员工培训与开发重点(英文版)

Topic 3

1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

?Verbal information

?Intellectual skills

?Motor skills

?Attitudes

?Cognitive strategies

.

2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (a nd negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring KSAs E.g Behavior modification

According to social learning theory, learning is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy, which is one determinant of readiness to learn.

Social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced the development of multimedia training programs.

Goal setting theory influences training methods to be considered. Goal setting theory also is used in training program design because it suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives

Goa orientation theory is believed to affect the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn). Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in comparison to learners with a performance orientation.

Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs? Another implications of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend

Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program; learning is linked to outcomes; and employees value these outcomes.

Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting. Implications of Adult learning theory for training as following: self-concept, experience, readiness, time perspective, orientation to learning.

Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to message, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning.

3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program

Adult Learning Theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn. Implications of Adult learning theory for training

4. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information.

5. Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability.

6. Discuss the considerations in designing effective training

?Selecting and preparing the training site

?Selecting trainers

?Making the training site and instruction conducive to learning

?Program design

Topic 5 Training Evaluation

1. Explain why evaluation is important.

Training evaluation refers to the process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective. That information is very important to organizational performance outcomes and human resource outcomes.

There are two types of evaluation, formative and summative evaluation. Both are aim to improve the training programs to be designed effectively. Thus, the following are reasons for evaluation:

- To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses.

- To assess whether the content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning on the job.

- To identify which trainees benefit most or least from the program

- To assist in marketing programs concerned with the information about participants.

- To determine the financial benefits and costs of the program.

- To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program.

2. Discuss the process used to plan and implement a good training evaluation.

Overview of the Evaluation Process

There are five steps involving in the evaluation process.

- The first step is to conduct a needs analysis. It helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed. It also helps identify where the training is expected to have an impact. It helps focus the evaluation by identify the purpose of the program, the resources needed (human, financial, company), and the outcomes

- The second step is to develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training. This step is to identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Analysis of the work environment to determine transfer of training can be useful for determining how training content will be used on the job.

- The third step is to develop outcome measures. Based on the learning objectives and analysis of transfer of training, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.

- The fourth step is to choose an evaluation strategy. This step is to determine an evaluation strategy.

Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered in choosing a design.

- The final step is to plan and execute the evaluation. Planning and executing the evaluation involves previewing the program (formative evaluation) as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evaluation design.

3. Identify and choose outcomes to evaluate a training program.

Reaction Outcomes

Learning or Cognitive Outcomes

Behavior &Skill-based Outcomes

Affective Outcomes

Results Outcomes

Return on Investment

Kirkpatrick’s four-level model (see Table 6-1, p. 201) suggests training can be evaluated on the following levels:

1) Reactions level, which focuses on trainee satisfaction.

2) Learning level, which focuses on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes and/or behaviors?

3) Behavior level, which focuses on improvement in job performance or behaviors.

4) Results level, which focuses on whether desired business results were achieved as a result of the training.

a. Levels 1 and 2 measures are collected before trainees return to their jobs.

b. Levels 3 and 4 criteria measure the extent to which the training transfers back to the job.

Training outcomes are classified into five major categories (see Table 6-2, p. 202):

1) Cognitive outcomes demonstrate the extent to which trainees are familiar with information, including principles, facts, techniques, procedures, and processes, covered in the training program.

2) Skill-based outcomes assess the level of technical or motor skills and behaviors acquired or mastered. This incorporates both the learning of skills and the application of them (i.e., transfer). Skill learning is often assessed by observing performance in work samples such as simulators.Skill transfer is typically assessed by observing trainees on the job or managerial and peer ratings.

3) Affective outcomes include attitudes and motivation

a. Reaction outcomes refer to the trainees’ perceptions of the training experience, including the content, the facilities, the trainer and the methods of delivery (see sample, Table 6-5, p. 204). These perceptions are typically obtained at the end of the training session via a questionnaire completed by trainees, but usually are only weakly related to learning or transfer.

b. An instructor evaluation measures a trainer’s or instructor’s success.

c. Other affective outcomes include tolerance for diversity, motivation to learn,

attitudes toward safety, and customer service orientation. The attitude of interest depends on training objectives.

4) Results are those outcomes used to determine the benefits of the training program to

the company. Examples include reduced costs related to employee turnover or accidents, increased production, and improved quality or customer service.

5) Return on Investment involves comparing the training program’s benefits in mo netary

terms to the program’s costs, both direct and indirect.

a. Direct costs include salaries and benefits of trainees, trainers, consultants, and any

others involved in the training; program materials and supplies; equipment and facilities;

and travel costs.

b. Indirect costs include office supplies, facilities, equipment and related expenses

not directly related to the training program; travel and expenses not billed to one particular program; and training department management and staff salaries not related to a single program.

c. Benefits are the gains the company receives from the training.

4. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of different evaluation designs.

Types of evaluation designs (see Table 6-7, p. 212) vary as to whether they include a pretest and posttest, a control or comparison group and randomization. The chapter provides an example of each design.

1) The posttest only design involves collecting only post training outcome measures. It would be strengthened by the use of a control group, which would help to rule out alternative explanations for changes in performance.

2) The pretest/posttest design involves collecting both prêt raining and post training outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred, but without a control group which helps to rule out alternative explanations for any change that does occur.

3) The pretest/posttest with comparison group design includes prêt training and post training outcome measurements as well as a comparison group in addition to the group that receives training. If the post training improvement is greater for the group that receives training, as we would expect, this provides evidence that training was responsible for the change.

4) The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and post training. A comparison group may also be used. Time series allows for an analysis of outcomes, e.g., accident rates, productivity, etc., over time to observe any changes that occur (see Table 6.9, p. 215). The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.

5) The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured both pre- and post training and a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured only after training. This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity, but is also the most difficult to employ

5. Conduct a cost-benefit analysis for a training program. (or Determining the Return on Investment)

Cost-benefit analysis of training is the process of determining the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. Training cost information is important for several reasons:

1) To understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs. .

2) To compare the costs of alternative training programs.

3) To evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees e.g., exempt versus nonexempt).

4) To control costs.

Determining costs

1) The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process (needs assessment, development, training design, implementation, and evaluation).

2) There are seven categories of cost sources: costs related to program development or purchase; instructional materials; equipment and hardware; facilities; travel and lodging; and salary of the trainer and support staff along with the cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs for the training.

Determining benefits can be done via a number of methods, including:

1) Technical, practitioner and academic literature summarizes benefits of training programs.

2) Pilot training programs assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources.

3) Observing successful job performers can help to determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful performers.

4) Asking trainees and their managers to provide estimates of training benefits.

Other methods of cost-benefit analysis

1) Utility analysis assesses the dollar value of training based on estimates of the difference in job performance between trained and untrained employees, the number of employees trained, the length of time the program is expected to influence performance, and the variability in job performance in the untrained group of employees. This is a highly sophisticated formula that requires the use of pretest and posttest with a comparison group.

2) Other types of economic analysis evaluate training as it benefits the firm or government using direct and indirect costs, incentives paid by the government for training, wage increases received by trainees as a result of the training, tax rates, and discount rates.

Topic 6 (a)

1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentation methods.

Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem solving methods.

There are two types of presentation methods, lecture and audiovisual instruction.

- A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating the material the trainees are to learn.

Advantages: 1) Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and an efficient way to cover a large amount of information and/or to a large group.

-2) Lecture can be used to support other methods of delivery as well Disadvantages of the lecture method include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment, all of which inhibit transfer of training. Thus lecture is often supplemented with other more participative methods.

?Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and videotapes.

Advantages: 1) Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone it is usually used in combination with lectures. It can be highly effective for addressing communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and for illustrating step-by-step procedures or giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods.

2) The advantages of videos include the flexibility in customizing the video session; the ability of video to show things that cannot be easily demonstrated; its consistency upon repeated use; and it can be used to record trainees’ performance for them to review.

Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb; poor dialogue or poor acting could hinder the message and/or the credibility of the message; overuse of music or humor; and drama that makes it confusing for the trainee to understand the important learning points emphasized in the video.

2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of hands-on methods.

?Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including on-the-job training (OJAT), self-directed learning, apprenticeship, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling.

?On-the-job training (OJT)involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.

Advantages: OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department or team.

The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.

?Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom.

The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.

?The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own.

This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.

?Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union.

?Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees.

?The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).

? A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.

?Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.

?Disadvantages: Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.

? A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.

?Advantages: The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.

?Disadvantages: Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.

?Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing, and finance.

?Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.

?Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives ?Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based on situations with which they have been provided.

?Advantages: Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses on “soft skills” or inter personal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.

?Disadvantages: To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.

?Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice.

?Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.

3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of group building training methods.

?Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.

?Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, throug h structured outdoor (or “mock outdoor”) activities.

?Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.

?Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the

lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.

?Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals ?It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture, video, role plays and simulations.

?Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry out.

?Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.

?It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.

4. Discuss the factors to consider in choosing training methods.

Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.

?Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:

1) There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training methods.

2) Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.

3) The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.

Topic 6 (b)

1. Explain how new technologies are influencing training.

New technologies impact the delivery of training, the administration of training, and training support such that training can be delivered 24 hours a day anywhere.

Technology is making it possible for

①Employees to gain complete control over when and where they receive training.

②Employees and managers to access knowledge and expert decision rules as needed.

③Through the use of avatars, virtual reality, and simulations, the learning environment can

resemble the work environment.

④Employees to select the type of media from which they want to learn.

⑤The administration of training to be conducted electronically.

⑥Close monitoring of training in progress.

⑦Traditional training methods can be delivered to trainees instead of using a central

training location.

2. Discuss potential advantages and disadvantages of multimedia training.

?Multimedia training is a training delivery method that combines audiovisual and computer-based training methods, integrating text, graphics, animation, audio and video to allow the trainee to interact with the content.

1) Multimedia training is used most often for software and basic computer skills training, but managerial skills and technical training also occurs via multimedia.

2) Advantages include motivating employees to learn; providing immediate feedback and on-line help; testing employees’ level of mastery; and allowing employees to learn at their own pace.

3) Disadvantages include the high cost (which should be recovered in savings over time) and the difficulty in using it for “soft” or interpersonal-type skills.

4) Employees’ reactions to multimedia have been positive, but little data exists regarding its effectiveness for learning and transfer.

3. Describe the computer-based training methods.

?Computer-based training (CBT) is an interactive method of delivery, including interactive video, CD-ROM and others, in which the computer provides learning stimuli, the learner must respond, and the computer then assesses the responses and provides feedback to the learner.

The most common form of CBT is software on a floppy disk that runs on a personal computer, but movement is toward using the Internet which has far more options.

?CD-ROMs and DVDs use a laser to read text, graphics, audio, and video from an aluminum disc on a personal computer, to be used alone as the method of delivery or in conjunction with other methods. A laser disc uses laser to provide high-quality video and sound.

?Interactive video combines the advantages of video and computer-based learning (typically on CD-ROM) to teach technical procedures as well as interpersonal skills.

Training material is presented one-on-one to trainees via monitors connected to keyboards; trainees interact with the program by using the keyboard or touching the monitor.

4. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of traditional training methods and methods based on new technology.