unit5蔡基刚 学术英语 答案
Unit 5 Writing a Discussion Section and an Abstract
1Critical Reading
U n d e rs ta n d in g th e te x t
T A S K 1
Key words fraud in medical research, survey o f biostatisticians
Objective to investigate fraud in medical research
Research questions What are the situation and characteristics o f fraud in medical research? Why
is it prevalent?
Methods used questionnaires and interviews among biostatisticians
T A S K 2
1Because they routinely work closely w ith physicians and scientists in many branches o f medical research and have unique insight into data. In addition, they have the methodological competence to detect fraud and could be expected to have a special professional interest in the validity o f results. Biostatisticians therefore could provide unique and reliable information on the characteristics o f fraud in medical research.
2To ensure the validity and reliability o f the data.
3 Career and power instead o f financial reward.
4 Most responders have expertise and opportunity to contact data. They may judge critically
scientific collaborators’ optim istic interpretation o f data.
T A S K 3
Paras. 1-3
1-5e c d i a
6-10b f h j g
Paras.4-8
1-7f h a c m d b
8-14k e g l i j n
Paras.9-15
1-6d g b i m k
7-13h c l j e f a
T A S K 4
1-532145
6-10910876
11-151315141211
T A S K 5
1It is d ifficu lt to investigate scientific fraud which is characterized by its secrecy and lack of reliable evidence. Therefore not many people are fam iliar w ith its characteristics, frequency and impact on medical research.
2 Biostatisticians cooperate frequently w ith physicians and scientists in many branches o f medical
research and have a unique opportunity to understand data. Furthermore, they have expertise to
discover fraud and interest in checking the validity o f results.
3 As biostatisticians can access inside information and confidential data, they have a better
understanding o f the implications o f data. Hence they know the detailed process before the result is published.
T A S K 6
Science fraud or scientific misconduct is detrimental to scientific progress in many ways.
T A S K 7
The paper is to conduct a survey o f biostatisticians, who were members o f the International Society fo r C linical Biostatistics. The objective is to assess the characteristics o f fraud in medical research. [the objective] The survey was performed between A p ril and July 1998. The participation rate was only 37%. We report the results because a m ajority (51%) o f the participants knew about fraudulent projects, and many did not know whether the organization they w ork fo r has a form al system fo r handling suspected fraud or not. D ifferent forms o f fraud (e.g., fabrication and falsification o f data, deceptive reporting o f results, suppression o f data, and deceptive design or analysis) had been observed in fa irly sim ilar numbers. [the methods used] We conclude that fraud is not a negligible phenomenon in medical research, and that increased awareness o f the forms in which it is expressed seems appropriate. [the m a jo r findings]
E n h a n c in g la n g u a g e a b ility
T A S K 2
1implication, undermine
2deceptive, episodes
3 confidential, disclose
4 in a position
5 Respondents, mislead
6reiterated, intervene
7endemic, fabricate
8optimistic, are amenable to
9 motive, suppress
10occurrences
T A S K 3
1endemic: widespread, rife, pervasive, common, sweeping, extensive, prevalent
2episode: event, experience, happening, incident, occurrence
3 detect: ascertain, uncover,discover, track down
4 m otive: purpose, intention, motivation, grounds, reason,cause
5 borderline: ambiguous, indefinite, doubtful, inexact, indeterminate, marginal, problematic
6disclose: publish, reveal, unveil, expose, unmask, exhibit, uncover, make public
7deceptive: treacherous, fraudulent, deceiving, unreliable, false, misleading, fake
8methodology: method, techniques, approach
9 explanation: analysis, exposition, reason, interpretation
10underm ine: worsen, damage, compromise, harm, jeopardize, endanger
C r itic a l th in k in g (e x a m in in g e vid e n ce)
T A S K 1
1An investigation o f an internatinal society fo r biostatisticians because they could provide unique and reliable information on the characteristics o f fraud in medical research.
2 A survey o f scientists themselves who know more o f scientific misconduct in their disciplines
both at home and abroad.
T A S K 2
1Case examples
2Statistic evidence from a survey
3 Exmples
4 Quotations from the experts
T A S K 3
The evidence is not reliable as both Dr. W orries and the association o f cosmetic surgeons are com m ercially involved in the matter. Their claims are not objective.
D o in g re s e a rc h p ro je c ts
1Misconduct was more tight and rigid definition which did not need define or interpretation.
2It involves three areas such as fabrication, falsification and plagiarism.
3 C iting previous works, accessing and sharing data, and collaborative and authorship.
4 There is growing attention paid to the ethics problems.
2|Academic Writing
W r itin g a d iscu ssio n se ctio n
T A S K 1
Contents Text I Text I I
M ajor findings Para. 9Para. 1
Comparison w ith other studies Para. 10,12,13Para. 2
Explanations Para. 11Para. 2
Lim itations or future direction Para. 14Para. 3
Implications or suggestions Para. 15Para. 4
T A S K 2
Para. 2 Compare w ith the studies o f Europe about fears
Para. 3 Suggestions
Para. 4 M ajor findings
Para. 5 Possible im plications
Para. 6 Lim itations and future directions
T A S K 3
1-7 B C G D E F A
T A S K 4
Academ ic Dishonesty Am ong College Students
Discussion (Introduction section P. 124 )
1I hypothesized that the participants would be most likely to cheat in the 20 dollar reward group.
However, I did not find a significant difference between the different reward levels, which could either mean that the type o f reward did not affect the likelihood o f cheating or that the sample size was not large enough to yield significant results. [explain the unexpected result]
2 The pattern that emerged between participants，self-reports o f cheating behaviors and their
dishonesty ratings revealed that participants were w illin g to say that behaviors in which they had not engaged were “extremely wrong,” but behaviors in which they had engaged were rated as “not wrong” or “somewhat wrong.” It could be that the participants were trying to ju stify their behaviors by saying that they only engaged in the more acceptable types o f cheating and never took part in anything that was really dishonest. [explain the result]
3Participants who cheated on the puzzle task also had higher self-efficacy scores, which means that they feel like they have more control over their success. Perhaps participants who have higher levels o f self-efficacy are more confident that they w ill succeed. The puzzle task in this experiment, however, was designed so that the participants could not successfully solve all o f the puzzles without cheating. Refusing to fa il such a simple task, they decided cheating was an acceptable tactic fo r success. [explain the result]
4 This study contained only 34 participants, hence it is important to note that all o f these findings
should be approached w ith caution. Further investigation is necessary in order to strengthen the significance o f the findings. However, the findings o f this study could be the first steps to uncovering the motivations behind academic dishonesty. A suggestion fo r future research is closer examination o f the differences in academic motivations o f people who cheat and those who do not. [lim itations and future research]
H ealth-related Q u a lity o f L ife and H ealth R isk Behaviors Am ong Smokers
Discussion
1This is the first national population-based study o f U.S. adults examining associations among smoking status, HRQOL (Health-related Quality o f Life), and health risk behaviors. The relationship between smoking and impaired physical health is corroborated by the results o f this study. Specifically, compared to persons who never smoked, current smokers are more likely to report fairly poor general health, frequent physical distress, frequent activity lim itations, and frequent pain. [M ajor findings] W hile previous research suggests that people w ith poor mental health are more likely to smoke than those without, few previous studies have examined whether those who smoke are more likely than those who do not to report poor mental health. Additionally, previous research in this area has yielded inconsistent results. In particular, while some prior studies reported mental health impairments among smokers, others found associations in women but not men or found no association. These results suggest that there is a significant association between smoking and impaired mental health among both men and women residing in the
community. Specifically, those who currently smoked were significantly more likely than those who formerly smoked or never smoked to report frequent mental distress, frequent depressive symptoms, frequent anxiety symptoms, and infrequent vitality. [Comparison w ith previous studies]
2 Respondents who currently smoked were more likely than former smokers or never smokers to be
heavy or binge drinkers, but were less likely to be obese. It is w ell known that smoking is frequently associated w ith alcohol consumption, and that smoking cessation is often associated w ith weight gain. Research suggests that fears about weight gain may motivate the initiation or continuation o f smoking, especially among women. However, cognitive behavioral therapy techniques have been demonstrated to improve smoking cessation rates among smokers concerned w ith gaining weight.
3Most notably, these results reveal that in addition to being associated w ith increased alcohol consumption and affective disturbance, smoking among community dwellers is also associated w ith physical inactivity, sleep impairment, and inadequate consumption o f fru it and vegetables.
Thus, smoking appears to be associated w ith a constellation o f health behaviors, potentially further compounding its adverse effects. As physical inactivity, inadequate sleep, and low consumption o f fru it and vegetables have each been associated w ith increased morbidity and mortality, the presence o f smoking should alert physicians to the possible coexistence o f other adverse health behaviors that may compound its deleterious consequences. In short, smoking may represent the “tip o f the iceberg” o f a number o f modifiable risk factors meriting intervention. [Explanation of the result]
4 This study has several limitations. First, it is d ifficu lt to estimate the association between HRQOL
and smoking without assessing physical and psychiatric comorbidities (并发症）.Because the survey did not assess medical comorbidities, adjustments could not be made for these factors.
Second, because the study was cross-sectional, causality cannot be inferred. Nonetheless, these findings demonstrate a strong association between smoking and HRQOL, suggesting that clinicians should be alert to the potential presence o f psychiatric comorbidities among their patients who smoke as w ell as to the presence o f smoking among patients w ith psychiatric disorders. Third, these analyses are based on self-reported data, and therefore these results could be influenced by reporting biases. However, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data on cigarette smoking measures have moderate to high validity and high reliability, and self-reports o f smoking have been found to be valid in other population based surveys.
Fourth, because the analysis was based on data from 23 states and the D istrict o f Columbia, the results may, conceivably, not be representative o f the entire United States. Finally, while psychiatric symptoms were assessed, there was no assurance that these symptoms necessarily met diagnostic criteria fo r affective or anxiety disorders.
5 These results indicate that in addition to implementing smoking cessation efforts among patients
who smoke, physicians should view smoking as a marker o f a potential array o f health risk behaviors. The results o f this investigation also suggest that physical activity, sleep, and dietary characteristics may be important areas fo r physician assessment and, potentially, intervention among patients who smoke. [Implication]
T A S K 5
1-5 D C B A E F
W r itin g an a b s tra c t
T A S K 2
A cadem ic D ishonesty A m ong C ollege Students
A bstract
The present study investigated the effects o f academic m otivation, academic integrity, attitude toward cheating, and self-efficacy on cheating behaviors o f college students. [the objective] Participants completed a puzzle-solving task in which some puzzles were not solvable unless a participant cheated. One group was offered a 20 dollar reward fo r the highest score, the second group’s scores were made public, and the third group served as the control. [methods employed] There was not a significant difference in the cheating behaviors o f the three groups. A significant negative correlation was found between participants’ self-reports o f cheating behaviors and how dishonest they rated those behaviors. Participants who cheated on the puzzle task had significantly higher self-efficacy scores than those who did not cheat. Im plications fo r these findings are discussed. [m ajor findings]
Laypeople’s U n derstand ing o f R a d io a c tiv ity and R a d ia tio n
A bstract
It may be argued that the population should have sufficient understanding o f radiation phenomena to secure individual safety as w ell as democratic decisions. To attain this, it is necessary fo r the communicators o f radiation inform ation to be fam iliar w ith the lay person’s perceptions o f these phenomena. [the objective]A questionnaire survey was conducted to examine non-experts’ conceptions o f radiation phenomena. [the method] The survey revealed incomplete understanding o f concepts such as radioactive decay, h a lf-life and absorption o f radiation and a lack o f differentiation o f between radiation and radioactive material. Many respondents did not distinguish between sources o f ionizing radiation and other environmental hazards. Nuclear power plants and submarines were the most feared sources o f radiation. There are indications that the lay understanding o f radiation phenomena and risk is to a large extent formed by mass media and that “school knowledge” o f these phenomena is not applied in situations belonging to the “real w orld”[m ajor findings] To resolve this problem, new teaching and inform ation procedures are needed. These should take into account the learners’ perceptions and should integrate ‘school knowledge’ w ith considerations belonging to the “real w orld”.[the suggestion]
U sing In te ra c tiv e Technology to S u p p o rt S tudents’ U nderstand ing o f
the G reenhouse E ffe ct and G lo b a l W a rm in g
Abstract
In this work, we examine middle school students’ understanding o f the greenhouse effect and global warming, [the objective]We designed and refined a technology-enhanced curriculum module called G lobal Warming: V irtu al Earth.In the module activities, students conduct virtual experiments w ith a visualization o f the greenhouse effect. They analyze data and draw conclusions about how individual variables effect changes in the Earth’s temperature. They also carry out inquiry activities to make connections between scientific processes, the socio-scientific issues, and ideas presented in the media.
[the method]Results show that participating in the unit increases students，understanding o f the science. We discuss how students integrate their ideas about global climate change as a result o f using virtual experiments that allow them to explore meaningful complexities o f the climate system. [major findings]
In flu e n ce o f G e netically M o d ifie d Soya on the B irth W e ig h t and S u rviva l o f R at Pubs
A bstract
Investigation o f the influence o f GM soya on the birthrate and survival o f the offspring o f W istar rats were performed in this paper. [the objective] A group o f female rats were fed GM soya flo u r before mating and pregnancy. The control group o f females were fed traditional soya and the third group o f females, the positive control group, received feed w ithout any soya. The weight and the m ortality rate o f the newborn pups were analyzed. [the methods employed]The study showed that there was a very high rate o f pup m ortality (55.6%) in the GM soya group in comparison w ith the control group and the positive control group (9% and 6.8% respectively). Moreover, death in the firs t group continued during lactation, and the weights o f the survivors are low er those from the other two groups. [findings] It was revealed in these experiments, that GM soya could have a negative influence on the offsprings o f W istar rats. [the conclusion]
The Im p a ct o f U rb a n iza tio n and Socioeconom ic Status on
In fa n t-fe e d in g P ractices in Lagos, N ig e ria
A bstract
Breast-feeding, a traditional infant-feeding practice in Nigeria, has undergone a serious decline recently. [the background] In order to explore the factors responsible fo r the negative change and offer some suggestions based on the result, a survey was conducted among N igerian women resident in Surulere [the objective].The feeding practice and attitudes o f 558 mothers were examined via questionnaires and personal interview. [the methods employed]The result showed that despite the women’s awareness o f the importance o f breast-feeding practice which should continue fo r up to one year (38 %) according to their expressed opinion, only about 24.6 % o f the mothers practiced breast-feeding fo r that long and 81 % used supplementary foods fo r infants from birth to three months. It is suggested that economic and social pressures were responsible fo r the change in traditional infant feeding practices. [findings]Hence unless the poverty o f urban women was solved any nutrition education program was meaningless. [the conclusion]__________
U s in g th e c o rre c t tense, v o ic e a n d la n g u a g e in a b s tra c ts
T A S K 1
The paper is to conduct a survey o f biostatisticians, who were members o f the International Society fo r C linical Biostatistics. The objective is to assess the characteristics o f fraud in medical research. [the objective] The survey was performed between A p ril and July 1998. The participation rate was only 37%. We report the results because a m ajority (51%) o f the participants knew about fraudulent projects, and many did not know whether the organization they w ork fo r has a form al system fo r handling suspected fraud or not. D ifferent forms o f fraud (e.g., fabrication and falsification o f data, deceptive reporting o f results, suppression o f data, and deceptive design or analysis) had been observed in fa irly sim ilar numbers. [methods em ployed] We conclude that fraud is not a negligible phenomenon in medical research, and that increased awareness o f the
forms in which it is expressed seems appropriate. [the conclusion] Further research, however, is needed to assess the prevalence o f different types o f fraud, as w ell as its impact on the va lid ity o f results published in the medical literature. [fu tu re research]
T A S K 2
1-6 A D C F E B
3Literacy Skills
F o llo w in g th e a p p ro p ria te a ca d e m ic w r itin g s ty le
U sing hedging language
T A S K 1
C ertainty Degree Expressions
Strong modality is, w ill, must always, never, definitely, certainly, clearly,
obviously, unavoidably, it is certain/clear/obvious, to a
great/large extent
Moderate modality should, most would, can, tend to, usually, likely, probably,
regularly, generally, normally, presumably, frequently, a
significant proportion, numerous, it appears certain, it is
usually the case that
Weak modality May, might, could, possible, conceivable, occasionally,
seldom, perhaps, maybe, uncertainly, somewhat, potentially,
apparently, it is possible/unlikely that, it seems that, it may
be the case that
T A S K 4
1In spite o f its limitations, the study may have a number o f important strengths.
2 It seems to prove that animals become old because, if they did not, there were no successive
replacement o f individuals and hence no evolution.
3 It suggests that the effect o f these small particles is to cool the climate and to partially offset the
warming o f increasing concentrations o f greenhouse gases.
4 Very high radiation doses might destroy body functions and lead to death w ithin 60 days.
5 The effects o f routine releases o f radioactivity from nuclear plants tend to depend on how the
spent fuel is handled.
6Although they also began to eat the GM soya, the effect might be mediated by the two first factors.
7 It seems that all unethical behavior tents to be potentially criminal.
8Mars rock might not be melted even at high temperatures.
W r itin g an e n d-o f-te x t re fe re n ce s lis t
T A S K 1
One o f the main problems tourists cause in Antarctica is the disruption o f scientific research being conducted there. W hile scientific study in Antarctica was once the main purpose fo r human
presence there, science seems to have given way to tourism. In fact, from1990, the number o f tourists began to increase to a point where their numbers now exceed the number o f scientists (Shaik, 2010). In itia lly, this was welcomed by research staff whose projects saw a potential finding boost through an increase in visitors, and scientists who stay in Antarctica all year round welcomed the idea o f more human contact (Larson, 2012). However, it quickly became apparent that the large number o f tourists was beginning to have negative impacts on the scientists. According to American U niversity, which funds research in the Antarctica, independent tour companies are often unaware o f research schedules and bring hundreds o f tourists to scientific sites requesting explanations and tours (G rall, 1992). In addition, scientists staff sometimes have to stop their w ork to aid tourists who have either ignored the risks or underestimated the extreme conditions o f Antarctica.
References
G rall, J. (1992). A ntarctic tourism impacts. TED Case Studies, 2(1).Retrieved from
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2013845854.html,./TED/antarct.htm
Larson, S. (2012). More tourists head to Antarctica, affecting the region’s ecosystem and science.
P eninsula Press.Retrieved from: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2013845854.html,/2012/05/11
Shaik, A. (2010). Antarctic wanderlust. E J M agazine,2010, Spring. Retrieved from https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2013845854.html,/ejmagazine/2010/05/04/