跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策

跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策

摘要：随着经济全球化的发展，中国与外界的交往日益频繁，跨文化交际问题受到了外语界乃至整个社会前所未有的重视。不同的民族有着不同的文化，不同的文化必然存在有文化的差异，因此可能会导致种种的交际失误。所以，研究跨文化交际中的障碍问题，以及如何有效地解决，清除这种障碍对于中国的外语教学和社会经济文化生活具有极为重要的现实意义。本文从跨文化交际的内涵和意义入手，分析和探讨了跨文化交际中存在的主要障碍，并通过对跨文化交际实例的分析，阐述了障碍产生的原因和消极影响，最后提出了如何克服这些障碍，实现有效的跨文化沟通的基本策略。通过掌握这些策略，可以逐步提高我们的跨文化意识，成功地进行跨文化交际。

关键词：跨文化交际；障碍；策略

CONTENTS

Introduction: (1)

1.Intercultural Communication (1)

1.1 Communication (1)

1.1.1 Definition of Communication (1)

1.1.2 Components of Communication (1)

1.1.3 Characteristics of Communication (2)

1.2 Culture (3)

1.2.1 Definition of Culture (3)

1.2.2 Components of Culture (3)

1.2.3 Characteristics of Culture (3)

1.3 Intercultural Communication (4)

1.3.1 Definition of Intercultural Communication (4)

1.3.2 The Development of Intercultural Communication (5)

1.3.3 The Study of Intercultural Communication (5)

2. Obstacles to Intercultural Communication (6)

2.1 Assuming Similarity (7)

2.1.1 Definition of Assuming Similarity (7)

2.1.2 The Performance of Assuming Similarity (7)

2.1.3 The Forming Reason of Assuming Similarity (8)

2.2 Stereotypes (9)

2.2.1 Definition of Stereotypes (9)

2.2.2 The Performance of Stereotypes (9)

2.2.3 The Impact of Stereotypes (10)

2.3 Ethnocentrism (11)

2.3.1 Definition of Ethnocentrism (11)

2.3.2 The Performance of Ethnocentrism (11)

2.3.3 The Impact of Ethnocentrism (13)

3. Strategies for Coping With The Obstacles (14)

3.1 Knowing Yourself (14)

3.1.1 Know Your Culture (14)

3.1.2 Know Your Personal Attitudes (15)

3.1.3 Know Your Communication Style (15)

3.2 Knowing the Cultural Settings (16)

3.2.1 Timing (16)

3.2.2 Physical Setting (17)

3.2.3 Customs (17)

3.3 Developing Empathy (18)

3.3.1 Definition of Empathy (18)

3.3.2 Hindrances to Empathy (18)

3.3.3 Improving Empathy (19)

4. Conclusion (20)

Bibliography (22)

Introduction

We are now in a world, which is sometimes referred to as a “global village”. With the rapid development of international trade, improved technologies of communication and the tendency of globalization，more and more exchanges are taking place internationally in almost every line, which may call for a better study on intercultural communication in order to help those intercultural activities result in better effects.

I. Intercultural Communication

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/392604690.html,munication

1.1.1. Definition of Communication

It is difficult to find a single definition of human communication. Being concerned with the intercultural dimensions of communication, we assent to the definition advanced by Rubin and Stewart:”Human communication is the process through which individuals—in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies—respond to and create messages to adapt to the environment and one another （Rubin and Stewart 1998）.”

Communication—our ability to share our ideas and feelings—is the basis of all human contacts. Whether we live in a city in the USA, a village in India, a commune in Israel, we all participate in the same activity when we communicate. The results and the methods might be different, but the process is the same.

1.1.

2. Components of Communication

All communication contains six basic components. First is the source. A source is a sender of information. He or she could send a message with or without knowing his or her actions were communication.

The second component is encoding, which describes the producing of a symbolic message. Encoding is an internal activity in which verbal and nonverbal symbols are selected and arranged. It is the process of translating an already conceived idea into a message appropriate for transmission to a receiver.

The third component, a message, is the production of encoding. The message is a

set of verbal and nonverbal symbols that represents the feelings and ideas of the sender. It also includes symbolic messages that the sender is totally unaware of having sent.

Channel is the fourth communication component. The channel provides that necessary connection between the communication participants. The primary channels are sound and sight. The degree to which an individual relies on one channel or another is often a product of culture.

Receiver is the fifth component. The receiver is the person or persons who come into contact with the message. Receivers may be those for whom the sender intended or they may be others who, for whatever reasons, come into contact with the message.

Decoding is the sixth component. In the decoding process, the receiver interprets what he or she believes the source meant by the message transmitted. This operation is akin to the source’s act of encoding since it is also an internal activity—an activity often referred to as information processing.

1.1.3. Characteristics of Communication

Communication is a dynamic process. It means that communication is an ongoing activity. It is like a motion picture, not a single snapshot. A single word or action does not stay frozen when we communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action. Once a word or an action is employed, it cannot be retracted. What is said cannot be unsaid. And what is done cannot be undone.

Communication is symbolic. Humans are symbol-making creatures. We are able to generate, receive, store, and manipulate symbols. We employ symbols to share our internal states. Our words and actions are other sets of symbols through which we convey our messages, ideas and feelings to other people.

Communication has a consequence. This characteristic implies that when we receive a message, something happens to us. It also means that all of our messages, in one degree or another does something to someone else. We cannot send messages without influencing other people. This is not a philosophical or metaphysical theory but a biological fact. It is impossible not to respond to the sounds and actions of others.

1.2.Culture

1.2.1.Definition of Culture

There are more than one hundred definitions of the English word culture offered by researchers from different perspectives. Samovar and Porter evolved a definition from the perspective of intercultural communication:

Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notion of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving （Samovar and Porter 1991）.

Culture is mental programming, it tells us from early childhood what matters, what to prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. It gives us assumptions about the ideal beyond what individuals may experience. It establishes codes for behavior and provides justification and legitimization for that behavior.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/392604690.html,ponents of Culture

In spite of the lack of agreement on one definition on culture, most scholars, Chinese and foreign, seem to agree that culture includes three major aspects. Almaney and Alwan submitted three categories of culture elements:

Cultures may be classified by three large categories of elements: artifacts (which include items ranging from arrowheads to hydrogen bombs, magic charms to antibiotic, torches to electric lights, and chariots to jet planes); concepts (which include such beliefs or value systems as right or wrong, God and man, ethics, and the general meaning of life); and behaviors (which refer to the actual practice of concepts or beliefs) （Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.

There is an excellent example of how these three aspects might be reflected within a culture. Whereas money is considered an artifact, the value placed upon it is a concept, but the actual spending and saving of money is behavior.

1.2.3.Characteristics of Culture

Culture is learned. Culture is not something we are born with. From infancy on, members of a culture learn their patterns of behavior and ways of thinking until they have become internalized. People learn to think, act, feel and believe what their culture considers proper. For instance, humans need food. But what to eat, when, where and how to eat is learned. That’s why we use chopsticks while westerners prefer knife and fork, and why we like rice while Americans prefer bread.

Culture is subject to change. Cultures, once formed, are stable, but are at the same time changing with the development of human society. It seldom remains constant. It is not difficult at all for us to think of examples of how social and historical events bring changes in our culture. The founding of new China, the implementation of the policy of opening to the outside world and China’s WTO entry, are all good examples.

Culture is interrelated. It means that culture is composed of interrelated facets. When you touch one place of a culture, everything else is affected. The outbreak of SARS in spring 2003 in China is an illustrative example. It made its effects felt in medical systems, tourism, lifestyle, family life, government policies, environment protection and many others.

Culture is invisible. Most of culture is hidden, like the part of the iceberg under water. Culture exists in the subconscious mind of people. People not only learn the cultural behaviors below the level of consciousness but also perform them almost habitually. Therefore they aren’t aware of the fact that their actions are governed by their own culture, or cultural rules.

1.3.Intercultural Communication

1.3.1. Definition of Intercultural Communication

In general terms, intercultural communication occurs when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. The formal definition given by Rogers and Steinfatt is that intercultural communication is the exchange of information between individuals who are unalike culturally（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.

This is a very broad definition, involving any type of cultural differences between

communication participants. They may differ in nationality, region, race, religion, status, occupation, gender, age, and many others. However, my priority of this paper is given to communication across different national cultures.

1.3.

2. The Development of Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication studies arose in the United States around the corner of the late 1950s. As an interdisciplinary subject, it has been significantly influenced by anthropology, linguistics, communication, psychology and other disciplines. In recent years, it has extended its study range from writing to thinking, from family to society, from myth to religion, from behaviors to values.

In China, intercultural communication began to be seen as an independent discipline for study in the early 1980s. It was first introduced into China by some English teachers and has made remarkable progress over the years. The main reason for the university English teachers’enthusiasm in the study of intercultural communication is the shift from traditional methodology to the communicative approach in EFL in China in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

As a matter of fact, intercultural communication is not a new thing, but something that has always taken place. A typical example is the famous “Silk Road” in Chinese history through which peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe interacted with each other.

Nowadays, we don’t have to go abroad to interact with people of other cultures. Even at home, we can watch overseas movies, attract overseas tourists, and employ overseas teachers, and so on. Intercultural communication has become more frequent, more abundant and, therefore, more significant than ever before.

1.3.3. The Study of Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is becoming an important part of our daily work and life. We will conduct more and more intercultural communication, the problem we are facing is how to do it, and how to do it well. A good knowledge of a foreign language, mainly English—the most widely used language in the world today, is of course indispensable. But only the language does not ensure successful intercultural

communication. Therefore, intercultural communication competence has become an important quality for successful individuals in today’s China.

In the process of studying intercultural communication, we can understand Chinese culture better from new perspectives and learn to be aware of many cultural differences of other countries.

If we are better intercultural communicators, we might do things cross culture more confidently. If each of us can better understand others who are culturally different, it will be more productive under circumstances concerned. If individuals can attain a higher degree of intercultural communication competence, they will presumably become better government officials, entrepreneurs, teachers and so forth when they are having intercultural communication activities.

We study intercultural communication to communicate effectively with people from different cultures. Through the study of intercultural communication we can gain insight into different cultures. Meanwhile, it can broaden our horizons and open our minds to different perspectives and experiences. The study of intercultural communication can also awaken our cultural sensitivity and help the cultivation of an open attitude and the development of a healthy personality.

II.Obstacles To Intercultural Communication

As we mentioned in Part One, communication is the exchange of information. The understanding of the message, verbal or nonverbal, is largely based on the communication participant’s cultural background and varies accordingly for each person.

However, due to different social backgrounds, social systems, ways of thinking, norms of behaviors and customs, people may have difficulties and obstacles in communicating successfully with each other. Identification of these problems will help us to avoid or to reduce obstacles in intercultural communication. Here in this part some major obstacles to successful intercultural communication are to be discussed.

There are many obstacles to intercultural communication indeed. From Hu

Wenzhong’s point of view, who is a famous scholar in intercultural communication, the following three seem to be the most outstanding ones. They are assuming similarity, stereotypes and ethnocentrism. We are going to discuss about them in the following writing.

2.1 Assuming Similarity

2.1.1. Definition of Assuming Similarity

The assumption of similarity is one of the biggest barriers in intercultural communication. It refers to the assumption that people are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to your own situation than it in fact is （Alder 1996）. For instance, a Chinese assumes his or her Japanese colleagues are more like Chinese than they actually are. Based on this assumed similarity, people often act inappropriately and ineffectively in intercultural communication.

When you assume similarity between cultures you can be caught unaware of important differences. When you have no information about a different culture, you might assume there are no differences so you behave as you would in your own culture. However, each culture is different and unique to some degree.

2.1.2. The Performance of Assuming Similarity

In The Art of Crossing Cultures，Craig Storti (1990)thinks that in the process of intercultural communication, people generally experience several stages:

1) Expecting others the same as themselves

2) Facing gap between reality and expectation, thus resulting in cultural conflicts

3) Feeling anger and fear

4) Deciding to turn back

The following is an example to illustrate it. Li Ying, a Chinese student who went abroad for the first time was invited to attend a party by his American friends. He arrived on time, only to find that many people were late and dressed in a very casual way. At the party, there was only some drink and simple food, but no decent dishes.

Few people there knew him, and he at last found Mark, his friend, and began to talk with him. They talked about only ten minutes before Mark said that he had to talk with another friend and left. Li Ying was very disappointed. Then, the host introduced him to a couple of people and left too. Two hours later, Li Ying left the party. When he was back at home, he was still hungry, so he had to cook some noodles himself. He decided not to take part in this kind of party again.

This party was an unsuccessful intercultural communication for Li Ying. Why did he fail? It has something to do with his original ideas. In his opinion, people should arrive on time at party and should wear formal clothes, the host should prepare a lot of food and make a good arrangement for him, and Mark should talk with him all the time. Li Ying had a typical Chinese expectation for a western party. At a western party, the friends and the host, have their own things to do. Li Ying thought it was the same situation as in China and did not see the difference between Chinese and American styles in social intercourses. The lack of intercultural communication awareness and experience resulted in the failure.

2.1.

3. The Forming Reason of Assuming Similarity

When communicating with people from other cultures, the individual, assuming similarity when differences exist, is likely to treat them as” my people” and assume there is only way of doing things: that is “my” way.

It is understandable that people would think the others should have roughly the same ideas as they have. As a matter of fact, each member of a society is culture bound and culture specific. Everyone in a society is unconsciously socialized into his or her society, influenced unconsciously by his or her own cultural values, world views and norms. We think the way we do, we behave the way we do, we feel the way we do. However, we must accept the facts that as cultures differ, we are unalike, and being unalike, we seldom know how people of different cultures think, behave, and feel.

As we naively assume that people of other cultures are like us, we tend to automatically use the norms or rules underlying our thinking, behaving and feeling as standards to judge, evaluate and interpret the behavior or message, both verbal and

nonverbal, of people of different cultures, and in doing so, misunderstanding is inevitable.

People should constantly remind themselves of different cultural backgrounds and different customs. We must learn to observe the different cultures and compare the new culture with our own; only by doing so, we can gradually improve our intercultural awareness.

2.2 Stereotypes

2.2.1. Definition of Stereotypes

Stereotypes are also one of the major obstacles to effective intercultural communication. The word “stereotyping” was first used by journalist Walter Lippman in 1922 to describe judgments made about others on the basis of their ethnic group membership. Today, the term is more broadly used to refer to judgments made on the basis of any group membership.

Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes. Rapport and Overing underscore this point when they note that “stereotypes allow simplistic and fantastic claims to be made about a group’s manifold memberships, claims which are all more ambiguous and gross the higher the societal level to which the collective label is applied（Rapport and Overing 2000）.”

2.2.2. The Performance of Stereotypes

The world we confront is too big, too complex, and too transitory to know it in all its detail. Therefore, human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. Stereotypes, because they tend to be convenient and expeditious, help us with classification.

In stereotyping people, it is believed that all the people of a given group share the same characteristics. They simplify perception of people from different cultures. Therefore, differences existing between or among people of that group is minimized or ignored.

We often meet people from different cultures, about whom we have very little knowledge. It is easy to take the short cut and employ stereotypes. For instance, if we perceive all the Chinese as polite, Americans as generous, British as cold and standoffish, or blacks as athletic, sportsmen as dimwits, blondes as empty-headed and Japanese women as best caretakers, we are stereotyping.

In this manner，people tend to say, “A ll Chinese are…” or “He is an English man; therefore he must…” Such conclusions take little energy, and are free from any further serious thinking about that specific character. That may lead people to ignore the specific characteristics of an individual with a different cultural background. This is a kind of communication trap we should avoid.

A tragedy in US history resulted from the stereotypes. During World War II , anti-Japanese propaganda convinced many people in the United States that the Japanese were cunning, tricky and willing to fight to the death to win. The negative stereotype was mainly formed by news accounts carried by the media about the war. However, it created an atmosphere in 1942 in which the US federal government put 110,000 citizens of Japanese ancestry into internment camps. Japanese-Americans were forced to leave their homes, with their businesses, and their possessions behind because the stereotype portrayed them as threats to their own country（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.

2.2.2. The Impact of Stereotypes

Adler reminds us of the harmful effect that stereotypes have on intercultural communication when she notes:”Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorrectly describe the group norm, when we inappropriately evaluate the group or category, when we confuse the stereotype with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify the stereotype based on our actual observations and experience （Alder 1996）.”

Stereotypes are harmful because they impede intercultural communication in at least four ways:

First, stereotypes fail to specify individual characteristics. That is to say,

stereotypes assume that all members of a group have exactly the same traits. As Atkinson, Morten, and Sue note,” They are rigid preconceptions which are applied to all members of a group or to an individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations（Atkinson，Morten and Wing Su 1982）.”In other words, they don’t recognize internal differences within a group, and do not recognize exceptions to its general rules or principles.

Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises. Therefore, they create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting. As Guirdham posits,” Stereotype distort intercultural communication because they lead people to base their messages, their way of transmitting them, and their reception of them on false assumptions （Guirdham 1999）.”

Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for “truth.”The stereotype of women as “homemakers”often keeps women from advancing in the workplace. Women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group for many years.

Finally, stereotypes can serve as “self-fulfilling prophecies.” Gudykunst reiterates this idea when he notes,” Stereotype can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Individuals tend to see behavior that confirms their expectations, even when it is absent （Gudykunst 2001）.”Once the stereotype is in place, there is a tendency to perceive the stereotyped person engaging in behavior that corroborates your stereotype—even when the behavior is not present.

2.3 Ethnocentrism

2.3.1. Definition of Ethnocentrism

The third major obstacle to effective intercultural communication to be discussed here is ethnocentrism. The word “ethnocentrism”is derived from two Greek words: ethnos, or “nation”; and kentron, or “center.”Sumner，used to be credited with introducing the term to the study of culture, defined ethnocentrism as “the technical

name for the view of things in which ones own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it （Sumner 1940）.”

In other words, ethnocentrism refers to understanding and measuring other culture according to its own cultural concepts and standards, including people’s behavior, communication, social customs, values and other management models. Because of ethnocentrism, we tend to view our own cultural values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the “right”.

2.3.2. The Performance of Ethnocentrism

People communicate to have an effect on others. They want people to believe as they believe, to look at the world as they do, to know things as they want others to know. Many of these communication objectives involve intent to influence the behaviors of others, to persuade them to a certain point of view. When some members of a culture negatively judge another culture by using standards of their own culture, believing that their own culture is superior, the members are thought to be ethnocentric.

The existence of ethnocentrism is not limited to recent historic times. The early Greeks used the term barbarians to refer to those people living around them who did not speak Greek. Because they did not speak Greek, the ancient Persians and Egyptians were considered by the Greeks to be inferior.

In today’s world, people will not openly claim that their own culture is superior to other cultures. But people unconsciously tend to make judgments based on their own value systems. All cultures seem to have a tendency to be superior. For instance, ethnocentrism is often expressed in the way people draw their maps. The Chinese were convinced that China was the center of the world. The British drew the Prime Meridian of longitude to run through Greenwich, near London. Europeans drew maps of the world with Europe at the center, and North Americans with the New World at the center.

As a major obstacle to intercultural communication, ethnocentrism may take one form or another. “The Generalized Ethnocentrism Scale” by Neuliep and McCroskey

in Intercultural Communication by Rogers and Steinfatt lists twelve forms of ethnocentrism:

1)Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.

2)My culture should be the role model for other cultures.

3)Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.

4)Most people from other cultures just don’t know what’s good for them.

5)I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.

6)Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.

7)People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.

8)Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.

9)I do not cooperate with people who are different.

10)I do not trust people who are different.

11)I dislike interacting with people from different cultures.

12)Other cultures are smart to look up to my culture（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）

2.3.3. The Impact of Ethnocentrism

One culture teaches its members, in a variety of ways, how to judge others and what to use as criteria for those judgments. The danger of such evaluation is that they are often false, misleading, and arbitrary. It is truly a naive view of the world to believe and behave as if the members of the culture and the very culture have discovered the true and only set of norms.

It is natural to look at things from one’s own point of view and to read an event as if it were the same everywhere in the word. And it is easy to feel proud of one’s own culture, country, organization or group. But many problems arise if one simply thinks one’s way is the best way, or the only way in intercultural communication. Because of its habitual nature, ethnocentrism is hard to overcome and often causes miscommunication in intercultural contacts.

The more ethnocentric the communicators are, the less they are able to realize and accept the cultural variables. Extreme ethnocentrism leads to rejection of the richness

and knowledge of other cultures. It impedes communication and blocks the exchange of ideas and skills among people. Because it excludes other points of view, an ethnocentric orientation is restrictive and limiting. It will prevent understanding culturally different others and makes exchange of meaningful information difficult. This cultural misunderstanding is exacerbated by the tendency of individuals from all cultures to consider their own culture highly. This orientation discourages one from trying to understand other cultures from his or her native perspective.

As for the negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication，Stewart and Bennett once highlighted as the following:

First, ethnocentric beliefs about one’s own culture shape a social sense of identity which is narrow and defensive. Second, ethnocentrism normally involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes. Third, the dynamic of ethnocentrism is such that comparative judgments are made between one’s own culture and other cultures under the assumption that one’s own is normal and natural. As a consequence, ethnocentric judgments usually involve invidious comparisons that ennoble one’s culture while degrading those of others（Stewart and Bennett 1991）. III. Strategies for Coping with the Obstacles

Understanding the major obstacles that prevent people from communicating effectively, we move on to the part of discussing how to communicate effectively via overcoming those obstacles mentioned above.

This part seeks the strategies that can be used in coping with the obstacles to intercultural communication. They are universal skills that can be applied in all cultures. The suggestions for improvement of communication may enable people to exercise their ability to make right choices. As Kim maintains that competence has a cognitive (knowing), affective (emotional), and operational (behavioral) level（Y.Y. Kim 1992）.In the three aspects, you can choose to know more, feel differently and act in a new manner. The advice offered in the following section has been selected because it represents ideas that can be translated into action. They are: knowing yourself, knowing the cultural settings and developing empathy.

3.1 Knowing Yourself

Culture is subconscious, we are generally least aware of our own cultural characteristics. Just as Edward T. Hall puts it:

“Culture hides more than it reveals, and strangely enough what it hides, it hides most effectively from its own participants. Years of study have convinced me that the real job is not to understand foreign cultures but to understand our own （Kearny N.E.，Kearny A.M. and Crandall 1984）.”

Although the ideal of knowing yourself is common, it is a crucial element to improving intercultural communication. Knowing ourselves is necessary for developing cultural awareness required for effective intercultural communication, because what we bring to the communication event greatly influences the success or failure of that event.

3.1.1. Know Your Culture

The first step toward introspection should begin with one’s own culture, regardless of what that culture might be. As Kim points out:

Each of us is a product of our cultural background, including gender, ethnicity, family, age, religion, profession, and other life experiences. Our cultural inventory provides us with valuable insights for understanding our beliefs and attitudes, our values and assumptions. Thus, it is critical that we reflect on the various aspects of our own cultural identity and examine their positive and negative impacts on our personal and professional development（E.Y. Kim 2001）.

Stewart and Bennett, while speaking about the American culture, made a similar observation when they wrote:”An awareness of American culture along with examples of contrasting cultures contributes to the individual’s understanding of her or himself as cultural being（Stewart and Bennett 1991）.”In a word, you are a “cultural being”and therefore must be ever vigilant as to the impact of your cultural “membership” on perception and communication.

3.1.2. Know Your Personal Attitudes

Besides, one should identify those attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that people

all carry around. And that bias the way the world appears to us. If we hold a certain attitude towards gay men, and a man who is a gay talks to us, our precommunication attitude will color our response to what he says. Knowing our likes, dislikes, biases, prejudices, and the degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us to avoid ethnocentric attitude and to modify our behavior. It also enables us to place them out in the open so that we can detect the ways in which these attitudes influence communication. Hidden personal premises are often the cause of many of our difficulties in communication. 3.1.3. Know Your Communication Style

The third step in knowing ourselves is to learn to recognize your communication style—the manner in which you present yourself to others. Knowing our own communication styles will enable us to emphasize our most appropriate and effective characteristics and minimize those least helpful.

It involves discovering the kind of image we portray to the rest of the world. If you perceive yourself in one way, and the people with whom you interact perceive you in another way, serious problems can arise. Therefore, in order to improve our communication, we must have some idea of how we present ourselves. For instance, you see yourself as plain and calm, but you appear rushed and anxious, you will have a hard time understanding why people respond to you as they do.

Barnlund offers another insightful interpretation of what individual styles often include:

By communication style is meant the topics people prefer to discuss, their favorite forms of interaction—ritual, repartee, argument, self-disclosure—and the depth of involvement they demand of each other. It includes the extent to which communicants rely upon the same channels—vocal, verbal, physical—for conveying information, and the extent to which they are turned to the same level of meaning, that is, to the factual or emotional content of messages（Barnlund 1975）.

Everyone has a unique way to communicate. It is not an easy task to discover how we communicate. We are awkward asking people if they think we are relaxed, argumentative, friendly, animated, and the like. Therefore, we must be sensitive to the

feedback we receive.

And try to ask yourself questions such as the following: Do I seem at ease or tense? Do I smile often? Do I interrupt repeatedly? Do my actions tend to lower the other person’s self-esteem? Do I show sympathy when someone has a problem? What does my tone of voice suggest? By doing so, you can adjust your communication style to create a conducive atmosphere that tells other people you are interested in them and in what they want to say.

3.2 Knowing the Cultural Settings

There are three cultural settings that influence the intercultural communication: timing, physical setting, and customs.

3.2.1. Timing

Being aware of timing can often make a difference between a successful engagement and one that produces ill feelings, antagonisms, and misunderstandings. The effective communicator knows the importance of timing and has the skill to determine whether it is the appropriate time to talk about a subject. You may possibly learn from your own experiences that there are right and wrong times to ask your parents for an acquaintance for date. Few professors will sympathize with the student who waits until the last week of the semester to hand in his or her paper. This indeed is poor timing!

Timing is always influenced by culture. Different cultures have different norms of time. For instance, considering the “correct time” is a crucial aspect of doing business with other cultures. In the United States, people learn to “get down to business”quickly. However, in China the most fitting time to talk about business matters is not at the start of a business session. It is widely accepted that the business contacts are often made after lunch or supper. The social meetings last a few hours, with business being conducted in the last few minutes.

3.2.2. Physical Setting

Physical and social context is also important. Communication is rule-governed and different cultures have different rules as they move from setting to setting.

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跨文化交际的障碍及克服策略

跨文化交际的障碍及克 服策略 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]

跨文化交际的障碍及克服策略 1.跨文化交际的障碍 经济全球化是人类社会发展的必然趋势，并且逐渐由经济层面发展到政治、文化层面。目前迅猛发展的经济全球化看似如洪水猛兽，其实正真让我们招架不住的却并不是经济的因素，而是席卷而来的文化冲击。正如洪水恐怖的并不是它无坚不摧的力量，而是它之于我们掌控一切的震慑之威。可以说，文化全球化是经济全球化在文化邻域的延伸，也是未来世界发展的主导趋势，由于它同时包含着知识的传播和价值的渗透，因此不同的国家和民族对于文化全球化的趋势采取了不同的态度。以美国为首的西方发达国家试图在世界重建自己的势力范围，凭借自己的雄厚的经济实力、发达的科技水平以及强大的政治力量，大肆积极地向全世界输出自己的生活方式以及价值观，而“第三世界”的许多国家却对这种具有浓重的“西方中心论”色彩的文化全球化趋势采取了一种保留的态度。当一种文化超出了另一种文化群体的接受程度，势必会引起文化冲突。文化作为人类精神财富的结晶，具有鲜明的多元性和民族性特点，不同文化的矛盾、冲突体现在不同国家的政治制度、价值观念、文学艺术、风俗习惯、哲学思想、伦理道德、宗教信仰等各个方面。这种文化上的多元性及其所导致的排他性和不宽容性，成为当前国际冲突的深层原因之一。⑨ 但是，无论我们个人如何排斥其他民族的文化，但是我们始终无法阻挡全球化这一趋势的出现。于是，建立在彼此尊重和相互平等基础之上的文化融合产生了萌芽。但是，我们始终无法完全抛弃自己所处的身份地位，也始终无法忘却自己是谁。我们看似是接受了外来的文化，但是我们所接受的那一部分却是最表层的那一部分。文化冰山模式是最为人们熟知的文化模式之一，其主要研究焦点是组成

跨文化交际毕业设计论文.doc

Globalization and the Traditional Notion about a Family 1101214008 11109班 陈欢

Globalization and The Traditional Notion about a Family Nowadays , our world is a globalized world. Countries depend on each other and no one nation can be independent of the globalization architecture. There is no doubt that globalization tightly connects the world with us in political , economic , cultural field and so on. It brings not only wealth, the greater its charm lies in the mutual language, culture and other aspects of the infiltration and integration. But except the benefits and good effects the globalization makes , there are so many risks and hidden dangers. In the background of the globalization , a imperceptible problem is our culture has been challenged, especially the traditional culture. Globalization show us the different cultures which are gradually penetrating into the minds of people. It has a great influence on societies , families and individuals. Speaking of family, Chinese people have their own the traditional notion about it. Whether globalization will change the notion? This is my theme. China is a country with 5000 years of civilization, accumulating many great cultures and spreading many nice manners and customs. And these contain the traditional notion of Chinese family, whose stable spreading plays a large role in maintaining social stability in the ancient and modern China. Our traditional notion about family generally refers to

浅析东西方跨文化交际误解现象

本科毕业论文 论文题目： 指导老师： 学生姓名： 学号： 院系：网络教育学院 专业： 写作批次：

原创承诺书 我承诺所呈交的毕业论文是本人在老师指导下进行的研究工作 及取得的研究成果。据我查证，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方 外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。若本论文及 资料与以上承诺内容不符，本人愿意承担一切责任。 毕业论文作者签名：___________________ 日期：年月日

目录 摘要 (4) 前言 (5) 一、跨文化交际误解现象的产生原因 (6) （一）思维模式的差异 (6) （二）行为规范的差异 (6) （三）价值取向差异 (7) （四）语用迁移所造成的影响 (7) 二、跨文化交际中误解现象的表现 (8) （一）称谓用语 (8) （二）礼貌用语 (8) （三）招呼用语 (9) （四）邀约用语 (9) （五）比喻用语 (9) 三、避免产生跨文化交际失误的方法 (10) （一）社会层面 (10) （二）教育教学方面 (10) 1、培养跨文化交际意识 (11) 2、使用现代化教学手段 (11) 3、更新教学观念 (12) （三）交际双方 (12) 结语 (14) 参考文献 (15)

自从我国加入国际贸易组织以来，跨文化交际的次数在不断的上升当中，而文化差异现象则是造成东西方跨文化交际误解现象的主要原因之一，本篇文章针对此问题做出了深入的研究，其中包括跨文化交际误解现象的产生原因、跨文化交际中误解现象的表现以及避免产生跨文化交际误解现象的一些方式方法等，以期能够对各位同仁带来一些具有参考性的意见。 关键词：东西方，跨文化，交际误解

跨文化交际中的文化障碍分析

An Analysis of Cultural Barriers in Intercultural Communication Abstract: This paper, from the perspective of intercultural communication, tries to analyze the cultural barriers caused by cultural differences in intercultural communication, generalizes the types of surface barriers and underlying barriers , and then puts forward a few suggestions on how to clear t he barriers by furthering learners’ understanding of the implicit culture. Key words: Intercultural communication; Cultural barriers; Teaching and learning 0 引言 对于文化,不同学科的学者针对各自的学科特性有不同的解说。至今,人们对文化的定义已达近200种。但仔细分析后,又可以发现这些定义之间存在着不少共同点。概括起来,可分为表层文化和深层文化两个层次。前者指的是一个社会群体在人际交往中的约定俗成的习惯性定势构成的生活方式和交往方式,如风俗习惯、道德风尚、语言风格、礼仪礼貌、言谈举止的行为规范等。后者指的是精神本质层面,如价值观念、思维方式、情感方式等。深层文化制约着人们的行为方式,并通过表层文化表现出来,因而,每个民族几乎都有自己独特的内容和方式。正是因为这种文化的民族性,在一定程度上限制了在一种文化中成长的人们对另一文化的接受,从而形成文化障碍,给语言学习和跨文化交际带来种种困难,甚至导致交际失败。笔者试图对英语学习中的表层文化障碍和深层文化障碍的几个主要方面进行分析,并提出一些对策,以期对英语学习有所帮助。 1 表层文化障碍的主要表现 1. 1 对具有文化内涵的词语的不同理解 词汇的文化内涵具有很强的民族性, 每一种语言的词汇随时间的变迁、社会的发展其意义或扩大或缩小,同时有些词由于经常使用逐渐积累了一些联想的意义,都可以称为词汇的文化内涵[1 ] 。在不同的语言中,词的文化内涵呈现出不同的情况。在英汉两种语言中实际上只有部分词汇完全对应,而另一部分词汇虽有局部对应的解释,但在词义或文化内涵上不完全相同。 在人类历史发展进程中,动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存和发展有着深刻的影响。这种依赖与亲密的关系使得人类对动物产生喜爱、同情、厌恶、恐惧等错综复杂的情感,人们也常常借助动物来寄托和表达人的感情,所以英汉两种文化中都有许许多多与动物相关的词汇。下面是一些例句,划线部分是动物名称,括号内是其在英语中所具有的文化内涵。 1) Just look at the way he treats his wife! He is a beast . (凶残的人) 2) Bill is taking his bird to t he pictures tonight. (女朋友) 3) Don’t listen to her gossip ; she is a cat . (心地恶毒的人) 4) I am not a chicken. I just don’t want to offend anybody. (懦夫、胆小鬼) 5) She likes to stay at home , but her husband is a bit of a gay dog. (爱玩的人) 6) Why did you put your finger in the fire , you silly donkey ! (傻瓜,固执的人) 7) In t he city I was nothing , but t here in the countryside I was considered a big fish. (大人物) 8) Don’t t rust him , he’s an old fox. (很狡猾的人) 9) The lions at her party included two famous authors and a musician. (大人物) 10) Come here, you little monkey. What have you done (调皮鬼) 11) Don’t be a pig , Jimmy ; leave some cake for your brother . (贪婪、肮脏或没礼貌的人) 12) She has face like an angle, but he is really a terrible wolf . (凶残的人)

跨文化交际论文

跨文化交际之中西文化冲突 “跨文化交际”的英语名称是"intercultural communication"或 “cross-cultural communication”。它指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际, 也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。 一、造成文化冲突现象的原因探究 由于不同的民族所处的生态、物质、社会及宗教等环境不同, 因而各自的语言环境产生了不同的语言习惯、社会文化、风土人情等等诸语境因素。 不同文化背景造成人们说话方式或习惯不尽相同。因此, 在交流中, 人们总喜欢用自己的说话方式来解释对方的话语,这就可能对对方的话语做出不准确的推论, 从而产生冲突和故障。在跨文化交际中,交际的双方若不能进入同一文化背景之中, 就容易产生不解或误解,从而使交际失败。 二、中西文化的产生背景差异 中国文化是在黄土高原上孕育和发展起来的，然后在华北平原，再后是往长江以南发展，保持着长期的连续性和稳定性。中国的思想文化是儒学定于一尊而又兼容释道的文化。它以其特有的悠久、单纯的传统，以其特有的凝聚力和消化力，进入了近代世界一体化和文化大交流的时期。拥有上下五千年渊源历史宝贵遗产的炎黄子孙，在当今的21世纪现代社会，仍然遗传了祖先们的优良传统。 西方近现代文化主要是从古希腊罗马的异教文化发展过来的。古希腊伦理学和价值观的基本特征则表现为尚知和崇理，至善在于"作为一个自然存在的人的完善"，尤其是理智、哲学的沉思被强调为最高的德性。古希腊人是乐生的，立足此世的，他们是多神论的，他们的人生观是自然主义的。孕育和起源于海边的文化注定了他们性格上的开放。这是与中国文化的大不同！ 三、中西跨文化交际中经常出现的文化冲突 在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种，在这里我们列出几种比较常见的文化冲突。 1、私方面的冲突

跨文化交际开题报告

关于跨文化交际中的禁忌问题 A Probe into the Differences of Taboo Between Western and Chinese Cultures （一）选题依据 在经济全球化的今天，国际交流日益频繁，尤其是跨文化交际也越来越频繁，在跨文化中的语用失误越来越受到人们的重视。禁忌是世界各民族之间普遍存在的一种文化现象，禁忌规范了人们的言语行为与社会交际，而中西文化的巨大差异直接导致了汉英禁忌语的迥异，就是禁忌语，跨文化交际是现代交际的重要组成部分，了解语言禁忌现象就成了最基本的要求，可以使跨文化交际更加得体，更清晰的展示出中西方禁忌语的异同，以便在跨文化交际中能避免出现言语不当的问题，并通过中西方禁忌语的异同研究出来。 （二）选题意义 禁忌是世界各民族之间普遍存在的一种文化现象，禁忌规范了人们的言语行为与社会交际。而中西文化的巨大差异直接导致了汉英禁忌语的迥异。所以，无论是在英语还是汉语中，我们都会遇到一些因传统或社会风俗不同，会引起对方强烈反感，这样便导致了有些词语我们要避免使用，就是禁忌语。在经济和信息日益全球化的今天，不同民族不同国家的人之间的交流也日益频繁。跨文化交际是现代交际的重要组成部分，了解语言禁忌现象就成了最基本的要求，可以使跨文化交际更加得体。 本选题重点关注日常交流中跨文化交际语的禁忌语，从语用学的角度出发，在跨文化交际的视野里，界定和区分了禁忌语的几种类型，分析了中西方禁忌语不同的种种原因，以期在注重语言知识的同时，避免不必要的交际失当，从而提高英语综合应用能力。在日常对话中避免语用失误的出现，即使出现也能很快认识并改正，而此篇论文的目的就是总结前人研究的成果，更清晰的展示出中西方禁忌语的异同，以便在跨文化交际中能避免出现言语不当的问题，并通过中西方禁忌语的异同研究出其折射的中西方文化的差异，这样可以更透彻的了解中西方文化，对于跨文化交际很有帮助。 （三）课题写作的目标 禁忌语是一种普遍的社会现象和语言现象，它与人们的日常生活和社会习惯有着紧密的联系，这在每个民族和每种语言中都有体现。中西方文化和信仰差异导致了禁忌语也存在着较大的差别。 于是，这篇论文要先陈诉清楚禁忌语的定义，来源，特征，然后总结出中西方禁忌语的异同，最后从这些异同中总结出产生中西方禁忌语相似和差异的原因，最终从这些原因中总结禁忌语折射在文化上的差异。了解了这种差异，才能避免的跨文化交际因为文化差异而发生一些问题，有助于更好地跨文化交际。 （四）课题的基本内容 Content

跨文化交际中的文化冲突及其原因解析(一)

跨文化交际中的文化冲突及其原因解析(一) 摘要：在中西跨文化交际中，文化冲突的现象非常普遍，严重影响了交往的顺利 进行。因此，找出其中的原因对避免文化冲突就显得尤为重要。 关键词：跨文化交际；文化冲突；思维定势文化是一个富有弹性的专门术语,人们普遍认为它是一种复杂的社会现象。英国人类学家泰勒(EdwardTylor)曾给文化下过一个经典的定义：“文化是一个复合体，其中包括知识、信仰、艺术、法律、道德、风格以及人作为社会成员而获得的任何其他能力和习惯。”随着我国对外开放的逐渐深入，西方社会的人和事物越来越多的走进了我们的视野。它为我们提供了与西方人接触交往的机会。但是，在跨文化交际中，面对来自陌生文化和国度的思维方式、生活方式和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人，在交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突(culturalclash)的现象。要避免交际阻隔现象的发生，交际者必须有清醒的跨文化交际意识，不仅谙熟本民族的语言交际规范，还要研究交际另一方所属民族语言交际的文化习惯及其产生的社会文化背景，了解两民族各自不同的价值观念和信仰。 1．日常交际中的文化冲突现象 1.1个人隐私 中国人认为个人属于集体，讲究团结友爱，互相帮助，既喜欢倾听别人的酸甜苦辣，也喜欢将自己的喜怒哀乐与人分享。然而，西方人更注重个人隐私，讲究个人空间，不愿向别人提及也不愿别人过问自己的私事。中国人初次见面喜欢询问对方的父母、年龄、婚姻、职业、收入等，认为这是一种起码的礼貌，如：“你多大年纪？”“你能挣多少钱？”“结婚了吗？”。而西方国家人却对此比较反感，认为这些侵犯了他们的隐私，会相当不快。如: A：“Howoldareyou，Mrs.Read？” B:“Ah，it’sasecret！” 为什么Mrs.Read不肯说出自己的年龄呢？因为西方国家人都希望自己在对方眼中显得精力充沛，青春永驻，对自己实际年龄秘而不宣，妇女更是如此。再如中国人表示关心的“你去哪儿？”（Whereareyougoing？）和“你在干什么？”（Whatareyoudoing？）在西方人认为就成为刺探别人隐私的审问监视别人的话语而不受欢迎。 1.2礼貌用语及行为 中西方不同的文化背景孕育了不同的礼貌准则，顾日国曾总结了中国文化的四大礼貌特征：尊重、谦虚、态度热情、文雅。他根据这些特征提出了五条礼貌准则。其主要一点即是“贬己尊人”。在别人赞扬我们时，我们往往需要自贬一番，以示谦虚有礼。如回答赞扬时说“哪里，哪里”，“说（唱，写，做）得不好，请多包涵”以及一系列的“不”（不好，不够，不敢当，不值得等）。中国人的这种礼貌、自谦习惯，在跨文化交际中，有时会使西方人感到困惑。有一位外国人来中国访问，当他对在宾馆前厅弹奏钢琴的中国小姐表示赞扬时，那位小姐羞怯的说：“弹得不好，瞎弹”。那位外国人不解地说：“既然弹得不好，为什么还要坐在这里瞎弹。”中国人这种自谦方式有时会给不了解中国文化习惯的外国人造成一种虚伪的感觉。然而，西方国家则没有这样的习惯。他们在受到赞扬时，总会高兴地说thankyou表示接受。如： A:Yourskirtlooksnice. B:Thankyou. 1.3餐饮习俗 西方是一种理性饮食习惯，不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，即便口味千篇一律，味同嚼蜡，但理智告诉他“一定要吃下去”，因为有营养，说的不好听，就像给机器加油一样。中国则是一种美性饮食观念，人们在品尝菜肴时，往往会说这道菜“好吃”，那道菜“不好吃”。在交际场合和酒席上，人们之间经常互相敬酒，敬烟，主人有时会用筷子