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语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)

Chapter 1 Introduction

1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2.The scope of linguistics:

(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；

pragmatics 语用学

(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；

applied linguistics应用语言学

3.Some important distinction in linguistics

(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性

①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,

it is said to be descriptive;

②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behavior

in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should

not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性

①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the

present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.

②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.

(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话

①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a

speech community.

②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.

(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用

①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his

linguistic competence.

②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

(5)speech and writing 语言与文字

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.

(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学

4.Definition of language:

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.

Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.

Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.

The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.

5.Design features of language

6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural

relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)

(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the

construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the

primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events

and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.

(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性

7.Functions of language

(1) referential (to convey message and information),

(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),

(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),

(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),

(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)

(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).

①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)

②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,

sex, language, background, accent, status)

③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.

(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)

④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish

a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual

content. (health, weather)

⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)

⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.

Chapter 2 Phonology

1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all

the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.

2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：

broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）

A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.

A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together with

diacritics.

3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.

4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）

①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they

differ in their approach and focus.

②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human

languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from

each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）

A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during

linguistic communication are all phones.

A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a

particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context

6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，

最小对立体）

7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）

Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则

8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调

10.

Chapter 3 Morphology

1.Classification of words

（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类

Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats

Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.

（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类

Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns

Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类

Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.

Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

Grammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words

2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.

3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned with

word formation and word structure.

4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)

A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme that

must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.

5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)

6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2c13051977.html,pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join two

separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2c13051977.html,pounds can be further divided into two kinds:

the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)

9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:

a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair

10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg

scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck

11.

Chapter 4 Syntax

1.What is Syntax （句法）?

Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则

2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:

relations of position 位置关系

relations of substitutability 替代关系

relations of co-occurrence 同现关系

Chapter 5 Semantics

1.What is Semantics?

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科

2.The conceptualist view

①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and

what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by

Ogden and Richard.

Thought/reference/concept

Symbol/form referencent

word/phrase/sentence

③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The

referent refers to the object in the world of experience;

Thought or reference refers to concept.

The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the

form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this

point of view is the meaning of the word.

3.The contextualism

Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:

Situational context: spatiotemporal situation

Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.

4.Behaviorism

Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

5.Lexical meaning

Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

6.Major sense relations

（1）Synonymy 同义词

①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词

②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词

③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning

④Collocational synonyms

⑤Semantically different synonyms

（2）Antonym 反义词

①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词

②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词

③Relational opposites 关系反义词

（3）Polysemy 一词多义

（4）Homonymy 同形异义词

（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系

①Superordinate 上义词

②Hyponyms下义词

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2c13051977.html,ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaning

It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

语言学概论(考试重点归纳)

语言学概论

目录第一章语言和语言学 (3) 第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6) 第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10) 第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13) 第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19) 第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22) 第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25) 第八章语言的发展和演变 (27) 第九章语言的获得和学习 (30) 第十章语言与文学写作 (32) 第十一章语言与民族文化 (34) 第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)

第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型P49 1.只有人类才有语言P49 （1）内容更多（2）用处更大： ①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能（3）能够创造 2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51（简答） “语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的，至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志，同时也是国家的标志，但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间，“民族” 和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系，才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客观事实的结论。 3.语言的特点和类型P52（单选）（1）从历时的角度看：语言的谱系分，也叫“语言亲属关系分类。根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类，就是语言的谱系分类。语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小：“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。” （2）从共时角度看：语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。二、语言的表现形式P54 1.语言和言语P54 言语：说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。语言：说话所使用的工具，是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象，是全社会约定俗成的产物。言语是语言的表现形式，语言是抽象的，言语是具象的。（单选） 2.本体和外围P55 本体知识：语言系统内部的各要素；语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。外围知识：语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。 3.口语和书面语P56（分析）用嘴巴说出来的话，叫“口语”。用文字写下来的话，叫“书面语”。口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。注意：一方面书面语并不是口语绝对忠实的记录。另一方面书面语也不是口语的机械复制。第二节语言符号和语言结构一、语言的符号性P57（论述）符号：用甲事物表示乙事物，甲事物就是符号。形式＋意义（物质实体＋表达的特定意义）语言符号：语音＋意义 1.“能指”和“所指”P58（简答）语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音叫“能指”。

语言学纲要期末复习重点整理

1、语言学的三大发源地中国、印度、希腊—罗马。最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。（1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。（2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系（1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。（2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。（3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同

样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素（1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。（2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。（3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。（4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体（1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。（2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末

社会语言学导论考试重点

社会语言学的研究对象（一）定义和解释社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。（二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份；（2）听话人的身份；（3）言语事件的社会环境；（4）社会方言的分析；（5）言语行为的社会评价；（6）语言变异的程度；（7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国）（1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学；（2）双语、多语、多方言研究；（3）语言规、语言发展和规化；（4）语言混合；（5）社会方言；（6）社会语言学和教学；（7）言语的人种史、语言环境；（8）语域和言语能力；（9）语言变化的社会因素；（10）语言和社会化及其传播；（11）社会语言学的方法；（12）语言体系的功能理论；（13）语言相对性；（14）话语理论；（15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992）总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面：（1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征；（2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能；（3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004）（1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响；（2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响；（3）语言政策、双语等；（4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；

语言学期末考试

1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.

(完整word版)语言学概论期末复习重点

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