Genetically Modified Food

Genetically Modified Food: Is it safe to Eat Genetically Modified Crops?

by Rich Deem Introduction

1 The safety of genetically modified (GM) foods has been decried by many from the nutritional health community. One article, entitled, "Genetically Modified Foods Pose Huge Health Risk" claims that thousands of animals fed genetically-modified organisms (GMO) have died and that "post mortems showed severe irritation and black patches in both intestines and liver."1 This same article claims "that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are a major contributor to the sharply deteriorating health of Americans."1 The controversy came to a head in November, 201

2 in California with a vote on a proposition, which would have required labeling of GMO food. The proposition was sponsored by the members of the organic food industry and trial lawyers, who would have benefited by suing small businesses who failed to comply with the extensive labeling requirements. Although the proposition failed, the so-called dangers posed by genetically modified food were placed before the voters during the extensive advertising campaigns. It is estimated that 50-70% of all food consumed in the United States contains at least some components that come from genetically modified crops. This page represents an unbiased analysis of the risks and benefits of producing and consuming genetically modified organisms.

What are GMO?

2 Although human beings have been modifying the genetics of plants and animals for thousands of years through selective breeding, genetic modification, as now applied, refers to the introduction of specific foreign genes into an organism's genome through the techniques of molecular biology.Genetic engineering of organisms began in earnest in the 1970s with the ability of scientists to clone genes and insert them in bacteria. Such "transgenic" organisms could be made to produce the gene products of the inserted gene, allowing scientists to produce drugs such as human insulin and other biochemical products with ease. Soon after, scientists were inserting genes into mouse embryos to produce transgenic animals for research. Other molecular biology techniques allowed scientists to "knockout" genes of interest to see what effect their removal had upon specific disease processes. In our laboratory, we use cloning and genetic engineering to produce both transgenic and knockout mouse models to study inflammatory bowel diseases肠道炎症. Obviously, not all genetic modification of organisms is bad, since these GMOs have led to breakthroughs in medical research.

Genetically modified crops

3 Food crops have been genetically modified for several reasons—most of which produce a financial benefit to farmers and the chemical companies that produce the GMOs. In nearly all cases, these benefits are achieved indirectly by increasing crop yields through resistance to diseases and pests or by allowing reduced use of herbicides to control weeds and unwanted plant growth. Monsanto has produced "Roundup Ready" seeds whose plants are resistant to the herbicide Roundup. Roundup consists of glyphosate甘油, which kills plants by interfering with the shikimate pathway (which produces aromatic amino acids芳香族氨基酸) in plants. Since animals don't posses the shikimatepathway, but get aromatic amino acids from their diet, Roundup is not toxic to human beings. A favorite gene to incorporate into plants to confer pest resistance is the bacterial toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis 苏云金杆菌(Bt). This toxin binds to a specific receptor 受体on the surface of midgut epithelial 分泌薄壁细泡cells of certain orders of insects, disrupting digestion and killing the pest. Since this receptor is not found in vertebrates脊椎动物，such as humans, it is non-toxic, so it produces no harm. The advantage of incorporating Bt toxin into the plant is that only pests who eat the crops are killed. Since the 1930s, Bt toxin has been used as an insecticide, being sprayed on plants, killing pests along with beneficial insects that accidentally ingest the toxin.

In addition to pest and herbicide resistance, scientists have altered plant-produced oils to produce healthier products, added vitamin A to rice ("golden rice"), and conferred resistance to viral attack. Genetic engineering of papaya saved the Hawaiian papaya industry from extinction due to infection with Ringspot virus环斑病毒in 1998.2

To date, several crops have been genetically modified, a few of which now account for the vast majority of those crops now cultivated in the United States. In the United States, nearly all corn, soybean and cotton crops are now genetically modified. In Canada, nearly all rapeseed 油菜籽(canola) is genetically modified. Other genetically modified crops include:

Genetically Modified Crops (as of December, 2012)3

See Pic1

Genetically modified animals

4 Enviropig is a genetically modified pig that produces the enzyme phytase肌醇六磷酸酶, which allows the pig to digest phytic acid, which contains a form of phosphorus 磷that is normally indigestible.This results in reduced phosphorus being released into the environment, reducing pollution of waterways.Another novel idea in genetic engineering was the cloning of pigs that were rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

5 With this GM pig, you could get healthy omega-3 fatty acids by eating bacon, instead of smelly fish. Genetic engineering has been used to alter cows so that they produce milk that is free of β-lactoglobulin乳蛋白(which many people are allergic to) and high in casein protein酪蛋白.Other cows have been genetically modified to produce milk that is nearly identical with human milk,7 which would allow mothers who

cannot nurse the opportunity to give their infants milk that is more "natural" than standard baby formula. As of this writing, none of these innovations have been approved for human consumption

Frankenfish地狱鱼

5 Genetically modified crops have produced not nearly the amount of controversy as the first animal genetically modified for human consumption. Affectionately referred to as "Frankenfish," this genetically modified AquAdvantage salmon was so controversial that the FDA failed to take action on its approval for market in 2010, requiring more study. What did AquaBounty do that was so controversial? They took an Atlantic salmon (which are already extensively grown in farms) and added a growth hormone regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon王鲑and a promoter gene from an ocean pout大头鱼. So, instead of growing only during warmer months, the AquAdvantage salmon will grow all year long, achieving maturity in about half the time as wild Atlantic salmon. Although these genetically modified salmon could probably out-compete wild salmon because of their high growth rate, they are provided by AquaBounty as sterile females, to prevent breeding, should they be inadvertently released into the wild. Despite these precautions, activist groups, along with the Alaska salmon fishing lobby, convinced the FDA not to approve AquaBounty's application. From a scientific perspective, the genes inserted into the genetically modified salmon are naturally-occurring, and have been eaten in their respective host species without incident. The FDA finally released the environmental report for AquAdvantage salmon immediately before Christmas, 2012, although the report itself was dated May, 2012.

GM pets/flowers

6 Fluorescent proteins 荧光蛋白have been used for years in molecular biology research to report expression of genes to which it is attached. When the gene of interest is transcribed, the fluorescent protein is also expressed, which shows up as a fluorescent glow that can be measured. Most of these fluorescent proteins have been isolated from species of jellyfish. Entrepreneurs have incorporated different fluorescent protein into zebrafish斑马鱼and tetras脂鲤to create transgenic pets. These "Glofish" have been marketed as unique tropical fish, notable for their stunning fluorescent colors.9 In addition to the stunning colors of zebrafish, scientists have genetically engineered colors in flowers that aren't found in nature. Examples include the Blue Rose Applause and Moonshade Carnation.

Can GMO foods harm people?

7 For a number of GM crops, the genes/gene products never enter the food supply, since those parts of the plants are removed during processing. For example, sugar from GM sugar beets is chemically identical to non-GM sugar. Likewise, oils purified from GM canola, soybean, cottonseed, and corn is identical to non-GM oils. Much of

the corn crop is dedicated to generating ethanol乙醇, which, of course, is identical to non-GM ethanol. It has not been noted that ethanol from GM corn adversely affect automobile performance compared to non-GM ethanol. Genetically modified Bt cotton is worn, rather than ingested, and there have been no reports of adverse effects of wearing GM clothing. For GM crops in which whole plant cells are ingested, the genes and gene products are usually destroyed through digestion in the stomach and small intestine. So, it is unlikely, even in theory, that eating GM crops can harm human beings.

GMO concerns and studies

8 Concerns over the safety of genetically modified organisms extends across much more than just food safety. Supporters of the environmental movement are concerned that GMO might escape into the wild and alter ecosystems. Another concern is that genetically modified genes might experience horizontal gene transfer through bacterial or viral vectors and end up in organisms for which they were never intended. These issues are dealt with below.

Food safety

9 In the United States all applications for the approval of GMO released for public consumption are handled by the FDA. Development and testing of a new GM crop typically requires 8 to 12 years, including more than 4 years of safety and environmental testing, before regulatory approval and commercial release.

No particular food is safe to eat for all human beings, since about 6% of the human population has allergies to one or more food groups. FDA testing for food allergies to GM foods is identical to similar testing for non-GM foods. Any gene products found in GM food that is not found in non-GM food must have its structure analyzed to determine if it matches any known allergen (containing a sequence greater than 35% identical to any 80-amino-acid segment of known allergens, where an average protein contains hundreds of amino acids). In nearly all instances, commonly inserted genes would never be expected to be similar to food allergens. However, if a match were found, the protein would have to be tested with sera血清from allergy sufferers to establish allergenicity致敏性. A GM product that exhibits "substantial equivalence" to the non-GM variety is declared to be safe. There is no published evidence of allergic reactions to any GM protein or any adverse human health reactions associated with consumption of foods from GM crops since the introduction of GM products into the food supply.11 A test of the allergenicity of GM vs. non-GM soybeans was done in 2006, and scientists found no differences in the reactions of sera from allergy sufferers.12

Scientific Studies on the Food Safety of Genetically Modified Crops

See pic2

Although there appear to be conflicting data about the safety of GM food, all the negative studies have come from one laboratory headed by Dr. Gilles-Eric Séralini at the University of Caen, France. The conclusions of those studies have been refuted by numerous scientists who have noted flaws in study designs and statistical

evaluations.36 In addition, Séralini is funded by the Committee for Research and Independent Information on Genetic Engineering, in Paris, France, which opposes genetic engineering of crops.

Environmental concerns

10 Realistic environmental concerns over GM crops fall into two categories; (1) the development of resistance in Bt crop target organisms and (2) tolerance in weeds to complementary herbicides used in HT crops.37 Although concerns have been raised over the use of large-scale mono-crops, these concerns are not specific to GM modified crops, but apply to corporate farming in general. None of the crops in question are hardy enough to escape into the environment and compete with indigenous flora.

The development of resistance to Bt toxin by pests was anticipated prior to commercialization of those crops. For this reason, Many crops include multiple variations of the Bt toxin in their products. In addition, all farms using GM Bt crops must plant a small percentage of corresponding non-GM crop in the vicinity. In theory, these non-GM crops would attract pests, which would reproduce abundantly, overwhelming the gene pool of any potential Bt-resistant mutants.

Another question is whether GM crops containing Bt toxin affect insect predators who feed on pests that eat GM crops. For most studies, ingestion of pests that eat GM crops does not negatively impact predator insect species.38 However, some predator species have been negatively impacted, although those impacts were probably less than they would have been with conventional crops in which pesticides were used indiscriminately.

Gene flow and gene transfer

11 Concern has been raised about genetic mixing of GM crop genes with wild, related

species. For most crops, no sufficiently-related natural species still exist. However, crops related to the Brassica and Beta species (rapeseed, aka canola, and sugar beets) do have wild relatives. In 1999 scientists showed in the lab that pollen from rapeseed could fertilize wild turnip to produce viable seeds.39 However, the transfer of GM genes into wild populations has never been demonstrated to have occurred in nature.

Unintended genetic changes

12 Although the genes being introduced into plants are highly characterized and defined, the process of gene insertion and tissue culture can result in unintended genetic changes. Plants are transformed by culturing individual cells in tissue culture and inserting the desired trait into the DNA by one of several methods. The most common is through infection with genetically transformed Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a bacterium that infects plants. Through the infection process, the

desired trait is incorporated into the host DNA. A second mechanism is through particle acceleration, which physically pushes small particles into the plant cell nucleus where the gene is incorporated. The desired genes are usually linked to specific antibiotic resistance genes so that transformed plant cells can be selected through resistance to antibiotics that are included in the tissue culture medium. The mechanism by which the foreign genes are incorporated into the host genome are not well understood. However, since much of the eukaryotic genomes consist of non-critical DNA segments, random incorporation does not usually lead to adverse effects on the host. Cells in which the foreign genes are incorporated into critical genes will tend to produce a lethal mutation that prevents the cell from growing. However, it is theoretically possible that random incorporation of a GM gene could lead to disregulation of a particular gene, which could have unintended consequences. However, such events would be expected to be very rare. With the advances in gene array technology, scientists can now explicitly examine gene expression from all the genes in GM vs. non-GM crop species. The results of numerous studies show that virtually all gene expression is identical between GM and non-GM plants.40 In fact, studies found greater differences in gene and protein expression as a result of crop differences between farms than differences between GM and non-GM crops.40 However, the act of cloning individual plant cells in tissue culture probably results in more changes to the genome than the actual genetic transformation itself.41 In order to minimize these differences, once the desired trait is selected, the new variety is conventionally back-crossed with normal plants to produce a GM variety as similar as possible to the non-GM original. An extensive review of GM-crop risks concluded, "there is no indication from the molecular characterization of GM plants that the insertion of GM DNA as such poses a long-term risk due to new mechanisms of genetic instability or re-arrangements."37

In the last year, a newly invented technology allows scientists to accurate choose where genes are inserted into the host species. The TagMo process involves exact chromosome breakage and insertion of genes into the target DNA.42 Once this technique is broadly adapted, unintended genetics changes will be reduced to virtually zero.

Economic benefits of GMO

13 The main benefit of GM crops is economics, since the nutritional component has largely gone unexploited. The political/social climate surrounding GMO must improve before companies would be willing to invest money into genetic engineering for enhanced food nutrition. The economics of GM crops was analyzed in a study of 196 publications containing 721 entries for the statistical analysis in 2011.43 The meta analysis found that crop yields for GM Bt cotton were up to 50% higher than conventional cotton (in India). However, yields in developed countries were only 1-28% higher, since pest management was aggressive before the introduction of GM cotton. However, reductions in pesticide costs range from 16% in the USA to about 70% in China. Yield levels of Bt corn are higher (5%-25%) compared to conventional

maize, and along with lower pesticide costs, results in higher gross margins of 10%-17% for farmers. For GM soybeans, marginally increased yields and reduced pesticide costs did not make up for the higher cost of GM seed. In general, benefits of GM farming are higher in developing countries compared with developed countries. Overall, it was estimated that GM crops benefit farmers by $7 billion per year, worldwide.43

Food labeling requirements

14 Countries of the European Union, along with several others (for a total of 42, as of 2012) require labeling of products containing GM components.44 No such requirement exists in the United States or Canada. The requirement for GM labeling of food has resulted in the almost complete absence of GM food in those countries, mostly due to a perception by grocery store owners that such foods would not be purchased. However, in Australia, only 27% of consumers examine food labels to determine if products contain genetically modified ingredients.45 So, even though consumers don't have a strong preference against GM food, required labeling laws have resulted in the virtual elimination of GM products from countries with such labeling requirements.

Politics of GMO

15 In general, opponents of GMO are part of the environmental movement, which largely consist of liberals and members of the left. Frustrated with the irrationality of GMO opponents, Keith Kloor of Slate recently wrote an article entitled, "GMO Opponents Are the Climate Skeptics of the Left." Environmental organizations that have come out against GM food include Greenpeace, and the Sierra Club. GMO are also opposed by members of the organic food industry, which stand to gain financially from GMO labeling requirements.

Legal considerations of GMO

16 All genetically modified organisms contain patented DNA technology. The licensing terms require that users of the patent (i.e., farmers) not save any seed from any harvests, but buy licensed seed every year it is planted. Without such licensing restrictions, patents on genetically engineered sees would be useless to protect a company's investment in creating the patent. However, to insure patent protection, GM seed companies are now producing seed that does not produce viable embryos, preventing the replanting of harvested seed. Some interesting cases of patent infringement have resulted from farmers planting unlicensed GM seed.

Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser

Percy Schmeiser was a canola farmer in Saskatchewan, Canada. In 1997, Schmeiser sprayed the herbicide RoundUp around telephone poles at the edge of his farm and

discovered that the canola plants survived, indicating that they were GM canola plants. According to his account, he sprayed an additional 4 acres of the same field and found that 60% of the plants survived the spraying. At harvest, Schmeiser saved the Roundup-resistant seed separately and the following year intentionally planted an additional 1,000 acres of land with the saved seed. Even though Schmeiser did not use the herbicide Roundup on this crop, three courts (including the Canadian Supreme Court) found him guilty of patent infringement,46 although he never purchased seed from Monsanto or signed their license agreement. A biased documentary, entitled David vs. Monsanto, based upon the case, went viral. However, the documentary never stated clearly that Schmeiser intentionally planted 1,000 acres of what he knew to be GM canola seed, but suggested that the seed came from wind-borne "contamination." I am no farmer, but it would seem extremely unlikely that a field could become 60% contaminated with seed blown in from an adjacent farm. If this were true, then a farmer would never have to plant seed at all, but just wait for the wind to blow it into your field to get a crop. Not!!! Primarily as a result of David vs. Monsanto, Monsanto became an evil corporation in the eyes of GMO opponents.

Monsanto Company and Monsanto Technology LLC, Plaintiffs-Appellees, V. Vernon Hugh Bowman

Monsanto's Technology Agreement allows farmers to sell their genetically-modified crops to commodity markets, which are allowed to sell those seeds as a commodity, for anything but planting. So, Vernon Bowman, after planting Roundup Ready soybean seed from Monsanto, decided to obtain second season crop seed from the commodity market, saving money on seed costs and avoiding the licensing fee. Since 94% of the soybean market in the U.S. uses Roundup Ready soybeans, the seed from the commodity market was probably nearly pure GM seed. Bowman planted the seed from the commodity market and harvested the seed from that crop and saved it for next season's planting. Then, amazingly, Bowman wrote Monsanto, telling them exactly what he had done! Monsanto, of course, sued Bowman, since he had violated the terms of the license agreement, which prevented the planting of patented seed from previous harvests. Monsanto alleged that Bowman, in planting the seed from the commodity market violated the terms of the license agreement. A judge agreed with Monsanto, along with the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.47The case is currently before the U.S. Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court rules against Monsanto, patents on GM seed will be basically worthless, since any farmer could buy commodity seed and avoid Monsanto's licensing fee. Christianity and GMO

17 Since this is a Christian website, we usually give the Christian perspective on issues, even if the issue does not primarily have spiritual implications. Christianity does not impose dietary restrictions on its adherents, so there is no directive against

eating any particular kind of food, although gluttony is unacceptable.48 Since Christianity came from Judaism, there was some controversy in the early church about those who practiced the Judaic food laws and those who didn't. The apostle Paul said that as long as a person gave thanks to God, it didn't matter what he ate (Romans 14:5-6).49 Therefore the Christian is not restricted in regard to food he consumes. Therefore no one is to act as your judge in regard to food or drink or in respect to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath day—things which are a mere shadow of what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ. (Colossians 2:16-17)

Some Christians say that by creating GMOs, scientists are "playing God."50 However, human beings have been breeding plants for thousands of years, so that the crops we now grow are quite different from those that God originally created. Some Christians oppose GM foods not on the basis of morality, but on a faulty understanding of the science behind it.51

Since Judaism does adhere to a strict dietary code, genetic modification of food is a potential issue. However, Orthodox Rabbis have ruled that genetic modification of food was irrelevant to the Jewish dietary laws.

Conclusion

18If one does an Internet search for the safety of genetically modified food, he will find that the vast majority of articles oppose such food, claiming it is unsafe to eat. As an extension of liberal environmentalism and the health food industry, GMO opposition has taken on a life of its own, complete with its own form of junk science and scare tactics. Real science has shown that genetic modification of crops increases productivity, reduces the use of pesticides and herbicides, reducing fuel use and the carbon footprint of farming. Besides helping the farmer, genetic engineering has the potential to help the environment and make food more healthy to eat. However, most of these innovations have not been adopted because of widespread, irrational opposition. Numerous scientific studies have shown that food containing ingredients from genetically modified organisms is as safe to eat as conventional food. Ultimately, over 70% of food in the average grocery store in the USA contains ingredients from GMO. Since the longevity of Americans has increased during the last 16 years following the introduction of GMO into the American diet, one would have to conclude that GM food has no negative impact on the health of the average American.

尊重的素材

尊重的素材（为人处世） 思路 人与人之间只有互相尊重才能友好相处 要让别人尊重自己，首先自己得尊重自己 尊重能减少人与人之间的摩擦 尊重需要理解和宽容 尊重也应坚持原则 尊重能促进社会成员之间的沟通 尊重别人的劳动成果 尊重能巩固友谊 尊重会使合作更愉快 和谐的社会需要彼此间的尊重 名言 施与人，但不要使对方有受施的感觉。帮助人，但给予对方最高的尊重。这是助人的艺术，也是仁爱的情操。—刘墉 卑己而尊人是不好的，尊己而卑人也是不好的。———徐特立 知道他自己尊严的人，他就完全不能尊重别人的尊严。———席勒 真正伟大的人是不压制人也不受人压制的。———纪伯伦 草木是靠着上天的雨露滋长的，但是它们也敢仰望穹苍。———莎士比亚 尊重别人，才能让人尊敬。———笛卡尔 谁自尊，谁就会得到尊重。———巴尔扎克 人应尊敬他自己，并应自视能配得上最高尚的东西。———黑格尔 对人不尊敬，首先就是对自己的不尊敬。———惠特曼

每当人们不尊重我们时，我们总被深深激怒。然而在内心深处，没有一个人十分尊重自己。———马克·吐温 忍辱偷生的人，绝不会受人尊重。———高乃依 敬人者，人恒敬之。———《孟子》 人必自敬，然后人敬之；人必自侮，然后人侮之。———扬雄 不知自爱反是自害。———郑善夫 仁者必敬人。———《荀子》 君子贵人而贱己，先人而后己。———《礼记》 尊严是人类灵魂中不可糟蹋的东西。———古斯曼 对一个人的尊重要达到他所希望的程度，那是困难的。———沃夫格纳 经典素材 1元和200元 （尊重劳动成果） 香港大富豪李嘉诚在下车时不慎将一元钱掉入车下，随即屈身去拾，旁边一服务生看到了，上前帮他拾起了一元钱。李嘉诚收起一元钱后，给了服务生200元酬金。 这里面其实包含了钱以外的价值观念。李嘉诚虽然巨富，但生活俭朴，从不挥霍浪费。他深知亿万资产，都是一元一元挣来的。钱币在他眼中已抽象为一种劳动，而劳动已成为他最重要的生存方式，他的所有财富，都是靠每天20小时以上的劳动堆积起来的。200元酬金，实际上是对劳动的尊重和报答，是不能用金钱衡量的。 富兰克林借书解怨 （尊重别人赢得朋友）

概括课文内容的方法

浅谈“概括课文主要内容”的策略 概括课文主要内容是一项重要的阅读能力。作为教师，要特别抓好这一能力的训练，既要教给学生一定的方法，还要让他们不断实践，在实践中提升。笔者在平时的阅读教学中进行了以下尝试： 一、不同体裁的文章，不同形式的概括 （一）叙事类文章，不拘一格 记叙文是以叙述为主要表达方式，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体。它是小学最常见的一种文体。抓好记叙文主要内容的概括就差不多是抓好了整个小学阶段课文主要内容的概括。 1. 理清思路，提取要素 叶圣陶先生在《语文教学二十韵》中曾指出：“作者思有路，遵路识斯真。”显然，阅读理解要从理清思路入手。而叙述性文章一般包括时间、地点、人物和事情四个要素。其中事情又由起因、经过、结果组成。在概括这类文章时, 教师可以指导学生运用“什么时候，谁在什么地方做什么”这样的句式，通过提取主要信息来概括主要内容。 例如：人教版五（下）的一篇课文《晏子使楚》，事情发生的时间是春秋末期，地点是楚国，人物是齐国大夫晏子、楚王，事件是在晏子出使楚国期间，楚王三次侮辱晏子，晏子三次聪明回击。把这四要素连接起来，就可以概括出文章的主要内容：春秋末期，齐国大夫晏子出使楚国，楚王三次侮辱晏子，晏子巧妙回击, 维护了国家尊严。 2. 串联情节，标题概括 情节是记叙文的核心要素之一，没有情节便不能称为记叙文。而一篇优秀的记叙文必然要有“波澜”，也就是起伏的情节。因此，在概括文章主要内容时，也可以选取有代表性的情节进行概括，通常这个时候，我们可以运用小标题概括法。巧用标题概

括，可以更好地梳理文章的内容，使情节一目了然，更好地帮助学生进行概括。 3. 巧用词语，辐射感知 文章由句子组成，句子则由一个个词语所组成。词语的出示既可以作为初读环节中字音、字形、字义的检查，也可以作为整体感知文章内容的一个媒介。 ①以一个词语辐射 温州市小语教研员曹鸿飞老师在执教略读课文《学会看病》时，通过“按图索骥”这个词语的理解，用一句话“那么在课文中又是什么意思呢”引申出课文内容，以一点辐射到全文，真可谓是妙举。 ②以一串词语辐射 记得一位老师曾经上过四（下）的一篇课文《普罗米修斯》，老师在字词检查关的第二次出示了这样一组词： 在纠正学生字音后，徐老师先让学生说说这四个神之间发生了什么事， 然后通过人物关系的箭头标示，再来说课文的主要内容，这样不仅降低了概括的难度，也实现了词语的活用。 （二）说明性文章，善用表格 说明文是客观地说明事物的一种文体。阅读这类文章，要抓住说的是什么事物、从哪几个方面来说明的、说明的物体有什么特点，然后进行概括。对于这类文章，运用表格进行概括能收到很好的效果。 （三）文言类的小古文，巧借题目 文言类小古文，语言凝练。概括这类文章的主要内容，我们要善于借助题目，从题目着手，进行扩展。 人教版六（下）第一组课文中有一篇文言文是《两小儿辩日》，概括这 类文章的主要内容时我们可以这样做: 根据题目，教师问：辩是什么意思？谁和谁争辩？他们在争辩什么？各自执什

NCE4课文文本WORD

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浅谈在初中语文教学设计中文本课程资源的利用 教材是一种重要的课程资源，作为教师首先必须先研读教材、吃透教材，然后才能用好教材。把握教材的重点和难点，完成知识与能力、过程和方法、情感态度价值观的教学目标，培养学生学习语文的兴趣，掌握学习语文的方法并非易事。如何化难为易，这就需要教师在教学设计过程中充分利用单元前后和课文前后的导读训练、课文的注释及旁注、教师用书和作业训练，吃透文本本身的内容，达到熟悉教材、理解作者的写作意图和编辑的编排目的，从而精心设计教学过程。 一、利用教材文本资源研读课文，设计教学 1、研读课文本身 教师研读课文是教学设计准备的一个重要环节，教师在教学设计之前必须研读文本。只有教师先“入门”，才能对学生加以引导，否则是误导。语文能力的培养大多是在研读课文的过程获得的，首先是读，然后才能“研”，阅读课文是“研”的基础。阅读教学是学生、教师、文本三间双向、互动的对话过程。在这个过程中，读者不是消极被动的。因此，在教学设计中应指导学生具体深入地思考课文的质量和深度，鼓励他们运用自己的想象力对作品的情节、人物思想等做出反应。同时，还要指导学生在阅读活动中获得信息的同时，发现自我，获得阅读成功的喜悦。在教学设计的过程中，培养阅读能力应注意以下几点：（1）引导学生掌握多种阅读方法。《语文标准》要求学生能用普通话正确、流利、有感情地朗读。教学时，教师要明确朗读要求，让学生先读“正确”，再读“流利”。鼓励学生选择自己喜欢的方式去朗读，给学生充足的朗读时间，让学生自由的读、充分地读，读出语气，读出感情。这样，在读中整体感知，读中感悟；引导学生默读的方法，引导学

生一边读一边想；养成略读的习惯，“学习略读，粗知文章大意”。在阅读方法的指导时，教师要引导学生通过读、画、圈、点等多种形式的训练，让学生的口、手、脑多种器官并用，真正成为学习的主体。 （2）重视阅读的感受和体验。教学设计应体现阅读方法的指导，突出阅读行为的自主性，重在感受体验、整体把握，而不是纯理性的甚至是机械的分析，在弄懂“写什么”的基础上进一步思考“怎么写”的问题，并要求敢于提出自己的看法，做出自己的判断，鼓励学生独立判断、求异创新，促进学生个性发展。可以开展阅读活动课，让学生在生活中体验。可以创设情景，让学生在课堂上感受。也可以对作品中的人物进行评价，激发学生体验生活，真正做到与文本对话。 （3）设计多角度有创意的阅读。新课标强调“提倡多角度的、有创意的阅读，拓展思维空间，提高阅读质量。”指导学生阅读应充分利用“阅读期待、阅读反思和批判等环节”，提高学生的阅读能力。 （4）培养语感，注重积累。学习语文是一个长期积累的过程，只有“厚积”，才能“薄发”。没有积累，谈不上培养良好的语感，也绝不可能有真正的听说读写能力，当然也学不好语文。教师要“让学生逐步学会精读、略读和浏览”，养成背诵优美篇段、积累运用喜欢的句段和名言警句的习惯。“书读百遍，其意自现”，在朗读的过程中，从作品的声律、气韵中体会文章丰富的内涵和情感，进而有助于积累素材、培养语感、体验品味、投入情感，达到语言熏陶、潜移默化的目的。 2、利用单元导读，把握单元重点 初中语文教材以语文与生活的联系为线索，按人与自我、人与自然、人与社会三大板块组织成六个单元。每个单元提示不仅概括了本单元的篇目和内容，而且设置了悬念，引你热切渴望走进这一单元，如七年级下册第二单元的“童年趣事”的单元导读：童年是金色的。这时展示了一幅幅童年生活的画卷。有人童年受到呵护，也尝到各种酸甜苦辣的滋