英语词汇学-chapter 2

The Development of the English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展

In the study of words, it is important to know about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The vocabulary of the language develops as the language develops. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants 住户of the British Isles岛. But where does it come from? Why is it known as English? In what way is English related to other languages? What is the size of the vocabulary of the first settlers殖民者? How has it developed into what is now a huge modern vocabulary? This chapter will give an answer to all these questions.

2.1 The Indo-European Language Family印欧语系

It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammer. The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. The prehistoric Ingo-European parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language. It was a language in which the various forms of a given word showed its relationship to other words in a sentence When groups of this language moved away from the original homeland, believed to be somewhere in the easternmost part of Europe, the language of each group grew and developed along different lines in much the same way that American and Australian English now show differences from the language of England. Over very long periods of complete isolation from each other these dialects of a single language changed so much that they became separate languages. Speakers of one were not understood by speakers of another.

假定世界上有将近三千（一些人说是五千）种语言，可以在词储和语法相似的基础上分为将近300个语系。印欧语系是其中之一。它包括欧洲，近东，和印度的大多数语言。史前印欧语系的父语被认为是一种高度转折的语言。在这语言中一个给定单词的不同形式表示在句子中它和其他词的关系。当这种语群离开发源的大陆。相信是欧洲东部的某地，每个语群的语言沿着不同的道路发展，很多和现在美国和澳洲英语与英国的英语区别相似。经过漫长的时间完成分离独立的任务，这些同一种语言的不同方言改变了很多，以至于变成了独立的语言。一种语言的使用者不能被其他语言的使用者所理解。

The surviving languages show various degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution. They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.

In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi,Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.

现存的语言展示不同程度的彼此类似。这种相似程度或多或少受他们地理位置分布的影响。它们因此被分成了八个主要的语群，那些语群被再次划分入东方体系：斯拉夫语，印度伊朗语，亚美尼亚语，阿尔巴尼亚语；西方体系：凯尔特语，意大利语，希腊语系，日耳曼语系。在东方体系中，亚美尼亚语和阿尔巴尼亚语是相对仅存的现代语。斯拉夫语包括一些现代语，像是普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄语。在印度伊朗语系中我们有波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语，最后三种来自于已经死亡的语言

sankirt。

In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic, we find Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc. The five Romance languages, namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Lation. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.

在西方体系中，希腊语是来自于希腊的现代语。在凯尔特语系中，我们发现了苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等等。有五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系，中间的接续语言是拉丁语。日耳曼语系包括哟四种北欧语言，挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语，这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言。然后还有德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语。

All these languages have some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Some of them have played a considerable role in the course of the development of the English vocabulary.

所有这些语言都或多或少的影响英语，因为每种都向英语借词。其中一些在英语词汇的发展过程中起到了巨大的作用。

2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary英语词汇的历史概述

Students of English are so accustomed to thinking of English as inseparable to the Englsih people that they are likely to forget that it has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family---Celtic. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles and were to occupy the land until about 410. When the Roman empire began to crumble, the Germanic tribes came in. As the invading tribes took over and settled in Britain, the Celtic languages gradually retreated. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, Themes.

英语学生习惯于认为英语是和英国人紧密不可分的，以至于他们可能忘记了英语成为英国的语言不过才很短的一段时间。现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人，他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言。英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语。在公元前55到54年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛，占领土地直到大约公元410年。当罗马帝国开始崩溃，日尔曼部落进入英国，当入侵部落接管了土地，在英国定居，凯尔特语言渐渐畏缩。因此，凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的贡献象是词语“悬崖”和“箱子”，和一些地名，象是avon kent london themes.

古代英语（450-1150）

2.2.1 Old English (450-1150)古代英语（450-1150）

After the Romans, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came in great numbers.

Soon they took permanent control of the land, which was to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Even as this happened, changes were taking place. Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under St. Augustine. The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. It brought many new ideas and customs and also many religious terms such as abbot, candle, altar, amen, apostle.

在罗马人之后，盎格鲁撒克逊还有朱特这些日尔曼部落大量进入。很快他们得到了土地的永久控制权，这土地被称为英国（盎格鲁的土地）。他们的语言，历史上称为盎格鲁撒克逊语，控制并且几乎完全掩盖了凯尔特语。现在人们通常把盎格鲁撒克逊语当成是古代英语。正当这一切发生的时候，发生了转折。说拉丁语的罗马传教士在圣奥古斯丁支持下，来传播基督教在6世纪末期。基督教的引入对英语词汇有巨大的影响。它带来了许多新的思想风俗和许多宗教术语象是“神父”“蜡烛”“供桌”“amen”“传道者”。

However, users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this period as they did later. Sometimes they changed meanings of native words, e.g. Easter(originally, name of the spring festival honouring the goddess of dawn). The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words, for example, handbook (manual)

In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. They came first to plunder, then to conquer. Finally, they succeeded in packing a Danish king on the throne of England for a time. With the invaders, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. These, however, did not identify new ideas and objects. They were everyday words for which the English had erms and expressions, for the Scandinavian invaders were Germanic people like the Anglo-Saxons. Many words were exactuly alike, for example, father, husband, house, life, man, mother, summer, and winter. Other words were so much alike that they were used interchangeably. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Many are essential to our daily life and speech such as skirt, skill, window, leg, grasp, birth, they, their, them, egg.

然而古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借词。有时候他们改变本地词的意思，例如“复活节”（本源上是春天祭祀黎明女神的节日）。通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词，例如“手册”。

在九世纪，大陆再次被挪威和丹麦海盗侵略。他们先是抢劫，然后是征服。最终，他们成功的在英国王位上设置了丹麦王一段时间。随着侵略者，许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入了英语。但是这些并不代表新的思想和事物。它们是日常用语，英语有表达的词，因为斯堪的纳维亚的侵略者是象盎格鲁撒克逊那样的日尔曼人。许多词语相似，例如，“父亲”“丈夫”“房子”“生命”“人”“母亲”“夏天”和“冬天”。其他词汇也是如此相像，以至于它们经常被交替使用。估计有至少900个斯堪的纳维亚源词被保留在现代英语中。许多是我们生活和说话必须的，象是“短裙”“技巧”“窗户”“腿”“抓住”“生日”“它们”“它们的”“它们宾格”“蛋”。

Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. Therefore, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs and complex endings or vowel changes, or bothe, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.

古代英语的词汇大约在50000到60000之间。它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语。因此，

名词代词，形容词，动词，和副词都有复杂的结尾或者元音变化，或者两者都有，那和我们今天使用的语言有很大不同。

2.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)中世纪英语（1150-1500）

Old English began to undergo a great change when the Normans invaded England from France in 1066. Until then, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.

古代英语发生巨变是在诺曼人1066年从法国来侵略英国，直到那时，尽管有从拉丁来的借词，影响英语的主要是日尔曼语。但是诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流。

The English were defeated but not killed off, nor were they driven from their country. They were reduced to the status of an inferior people, i.e.good swineherds and servants. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs. By the end of the eleventh century, virtually all of the people who held political or social power and many of those in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin. Therefore, those in power spoke French; those who were literate read and wroter French; those who could educate their children taught them in French; and any young man who sought to earn his living as a scribe learned Latin or French because their was no market for such services in English. The situation of three languages existing simultaneously continued for over a century. 英国被打败了但是没有被抹杀，他们也没有被赶出他们的国家。他们只是被降到了下层人的地位，也就是好的猪倌和仆人。诺曼式法语变成了文明语言。本地话变成了被鄙视的语言，只留给粗野的人和奴隶使用。到十一世纪末期，实际上所有掌握政治权力和社会权力，还有那些处在教堂实力地位的人都是来源于诺曼人。因此，有权的人说法语，那些有学问的说写法语，那些能教育孩子的教给他们法语，还有任何寻找书记员职务的年轻人学习拉丁语或者法语，因为使用英语没有市场。三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年。

However, by the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back into the schools, the law courts, and government and reained social status. It mad the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent fo them are still in sue today. We can find words relating to every aspect of human society, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/354428467.html,ernment, social scales, law, religion, moral matters, military affairs, food, fashion and so on. Words such as state, power, prince, duke, judge, court, crime, angel, mercy, peace, battle, pork, bacon, fry, roast, dress, coat are just a few in frequent use.

然而，到13世纪末，英语逐渐回到了学校，法庭，和政府，并重新获得了社会地位。他最终恢复重要的地位当他再一次出现作为重要的文学中介，由于wycliff对圣经的翻译和乔叟的写作，朗兰等人的写作。在1250年到1500年之间，大约9000个法国源词被注入了英语。其中百分之七十五今天仍然在使用。我们能发现哪些词联系人类社会的每个方面，例如，政府，社会尺度，法律，宗教，道德问题，军队事物，事物，风格，诸如此类。象是“描述”“力量”“王子”“公爵”“判断”“法庭”“犯罪”“天使”“怜悯”“和平”“战斗”“猪肉”“培根”“煎炸”“烤”“传”“上衣”就是经常使用的一些。

During this period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland. As a result, as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin found their way into English. Some examples are boom(at the bottom of a sail), deck, easel, freight, and stoop(porch or entrance).

在这个时期，英国和低等国家有贸易关系，特别是荷兰。因此，大约2500荷兰词进入了英语。一些例子是“胜利”（航行的末尾），“甲板”“画架”“货运”和“弯腰”（拱廊或入口）

Middle English retained much fewer inflections. Endings of nouns and adjectives marking distinction of number, case and often fo gender lost their distinctive forms. The same is true of the verb. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one fo leveled endings.

中世纪英语保留更少的转折。名词和形容词的结尾标志数量的区别，情况的区别，经常出现具体形式的迷失。动词同样是如此。如果我们说古代英语是完全结尾的语言，中世纪英语就是水平的结尾。

2.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to now)现代英语（1500年至今）

Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Considering the changes in vocabulary, it is necessary to subdivide it into Early (1500-1700) adn Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English.

In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance. Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage and of great scholarship, but translators wer rapidly making great literary works available in English. Translators and scholars borrowed heavily from the Lation vocabulary of their source materials during this period and enormous numbers of Latin words became part of English vocabulary. From the 1500’s through the 1700’s, many writers experimented with words. Over 10,000 new words entered the English language. Many of these were taken from Latin and Greek by scholars who wanted to replace the forms earlier adopted from French. In fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages (WBD).

现代英语开始于英国印刷术的出现。关于词汇的变化，一定要分为早期现代英语和后期现代英语。

在现代英语早期，欧洲出现了学习古代希腊和罗马文化的急剧升温。这在历史上称为文艺复兴。拉丁语和希腊语被认为是西方世界最伟大文学遗产的语言和蕴含学术价值的语言，但是翻译者却在用英语迅速的创作伟大的文学作品。翻译家和学者借用许多拉丁词汇在这个时期，大量的拉丁词进入了英语词汇。从1500年到1700年，许多作家用单词作实验。超过10000新词进入了英语。其中许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取，他们想用之替换早期从法语中选来的形式。实际上，超过百分之二十五的现代英语词汇几乎都是直接来自古典语言。

These, added to the vocabulary already borrowed from French and those supplemented during earlier periods of borrowing from Latin, contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern Englsih.

这些，加上从法国借来的词汇和那些早期在拉丁借词的补充，注定了决定性的现代英语的拉丁风格。

In the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power. With the growth of colonization, British tentacles began stretching out to every corner of the globe, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.

Since the beginning of this century, particularly after World War II, the world has seen breathtaking advances in science and technology. As a result, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements. Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion, yet more words are created by means of word-formation(see Chapter 4). Now new words are multiplied in all walks of life: politics, economy, commerce, culture, entertainment, education, sports, transportation, mass media, etc.

In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic https://www.wendangku.net/doc/354428467.html,pare the following examples:

在十七世纪中期，英国经历了资产阶级革命，紧跟着是工业革命，成为了经济强国。随着殖民化程度提高，英国的触手开始延伸到世界的各个角落，因此能够使得英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。

从本世纪初开始，特别是在第二次世界大战以后，世界已经在科学技术领域有了激动人心的进步。因此，成千上万的新词已经被创造用来表达新思想，新发明，和科学成就。尽管借词保留了词汇扩张的重要通道，仍然有更多的词通过词语结构的意义被创造出来。现在新词在生活各方面都增长：政治，经济，商贸，文化，娱乐，教育，体育，运输，大众媒体等等。在现代英语中，大多数词尾丢失只有少数例外。可以总结说，英语已经由合成语言（古代英语）进化为现代分析语言。比较下面的例子：

Old Middle Modern

Leorn-ian lern-en learn

Mon-a mone-e moon

Stan-as ston-es stones

Sun-ne sun-ne sun

Sunu sun-e son

2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary当代英语词汇的发展

Today, new words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time. New words are being invented or introduced every day to express new things and new changes in society, both material and intellectual. Meanwhile, they are coined and used to arouse public attention and interest. In time they gain acceptance and become part of the English vocabulary. Generally, there are three main source of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages. Gozzi, the author of New Words and Changing American Culture (1990), studied 160 pages of entries from 12,000 Words and discovered that science and technology terms make up approximately 45 percent of new words, words associated with life-style constitute 24 percent, and social and economic terms amount to more than 11 percent.

今天，新的词汇以比任何时期更快的速度产生。新词每天产生或者引进，为了表达社会新事

物和新变化。包括物质和精神两方面。同时，它们也被制造用来唤醒公共注意和利益。它们被及时通过成为英语词汇的一部分。总体来说，有三条新词的主要来源：现代科学技术的迅速发展；社会经济和政治变化；其他文化和语言的影响。Gozzi，《新词和变动的美国文化》作者，从12000词中研究了160页的词条，发现科学技术词条将近占了新词的百分之四十五；和生活方式相关的词占据了百分之二十四，社会和经济术语总计超过百分之十一。

Rapid growth of science and technology breeds such new words as green revolution, astrobiology, astrochemistry in biology and chemnistry; space shuttle, earthrise, moon walk, parking orbits in space science; retrovirus, open heart surgery in medicine; smart bomb, fallout, irradiation in atomic technology, etc.

科学技术的迅速提高滋养了那样的新词：“绿色革命”“太空生物学”“太空化学”，术语生物学和化学；“太空梭”“地升”“月球行走”“停泊轨道”属于太空学；retrovirus。外开心脏手术属于医学；“精明炸弹”“放射尘”“放射”属于原子技术等等。

Social, economic and political changes bring about and increasing number of new words. There are new words relating to food like fast food, TVdinner, megavitamin, soy milk. Granny glasses, pant suit, hip huggers are the result of people’s changing view of clothing. We also find music termsL disco, punk rock, soul music; words concerning television and films: talk shows, family movies, boob tube and the like. Changes in politics and economy supply such words as petropolitics, Watregate, the fourth world, stagflation, demand-pull and so on. The development in education gives us open university, pass-failing grade, telequiz, etc. Women’s liberation leaves us chair person, girlcott, Ms and the like. The drug culture forces Mary Jane, soft drug, headshop into English.

社会经济政治变化带来了新词的增长。和食物联系的新词有“快餐”“电视餐”“大量维他命”“豆奶”。“钢架眼镜”“喘气装”“hip hugger”是人们改变服装视角的结果。我们也发现了音乐术语：“迪斯科”“朋克摇滚”“黑人乐”。关于电视电影的词有：“电话访谈”“家庭影院”“电视机”和类似的。政治和经济的改变提供了类似下面的词：“石油政治“水门”“第四世界”“物价上涨”“通货膨胀”诸如此类。教育发展给了我们“开放大学”“失效等级”“电视问答”等等。妇女解放运动留给我们“主席”“妇女抵制”“女士”和类似的。毒品文化把“大麻“”软毒品“”摇头店“等加入了英语。

The influence of other cultures and languages can be felt in many different fields. English has borrowed a host of terms concerning cuisine like stir frying, pita bread, tahini, felafel from Middle East. Some black nationalists wear dashhikis to emphasize African roots. Mao jackets and Nehru jackets add to the vocabulary of American fashion. Martial arts from the Far East also find their way into English vocabulary such as aikido, kungfu, dojo and black belt. These are just a few new words. But they will suffice to show the nature of present-dya Englsih vocabulary and the trend of vocabulary growth.

其他文化和语言的影响可以在许多领域觉察到。英语已经借鉴了一大批关于菜肴的词语，象是“炒”“疲沓面包”“芝麻酱”“沙拉三民治”来自中东。一些黑人民族主义者穿dashhiki，，表示非洲血统。“人民装”和“尼赫鲁装”增加了美式风格的词汇。武力艺术来自远东，，也进入了英语词汇。象是“合气道”“功夫”“柔道”和“黑带”。这些只是很少一部分。但是他们足以展示当代英语词汇的特征和词汇发展的趋势。

2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development词汇发展的样式

On the basis of the discussion so far in this chapter, we can conclude that modern English vocabulary develops through three channelsL creation, sematic change , borrowing.

1.Creation refers to ther formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. The major means of word-building will be discussed in the chapter to follow. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.

2.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary. This will be discussed in length in Chapter6.

3.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Though still at work now, it can hardly compare with what it did in the past. According to Thomas Pyles and John Algeo (1982), borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new words. In earlier stages of English, French, Lation, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributors. In modern times, however, the components of borrowings show a difference. A study based on 6,000 WORDS and The Barnhart Dictionary of New English indicates that 473 words were borrowed from other languages from 1961 to 1976. Thirty percent of them come from French, eight percent from Latin, seven percent from Japanese and Italian respectively, six percent from Spanish, five percent from German and Greek respectively, four percent from Russian and Yiddis respectively, and the rest from other languages. It can be said that with the change of world situation and the development of economy the role of each foreign contributor will change accordingly.

在本章迄今为止讨论内容的基础上，我们能得出现代英语词汇通过三条渠道发展：创造，意义转换，借词。

1. 创造是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料，也就是说，词根，词缀和其他元素。构词的主要方法将在下面的章节来说，在现代，这是词汇扩张最重要的途径。

2. 意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。这不会增加词形的数量，但是会出现新的用法。因此扩充了词汇。这将在第六章讨论。

3. 借词曾经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早期。尽管现在仍起作用，几乎不能和过去相提并论了。根据thomas pyles和algeo说，借词仅占新词的百分之六到百分之七。在早期英语中，法语，拉丁语，希腊语和斯堪的纳维亚语是主要的贡献者。但是在现代，借词的内容出现了变化。基于对6000词和barnhart新英语词典的研究，指出从1961到1976年共有473个借词，百分之三十来自法语，百分之八来自于拉丁，日本和意大利各占百分之七，百分之六来自西班牙，德国和希腊各占百分之五。俄语和依地语各占百分之四，剩下的来自其他语言。可以说随着世界的变化和经济的发展，每种外国语的角色发展了相应的变化。

Reviving archaic or absolete words also contributes to the growth of Englsih vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English. For instance, loan used as a transitive verb was prevalent in the thirteenth century and the fell out of use. It was replaced by lend. But this use of loan survives in American English. At present, the American use of guess for think, druggist for chemist, fall for autumn, sick for ill can all be traced back to much earlier times in British English.

恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。尽管收效甚微。特别是美式英语。例如，loan作为及物动词在十三世纪盛行，然后就退出使用。被lend替换。但是loan仍在使用。现在，用guess代替think，用druggist代替chemist，用fall代替autumn，用sick代替ill的美国用法都能追溯到早期的英式英语。

Finally, mention should be made of an opposite process相反过程of development, i.e. Old words falling out of use. For example, in the epic Beowulf, as Jespersen1948) notes, there were more than 37 words used to express ‘prince’. Now most of them are no longer in use. Like wise, over 30 words denoting the ‘sea’ in old poems and writings have hardly survived. This is because we do not have the same need for the words as our forefathers did in their time.

最后，应当注意发展的相反过程，也就是旧词退出使用。例如，在史诗《beowulf》中正如jespersen所说，有超过37个词用来表示“王子”，现在他们大多数不再使用。同样的，在古代诗歌和作品中超过三十个表达“大海”的词汇几乎都不能保存下来。这是因为我们没有那样的需要，不像我们的祖先在他们的时代。

高考英语词汇复习之构词法学案

高考英语词汇复习之构词法学案 语法要点：1.各类词性的正确使用及转化 2.运用构词法知识猜测语境中词的语义 3.通过理解和掌握构词法扩大词汇量 考情分析： 1. We drank together and talked _____ (merry) till far into the night.( 07 高考) 2.This proverb is saying we have to let things go in their (nature) course.( 08 高考) 3.But Jane knew from past experience that her __ (choose) of ties hardly ever pleased her father.( 09高考) 4.His teacher took a deep drink, smiled _______(warm), and thanked his student very much for the sweet water.(10高考) 考点精讲： Friendships change as our needs and lifestyles change. Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. They watched the train until it disappeared in the distance. 英语构词法主要有三种方法： 1.合成(Compounding):由两个或更多的词合成一个词 eg. house( 房子)+ wife( 妻子)----housewife(家庭主妇) 2.转化(Conversion):由一个词类转化为另一个词类: eg. water ( n.)水--- water ( v.)浇水 3.派生(Derivation): 通过加前缀或后缀构成另外一个词: eg. happy---- unhappy 加前缀一般不改变原词的，只改变其。 happy---- happiness 加后缀改变了原词的 一、合成法： …Yet, shopkeepers may have to spend extra hours to deal with problems, such as shoplifters, who always take away thing s from the shop without paying for them. … What does the word “shoplifter” mean? A.商店里的小偷 B. 商店里的推销员 C.商店里的老客户 D.商店里的搬运工 注意：___________________________________________________________ 请你猜一猜下列划线的词的词义。

全国自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第二章

洛基英语，中国在线英语教育领导品牌 第二章 Indo-European language family (Europe，the Near East，India) Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic Germanic Prussian Persian Portuguese Norwegian Lithuanian Hindi Spanish Icelandie Polish Italian Danish Bulgarian Roumanian Swedish Slovenian French English Russian German Albanian Armenian Celtic Hellenic Irish Greek Breton Scottish 2. History (时间，历史事件，特征) 1) Old English (450-1150) totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic. The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.

自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理

学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考 English Lexicology(英语词汇学) 1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。 2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。 2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系” 3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。 （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。 （3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。 （5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。 —Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语 —The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表 4.What is vocabulary？ （1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合 （2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词 （3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词 5.Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标 准或者不同的目的进行分类。 By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。 By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词

商务英语词汇与翻译

Unit 1 外资企业foreign enterprise 合资企业joint venture 合作企业cooperative enterprise 龙头企业 a locomotive 国有企业state-owned enterprise 私营企业privately-owned enterprise 荣誉企业honorable enterprise 优质企业qualified enterprise 一级企业class A enterprise 跨国公司multinational company 母公司parent company 子公司subsidiary company 总公司head office 分公司branch office 代表处representative offices 上市公司listed company 私人股份有限公司private limited company 拳头产品core product 环保产品environment-friendly product 专业生产经营specialize in, engage in, handle a range of business including… 占地面积cover an area of… 年产量with an annual output 具有自营进出口权being entitled to self-import and self-export rights 奉行坚持..原则；以..宗旨,在…方针指 导下 abide by the principles of …, adhere to the aims of…, based on the motto of the company 产品销往products have been distributed to 获得奖项rank the titles 通过ISO9000 质量认证 be granted the Certificate of ISO9000 International Quality System unit 2 ?维持升幅to an increase sustain) ?到达最高点to reach a peak ?保持不变to remain constant/ stable ?降到最低点to bottom out ?正值…之际on the occasion of ?代表on the behalf of ?承蒙盛情邀请at the gracious invitation of ?年会annual meeting ?商界的朋友们friends from the business community ?marketing presentation营销报告会 ?sales representative 销售代表 ?sales record 销售记录 ?customers’satisfaction顾客满意度 ?manufacturer 生产商 ?retailer 零售商 ?merchant wholesaler 批发商 ?commission agent 佣金代理商 ?facilitating agent 服务代理商 ?经销渠道distribution channel ?营销目标marketing objective ?战略营销strategic marketing ?目标市场target market ?潜在的风险和potential threats and opportunities ?可控因素controllable components ?销售业绩sales performance Unit 3 1、Business relations and cooperation business connections business cooperation technological cooperation scope of cooperation mutually beneficial relations close relationship to cement / continue / enlarge / promote / improve / maintain / interrupt / restore / speed up / reactivate business relationship to reach an agreement to make a deal 2、Investment a heavy /a long-term/ a profitable/ a safe and sure investment foreign direct investment (FDI) portfolio investment investment environment investment intent/ partner exclusively foreign-owne enterprise joint venture cooperative enterprise equity joint venture contractual joint venture 3、Form of Trade merchandise exports and imports service exports and imports bilateral trade leasing trade processing with supplied material processing with imported materials processing with supplied sample assembling with supplied parts 4、Describing products genuine article imitation low-priced goods low quality goods inferior goods superior quality unfinished products top grade goods showy goods high-tech products durable consumer goods modern and elegant in fashion complete in specifications sophisticated technology attractive and durable skillful manufacture 5、Credit commercial credit trade reputation

英语词汇学课本与译文

Introduction 绪论 0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围 Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。 English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。 English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。 It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。 However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。 Naturally, there will be a large quantity of practice involved. 当然，同时还要接触到大量的词汇练习。 0.2 Its Relation to Other Disciplines 英语词汇学与其它学科的关系 English lexicology itself is a subbranch of linguistics. 英语词汇学是语言学的一个分支。 But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography. 但它却与其他学科相关，如形态学、语义学、词源学、文体学和词典学等。 Each of them has been established as a discipline in its own right. 而这些学科都各成一门学科。 Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，主要通过运用词素（形位）结构研究词的结构或形式。 This is one of the major concerns of lexicology, for we shall discuss the inflections of words and word-formation and examine how morphemes are combined to form words and words to form sentences. 这是词汇学研究的主要内容之一，因为研究词汇就必需讨论的屈折变化和构词法，考察词素如何构成词、词如何构成句子。 Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. 词源学研究词的形式和意义的起源及其历史变化。 Modern English is derived from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary. 现代英语源于词汇量颇小的古日尔曼语。 We shall study how this small vocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words. 我们将研究这门词汇量很小的语言是如何发展成为词汇量庞大的现代英语，并解释英语词汇的形式和意义是如何变化的。 Stylistics is the study of style. 文体学研究文体。 It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects. 主要对语用者在特定语境中如何选择语言要素（即如何选择用词、句型等）以达到特定的表达效果进行观察研究。 Among the areas of study: lexis, phonology, syntax, graphology, we shall concentrate on lexis, exploring the stylistic values of words. 在文体学所研究的词汇、音系学、句法学和书写法范围中，我们主要研究词汇，探讨词汇的文体价值。Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference. 词典学和词汇学探讨同样的问题：词汇的形式、意义、词汇的起源及用法，但两者在语用上还有差异。 A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use. 词典学家的任务是实录词汇的用法并把词汇用法的真实情形呈现给读者，为其提供权威性的参考；而词汇学家则是研究词汇的知识和信息，以增强读者对词汇的了解和语言的使用能力。 Though English lexicology has a wide coverage of academic areas, our task is definite and consistent. 英语词汇学的研究范围很大，但我们的任务是明确而系统的。 That is to study English words in different aspects and from different angles. 即从不同角度研究英语词汇的各个方面。0.3 Method of Study 英语词汇学的研究方法 There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. 一般来说，词汇研究有两种

自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理

自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理

English Lexicology(英语词汇学) 1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。 2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。 2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系” 3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。

词汇学教程张维友版课后习题答案

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The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world.It is made up of most of the languages of Europe,the Near East and India.English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary.A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2.Indo-European Language Family Balto-Slavic Indo-Iranian Celtic Italian Hellenic Germanic Roumanian Hindi Breton Spanish Greek English Lithuanian Persian Scottish French Swedish Prussian Irish Italian German Polish Portuguese Norweigian Slavenian Icelandic Russian Danish Bulgarian Dutch 6.

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英语构词法练习文件排版存档编号：[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]

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