Charapter 2 Phonology handout

Chapter 2 Phonology

2.1 Speech sounds

2.1.1 Speech sounds

Speech sounds: the individual meaningful sounds utilized by all human languages to represent meanings.

What is or is not an individual speech sound depends on the particular language.

2.1.2 Phonic medium:

The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.

2.2 Phonetics

2.2.1 What is phonetics?

a) definition:

Phonetics is the science of the phonic medium of language, which aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.

b) the branches of phonetics:

i)articulatory phonetics (the longest history and the main concern): The study

of how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.—from the speaker‘s point of view.

ii) auditory phonetics: The study of how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. —from the hearer‘s point of view.

iii) acoustic phonetics: The study of how sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

2.2.2 IPA

a) non-correspondences between sound and written symbol.

b) Representing speech on paper—IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) phonetic transcription: sets of symbols that can be used for transcribing sounds in language.

The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), and his colleagues at University of London.

IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.

The main principles of IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

i) there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound

ii) the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears iii) The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.

Diacritics: As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics.

Broad transcription: The transcription with letter-symbols only.

Narrow transcription: The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.

2.2.3 Articulation

Speech organs are also known as vocal organs. They are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.

It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: The Lungs, the Trachea (or windpipe), the Throat, the Nose, and the Mouth.

The pharyngeal cavity

throat—pharynx and larynx (containing the vocal folds or vocal cordsand glottis ). voicing: vibration of the vocal cords result in a quality of speech sounds voiceless: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless.

The oral cavity:

tongue, uvula, soft palate (velum )，hard palate, teeth ridge (alveolus ) ,teeth and lips The nasal cavity

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants:

(1) The classification of English consonants

a) definition:consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

voiced sounds: sounds produced with the vocal cords vibrating.

voiceless sounds: sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating.

b) phonetic features

i) the presence or absence of voicing

the vocal cords are in the relaxed position to produce voiceless consonants. e.g. voiceless: [p] [t] [k] [f] [s]

the vocal cords are in the tense position to produce voiced consonants

e.g. voiced: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z]

ii) In terms of manner of articulation—the actions of the vocal apparatus as a sound is being produced.

1) plosives: produced by completely blocking the breath stream, then releasing it

abruptly. [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

2) fricatives. In producing fricative sounds, one of the articulators is brought close to one of the points of articulation, creating a narrow opening. When the air stream is forced through this opening, a turbulence or friction is created. [θ] [e][f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [h]

3)affricates: affricates are complex sounds that merge two manners of articulation: a stop and a fricative. [t∫] [dЗ ]

4) liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides) and the roof of the

mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. [l] [r]

[l]lateral—air flows around one or both sides of the tongue

[r] retroflex—the tongue tip is turned back during its production.

5) nasals: When the velum is lowered, air resonates in the nasal as well as the oral cavities, and the air stream leaves the vocal tract through the nose rather than through the mouth. [m] [n] [? ]

6)glides: they are typically produced with the tongue moving, or gliding, to or from the position of a nearby vowel. [j][w]

iii) In terms of place of articulation—where articulation occurs in the vocal tract.

1)bilabial: the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. [p]

[b] [m] [w]

2) labiodental : the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus

creating the obstruction. [f] [v]

3) dental :The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper

teeth.[θ] [e]

4) alveolar: : The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge

to create the obstruction. [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]

5) palato-alveolar The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the

palato-alveolus. [∫] [З ] [t∫] [dЗ ]

6) palatal: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. [j]

7) velar: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or soft palate.

[k] [g] [? ]

8) glottal: The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction.

[h]

see the table (p20)

(2) Classification of English vowels

vowel:a voiced sound is produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.

I. monophthongs

Phonetic features:

1) position of the tongue-- the part of the tongue that is raised:

front vowels [i:], [i], [e], [?], [a]

central vowels [?:] [?], [Λ]

back vowels [u:], [u],[?:], [?]，[ɑ:]

2) the openness of the mouth:

close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:]，[u]

semi-close vowels: [e], [З:]

semi-open vowels: [?], [?:]

open vowels: [?], [a], [Λ] , [?], [ɑ:]

3) the shape of the lips

rounded vowels—all the back vowels except [ɑ:]

unrounded vowels—all the front and central vowels

4)the length of the sounds

long vowels (tense vowels):

short vowels (lax vowels):

II. Diphthong

1) rising diphthong: [ei], [ai], [?i], [au], [?u]

2) centring diphthong: [i?], [??], [u?]

2.3 Phonology

2.3.1 phonology and phonetics

i) definition:

phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning.

phonetics: The study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.

Differences between phonetics and phonology:

1) phonetics is of a general nature—all the speech sounds; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.

phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.

2)Phonetics concerned with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds (sound in the mouth).

Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sound(sound in the mind).

2.3.2 phoneme, phone and allophone

1) phoneme: phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit

a) distinctive value

If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes.

phonemic contrast: If two phonemes are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.

b)an abstract unit

It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

2) phone: a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.

a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.

3) allophones: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

Complementary distribution

The allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they are said to be in complementary distribution.

The distinction between phonemes and allophones:

Substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning (as well as a different pronunciation).

Substituting allophones only results in a different (and perhaps odd) pronunciation of the same word.

Both phonemes and allophones are discussed in a particular language.

It is possible, of course, for two languages to have the same pair of phonetic

segments, but to treat them differently.

2.3.3 minimal pairs and minimal sets

1) minimal pairs:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pairs

?Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?

?pat, pen, more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, pit, heel

2) minimal sets: When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.

2.3.4 some rules in phonology

phonemes and distinctive features

The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features

1) sequential rules:

There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.

?In all of the following English words there is a consonant cluster with /r/ in second position. Is there any way (using voice, place and manner features) to describe the kind of consonant that can appear before /r/ in these clusters, and to exclude any other consonants?

?brave, crash, freak, growl, pray, shriek, three, trick, dress,brave, crash, freak, growl, pray, shriek, three, trick, dress

2) assimilation rule

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

3) deletion rule:

Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.

2.3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, intonation suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.

1)stress: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.

word stress

sentence stress.

2) tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.

The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone language, such as Chinese.

3) intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather

than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.

Chapter 2 Phonology

Exercise I:

1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .

A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech

B. the perception of sounds

C. the combination of sounds

D. the production of sounds

2. Where are the vocal cords?

A. In the mouth.

B. In the nasal cavity.

C. Above the tongue.

D. Inside the larynx.

3. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .

A. the place of articulation.

B. the obstruction of airstream.

C. the position of the tongue.

D. the shape of the lips.

4. Which of the following phonetic descriptions matches the English consonant [p]?

A. A voiceless bilabial stop.

B. A voiced bilabial stop.

C. A voiceless dental stop.

D. A voiced dental fricative.

5. What is the common factor of the three sounds: [p], [k], [t]?

A. V oiceless

B. Spread

C. V oiced

D. Nasal

6.What phonetic feature distinguish the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?

A. V oicing

B. Aspiration

C. Roundness

D. Nasality

7. Which of the following sounds is a vowel glide?

A.[t]

B. [ :]

C.[ei]

D. [dau]

8. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?

A. voicing

B. nasal

C. approximation

D. aspiration

9. Which of the following is not one of the criteria of vowel description?

A. The part of the tongue that is raised.

B. The extent to which the tongue rises.

C. The shape of the lips.

D. The extent to which the teeth draw together.

10.Which of the following sounds is a back vowel?

A.[i]

B.[w]

C.[e]

D.[u]

11 .The diphthong in the word bite is composed of: ___.

A. [a] and [i]

B. [e] and [i]

C. [a] and [e]

D. ,[ ] and

[i]

12. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. in terms of .

A. manner of articulation

B. openness of mouth

C. place of articulation

D. voicing

13. The phonetic features of the consonant [k] are .

A. voiced stop

B. voiceless stop

C. voiced fricative

D. voiceless fricative

14. [e] is different from [a] in .

A. the shape of the lips

B. the height of the tongue

C. the part of the tongue that is raised

D. the position of the soft palate

15. [p] is different from [k] in .

A. the manner of articulation

B. the shape of the lips

C. the vibration of the vocal cords

D. the place of articulation

16. Vibration of the vocal cords results in .

A. aspiration

B. nasality

C. obstruction

D. voicing

Exercise II:

1. is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech

sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

A. Phonetics

B. Phonology

C. Semantics

D. Pragmatics

2. studies the sound systems in a certain language.

A. Phonetics

B. Phonology

C. Semantics

D. Pragmatics

3. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?

A. but-pub.

B. wet-which.

C. cool-curl.

D. fail-find.

4. Minimal pairs are used to .

A. find the distinctive features of a language.

B. find the phonemes of a language.

C. compare two words.

D. find the allophones of a language.

5. If two similar sound segments never occur in the same phonetic environment,

then they are .

A. two separate phonemes.

B. two allophones of a phoneme.

C. two free variations of a phoneme.

D. a minimal pair.

6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used to separate [k] from

[g]?

A. Glottal (place of articulation).

B. Nasal.

C. V oiced.

D. Spread.

7. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology

A. pho.

B. no.

C. lo.

D. gy.

8. In isolated reading (i.e., without any specific context), the word in in the

sentence She is in the classroom should .

A. not be stressed

B. be stressed

C. be the primary stress of the sentence D be more stressed than is

9.1f there is an English adjective –?pornatial‘, is the most possible for negative form.

A.ip-

B.im-

C.il-

D. in-

10. is not a suprasegmental feature.

A. Aspiration

B. Intonation

C. Stress

D. Tone

Reading recommendation

Beginner-friendly:

P. Roach: Phonetics. Oxford University Press 2001；上海外语教育出版社，2003。

More challenging:

P. Roach: English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, 1991; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （王嘉龄导读）。

Alan Cruttenden: Intonation (2nd edition), Cambridge University Press, 1997; 北京大学出版社，2002。

《语音学和音系学引论》 第二版

《语音学和音系学引论》(第二版) 分章导读 第一章导言 本章是全书的开篇，分为四个小题目：语音学和音系学，理论和分析，与其他领域的关系，全书的框架。 第一小节介绍本学科的研究范围。作者提出语音学和音系学从两个层面研究人类语音的发生和感知：第一个层面是语音的解剖和生理层面，涉及发音器官及功能、语音、传递语音的声波、听者对语音声波的分析和处理。在这一层面上的研究称为“语音学”，可以细分为语音的解剖学和生理学、发音语音学、声学语音学和听觉(或感知)语音学。在第二个层面上，语音被看作是一种有目的的人类活动，具有传达意义的目的，在这一层面上的语音研究称为“音系学”，因此音系学常被看作是与特定语言内部的语音构造有关的。 第二小节论述理论和实践的关系，指出本书旨在介绍一种科学的理论方法，是与会不会发音或会不会模仿截然不同的。普通人通过说话表达意义，从不有意识地考虑自己的哪些器官在做什么样的动作，但语言学家所感兴趣的恰恰是说话者的这些细微的过程和活动，并对此进行分析，对器官的动作和活动如何表达意义作出解释。 第三小节首先讲解语音学和音系学对口语的记录和描述以及对英语拼写的指导作用，然后讨论其在外语教学中的应用和有关英语标准发音(RP)的争论，最后说明语音研究与科学技术的相互联系。从事录音、语言描述和语言教学工作的人对语音知识会有一定的兴趣，而从事听力学、语言矫治和言语病理学的人员需要具备坚实的语音学和音系学基础。二十世纪的科技进步为语音研究提供了新的手段，使语音研究的成果与生理学、物理学和电子学有了更密切的关系。近年来语音研究与科学技术结合在语音合成和语音－文本转换方面也有了可喜的进展，具有很高的商业价值和对理论探索的兴趣，使语音学家和音系学家得以更加紧密地与计算机和人工智能方面的专家进行合作。 第四小节叙述本书的框架，指出各章的目的和方法。本书在结构上比较特别，语音学和音系学的内容交叉进行。第二、三、六、七、八章明显属于语音学的内容，其余各章属于音系学内容。这样做的目的是模糊语音学和音系学的界限，使这两个在很长一段时间独立进行研究的学科更加一致起来。 思考题： 1.语音学和音系学在对语音的研究上有哪些异同点？ 2.语音学和音系学与我们平时发音的关系是什么？ 3.语音学和音系学知识可以应用于哪些其他领域？ 4.语音学和音系学与语言学的其他分支学科有什么关系？

语言学知识_音系学

音系学 一．音系学（Phonology）的定义： 音系学主要有以下两个任务：其一，发现某一特定语言中出现的所有能够区别意义的语音；其二，找出语音是如何组织起来表达意义的。 二．音素（Phone）、音位（Phoneme）和音位变体（Allophone）： 音素（Phone）：一个语音单元或音段。 音位（Phoneme）：一个具有区别性价值的单位，是一组语音特征的抽象集合体。 音位变体（Allophone）：同一个音位在不同语音环境下的实现的方式。 三．音位的分布（Distribution of Phonemes）： 音位对立（phonemic contrast）以及互补分布（complementary Distribution）：相似的音素之间相联系的方式主要有两种：如果它们是同一个音位的音位变体，不区别意义，就处于互补分布状态；如果它们不是同一个音位的音位变体，且能够区分意义，就构成了音位对立。 自由变异（free variation）： 如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，换而言之，用一个音素替换另一个音素而不产生一个新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音，那么这两个音素就处于自由变异。 最小对立体（minimal pairs）： 如果两个单词，除了出现在同一个位置上的一个音以外，其余的都相同，则这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体。若最小对立体按照相同的条件进一步的扩展，扩展到多对，就构成了一个最小对立集（minimal set）。例如：hook和book，book和look，look和cook就构成了三对对立体，而这六个词则构成了一个最小对立集。 四．音系学的一些规则（Some Rules of Phonology）： 在音系学中，孤立的音素是没有意义的。因此为了表达意义，音素必须组合在一起，但是也需要符合一定的组合原则。 1）序列原则（Sequential rules）：即语音组成词在排列顺序上要受到一定的制约。音位系统规定了哪些音位可以放在词首，哪些可以放在哪些可以相互搭配。 2）同化原则（assimilation rule）：一个音通过吸收其相邻音的特点，变得与其相似，这种音系规则叫做同化原则（assimilation rule）。如果后面的音同化了前面的邻音，这种同化叫做逆同化（regressive assimilation）；反之，则叫做顺同化（progressive assimilation）。常见的同化有鼻音化（nasalization），齿音化（dentalization）和软腭 化（velarization）。 3）省略原则（deletion rule）：有关于在什么条件下某个音被省略掉，即只有拼写形式存在而不发音的音系规则。 五．超音段特征（Suprasegmental Features）： 超音段特征主要有音调（tone）、重音（stress）和语调（intonation）。 重音（stress）：在产生一个音节过程中所用力的程度。重音分为两种：单词重音和句子

简明英语语言学知识点汇总

新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;

②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;

语音学和音位学 练习题

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27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

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【猎头业务培训手册】中国猎头行业高效运营sop手册如何有效的进行猎头市猎头业务知识培训手册二O0七年八月、一：扩大简历和推荐评估报告的影响力我们常会碰上一些背景很棒、但简历写的很糟糕的候选人。当我们感到成功有望时，我们会亲自帮他们写简历。别误会，我们可不做写简历的生意。但我们很高兴去花一些时间，帮助这部分有价值的候选人在招聘经理面前赢得良好的印象，也就是说，我们用这些修改和优化过过的简历，再加上专业而有力度的推荐评估报告，去为他们赢得职位。 现实问题是，随着人力资源市场渠道的发展，简历已经愈来愈成为招聘过程中的“硬通货”。前一两年，我们还可以对雇主说“我们的候选人没有简历，但我们可以安排你们在周五下午四点钟面谈”。但现在想回避简历就不太实际了。 反正你的候选人早晚得递送简历，你倒不如干脆放手一搏。尽管大家都知道，只有最适合或符合条件的候选人，才能赢得职位。但在现实生活中，往往是最适合或最符合条件的简历，才能使候选人顺利进入最初面试，以至影响到最后招聘成功与否。我们现在已经将人选的简历和推荐评估报告综合在一起了，但一开始可不是这样的，让我们先来说说简历吧！第一节打好简历这张牌多年前，我们已意识到一份简历对招聘经理的决策影响程度有多大，或者说，候选人的命运如何受到他们文字水平的制约，请看下面这个案例：

有一次，我们为客户访寻营销总监，我们共收到三位候选人的简历。客观地说，这三个人都很出色，他们很相似的背景也非常符合我们客户的需求。他们每一个人都能符合客户所提出的要求，因此我们认为他们都将大受欢迎。 在向客户电话通报情况之后，客户也认为这三名候选人都不错，因此，客户公司的刘总同意周三下午到我们写字楼来亲自面试。同时出于礼貌，他请我们把三个候选人的简历发给他，以便他更好地准备面试。周二，也就是面试的前一天，我们打电话给刘总，询问他是否已经看过这些候选人的简历，以及是否还有什么问题需要帮助。结果，他还真提出了问题：“我们可以取消第一位候选人的面试么？”我们感到困惑。“当然，刘总，我们可以通知他取消，可是他的能力与其他两位旗鼓相当呀！您是否可以告诉我们，为什么您会有这种想法呢？”“我也说不出确切的原因，只是感觉他经验不足。”刘总说。 的确，第一名候选人6年工作经验，是比其他两位8年的稍短，但他依然很适合这个职位啊。我们又问道：“好吧，那您感觉另外两个候选人怎么样？”“第二名候选人还行，但我认为第三名候选人是最好的。他完全符合我们所需要的条件。”“所以，如果您把他们排序的话，您认为他们分别是较好、好和最好。”“没错，第三号候选人将是我们的首选。”客户最看中第三号候选人，这一点我

语言学复习资料 音系学(英语)

Chapter 2：Phonology I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 2 If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. 15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. 17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. 19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. 20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds. 22． A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. 23． The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e,