiole. 去除水中的矿物质叫做软化。 双子叶植物典型的营养叶由两个主要部分组成:叶片和叶柄。 1.2 对译者的要求 第4节翻译练习1 Einstein’s relativity theory is the only one which can explain such phenomena. All four (outer planets) probably have cores of metals, silicates, and water. 爱因斯坦的相对论是能解释这种现象的唯一理论。(直译) 这四颗外层行星的内核可能都由金属、硅酸盐和水构成。(意译) The designer must have access to stock lists of the materials he employs. Part adjustment and repair must be performed on regular basis if an acceptable printed product is to be the end product. 设计师必须备有所使用材料的储备表。(意译) 要使印刷品的质量达到要求,部件调试及修理就必须定期进行。(意译) 第4节翻译练习2 The most important of the factors affecting plant growth is that it requires the supply of water. The doctor analyzed the blood sample for anemia. The apparent change in size of the sun is caused by dust in the air near the horizon.植物生长的各因素中最重要的是水的供应。(合译) 太阳的大小看起来有变化,这是由于靠近地平线的空气中有尘粒而引起的。(分译) 医生对血样作了分析,看是不是贫血症。(分译) These fragments of rock and iron range from thousand kilometers in diameter to less than one. Manufacturing processes may be classified as unit production with small quantities being made and mass production with large numbers of identical parts being produced.这些石块和铁块的碎片大小不等,大的直径有1000公里,小的不到1公里。(分译) 制造过程可以分为单件生产和大量生产。前者指的是生产少量的零件,后者则是指生产大量相同的零件。(分译) 第4节翻译练习3 Cartography is the science of making maps. Many elements in nature are found to be mixtures of different isotopes. 制图学是研究绘制地图的科学。(增译) 人们发现,自然界里许多元素,都是各种不同的同位素的混合物。(增译) The two units used most frequently in electricity are ampere and volt: this is the unit of voltage and that of current. That like charges repel but opposite charges attract is one of the fundamental laws of electricity. 电学上最常用的两个单位是安培和伏特:后者是电压的单位,前者是电流的单位。(增译) 同性电荷相斥,异性电荷相吸是电学的一个基本规律。(省译) 第4节翻译练习4 Almost any insulated body processes to some extent the ability to retain for a time an electric charge. The angular contact bearing provides a greater thrust capacity. The properties of the weld can be altered by varying the grain orientation. 几乎任何一种绝缘体都多少具有保留电荷一段时间的能力。 向心推力轴承有较大的轴向承载能力。 通过改变晶粒的方向可以改变焊缝的性能。 2.1 词义的选择 第1节翻译练习1 The spindle rotates simultaneously round two axes at right angles to each other. The earth isn’t completely round; it is slightly flattene d at the poles. In each round of operation the particle picks up energy from the oscillating electric field. 锭子同时绕两个互相垂直的轴旋转。(介词) 粒子每运转一周都从振荡电场获取新的能量。(名词) 地球并非完全是圆的,它的两极略扁平。(形容词) An electron is an extremely small corpuscle with negative charge which rounds about the nucleus of an atom. Her waist measures forty inches round. 电子是绕原子核转动且带有负电荷的极其微小的粒子。(动词) 她腰围40英寸。(副词) 第1节翻译练习2 Rate of penetration was found to be proportional to the net pressure applied by the tool. Scientists are constantly striving to find fast and convenient way of obtaining quantitative data. To find the area of a square or oblong, you merely multiply its length by its width. Certain isotopes are not found in nature. 人们发现钻孔速度与工具所受的净压力成正比。 求一正方形或长方形的面积,你只需将其长度乘以宽度。 科学家们总是力求找到快速而简便的方法获得定量数据。 有些同位素在自然界中并不存在。 New fibers find expanding applications in engineering and industry. Kangaroos are found in Australia. This plant is found in the sea near the mouth of rivers. Microcomputers have found their application in the production of genius sensors. Plastics find wide application in our daily life. 大袋鼠产于澳大利亚。 这种植物生长在近河口的海中。 新发明的纤维在工程和工业领域得到越来越广泛的应用。 微型计算机已经应用于智能传感器的生产中。 塑料在我们的日常生活中得到广泛应用。 第2节翻译练习1 The cause of rolling resistance is the deformation of mating surfaces of the rolling element and the raceway on which it rolls. Traditionally, NC programming has been performed offline with the machine commands The occurrence of large mats of floating algae may result in the death of many fish from lack of oxygen. 滚动阻力的起因在于滚动体的配合面和它滚动的滚道的变形。(技术性引申) 通常,数控机床的编程是脱机完成的,指令载于穿孔带上。(技术性引申) 大片大片漂浮的藻类的出现导致很多鱼因缺氧而死亡。(修辞引申) The splitting of the uranium or plutonium nucleus is accompanied by the release of very considerable amount of energy. The major contributors in component technology have been in the semiconductor. The distance between the two plates is small compared with their linear dimensions. Just as different solids and liquids vary in density, so do gases and vapors. 元件技术中起主要作用的是半导体元件。(具体化引申) 两板之间的距离相对于其宽度和长度而言比较小。(具体化引申) 随着铀核和钚核的裂变,会有极其巨大的能量释放处理。(修辞性引申) 正像不同的固体和液体的密度不同一样,不同的气体和蒸汽的密度也不同。(具体化引申) The Curies believed that there was something in nature that gave out radiation. Obviously, there is much room for the improvement in the structure. At present coal is the most common food of a steam plant. The facts have been set down in black and white. 显然,其结构还有较大的改进余地。(抽象化引申) 目前,煤是火电厂最常用的能源。(抽象化引申) 居里夫妇坚信,自然界中有一种物质能放出辐射能。(具体化引申) 这些事实已经清清楚楚地记录下来了。(抽象化引申) 2.3 词类的转换 第3节翻译练习1 Each time a sample was drawn for color determination. What is certain is that the oil spill has delivered a devastating blow to the ecology of the Persian Gulf. We should get familiar with different systems of units. 每次取一个标本测定颜色。 可以肯定,这场石油泄漏事件对波斯湾的生态是个惨重的打击。 我们应该熟悉各种(计量)单位制。 These decision-making processes are applicable to the entire field of engineering design--- not just to mechanical engineering design. Hydrogen instead of air is frequently used for cooling large turbogenerators. When the war was over, it was discovered that the Germans were nowhere near success in developing nuclear weapons. 常以氢气代替空气来冷却大型汽轮发电机。 第二次世界大战结束后,人们发现德国人在研制核武器方面离成功还很远。 这些判定过程可以应用于工程设计的整个领域,而不仅仅限于机械工程设计。 Various precautions have been taken against leakage. Once inside the oven, panels are subjected to a temperature of 365°F. Value is defined as a numerical ratio, the ratio of the function, or performance, to the cost. This new model should appeal to potential buyers. 一旦进入烘干炉,板材就处于365华氏度的温度条件下。 价值的定义是功能或性能与成本的数值比。 已采取了各种措施防止渗漏。 这种新式样对潜在的买主肯定有吸引力。 Galileo’s experiments are not difficul t, nor is there any evidence that he performed them with exceptional skill. Sometimes a scientist observes an object and its features, for example a star or a bird; sometimes he observes an event, which is something that happens at a particular time. Earthquakes are generally more destructive of life than volcanic eruptions. 有时科学家观察一物体及其特征,例如一颗星或一只鸟;有时科学家观察某一事件,即在一特定时间所发生的事。 地震对于生命的破坏通常大于火山爆发。 伽利略的实验并不难,也没有证据表明他是以非凡的技能来做实验的。 Heat should be applied slowly to avoid localized overheating. How rapidly a fuel burns depends on how thoroughly it is mixed with oxygen or air. This is why a coil is often referred to as an inductor. 一种燃料燃烧的速度有多快,取决于它与氧气或空气混合的均匀程度。 这就是线圈常被叫做电感器的原因。 应当慢慢加热,以避免发生局部过热现象。 第3节翻译练习2 Practically all of the useful properties of materials are strongly dependent on their internal structure. The metal casts well. A wire for conducting electric current is covered with plastic; the plastic is insulation round the wire. 几乎材料的一切有用特性都与其内部的结构有密切的关系。 这种金属有良好的铸造性能。 传导电流的导线包有塑料,该塑料便是导线周围的绝缘材料。 There are many ways of determining the distribution of the magnetism about a magnet. Good lubrication keeps the bearings from being damaged. Safety in a power plant is of great importance. Most modern transmitters employ solid state circuits. 安全在电厂是非常重要的。 现代发报机大多采用固体电路。 有许多方法来确定磁场周围的磁力分布状况。 润滑良好可保护轴承不受损伤。 E-Chemmerce now offers two main levels of online business intelligence on chemical, plastic and energy e-commerce. These images tend to exaggerate the robot’s similarity to human anatomy and behavior. Aluminum remained an expensive rarity till the discovery of the electrolytic process for reducing aluminum in 1886. 这些概念常常夸大了机器人与人类在形体和行为方面的相似之处。 《电子化工商务》目前主要提供两个层次的有关化学、塑料和能源电子商务的在线商务信息服务。 直到1886年人们发现电解法还原铝之前,铝一直是一种昂贵的珍品。 Since some materials are not damaged easily as others, the possibility exists of developing radiation-resistant parts. 由于有些材料不像另一些那样容易被损坏,所以有可能研制出防辐射的零件。 2.4 词的增译 第4节翻译练习2 第4节翻译练习1 This action externally appears like the discharge of a capacitor. Once out of the earth’s gravity, an astronaut is affec ted by still another problem--- weightlessness.