语言学导论第8、9讲
语言学导论第八讲
Lexical Change
New words or expressions are created through the following processed, apart from compound and derivation
Invention 新创词语
Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Sony, Cadillac, Omega, Coke, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.
Blending 混成法
It is a process in which a compound is made by blending parts of two words.
1) by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word.
2) by joining the initial parts of the two words
1) motel from motor+hotel
brunch from breakfast+lunch
smog from smoke+fog
telecast from television+broadcast
positron from positive+electron
transistor from transfer+resister
heliport from helicopter+airport
cremains from cremated+remains
2) telex from teleprinter+exchange(电传)
modem from modulator+demodulator(调制解调器)
anacom from analog+computer(分析计算机)
digicom from digital+computer(数码计算机)
glasphalt from glass+asphalt(玻璃沥青)
insulac from insulating+lacquer(隔热漆)
Abbreviation (Clipping) 缩写词
It refers to the process whereby a word is shortened without a change in the meaning and in the part of speech.
1) the end of the word is removed.
2) the beginning of the word is discarded.
3) both ends of the word are dropped.
1) ad from advertisement
bike from bicycle
exam from examination
fan from fanatic
lab from laboratory
math from mathematics
prof from professor
telly from television
2) plane from aeroplane
copter from helicopter
van from caravan
bus from omnibus
phone from telephone
3) flu from influenza
fridge from refrigerator
tec from detective
Acronym 缩略语
It is the process by which words are formed by putting the initial letters of several words together. 1）They are pronounced as a new word.
TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language
TESOL Teaching English to the Speakers of Other Languages
ELTS English Language Testing Service
2) They are pronounced as a sequence of letters:
BBC
British Broadcasting Corporation
VOA
V oice of America
WTO
World Trade Organization
Back Formation 逆构词法
It is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. It may be regarded as the opposite case of suffixation.
difficult from difficulty
housekeep from housekeeper
edit from editor
donate from donation
televise from television
typewrite from typewriter
babysit from babysitter
hawk from hawker
enthuse from enthusiasm
lase from laser
Analogical Creation 类推构词
It is a process to apply already existed grammatical rules to all environments. This process can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(词型变化) of some English words.
Examples:
old new
work wrought worked
beseech besought beseeched
slay slew slayed
Borrowing 借词
It is a process in which a language widens her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.
Borrowing can be done directly or indirectly
Many English words of Greek origin are borrowed via Latin or French.
1) loanwords(借词): The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.
au pair, coup d’etat from French
(平等的, 互惠的; 改变, 武力夺取政权)
al fresco(露天的, 户外的) from Italian
tea, Tai’chi from Chinese
2) Loanblend (混合借词): It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
coconut (“coco” from Spanish, “nut” English)
Chinatown (“China” from Chinese,
“town” from English)
) Loanshift (转移借词): It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.
Bridge: English form, Italian meaning of a card game
artificial satellite: English form, but the meaning borrowed from Russian “sputnik”.
4) Loan translation(翻译借词) or Calque(仿造词): It is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. English almighty from Latin omnipotens
English free verse from Latin verse libre
English Black humour from French humour noir
Phonological Change(音位变化)
It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form.
1) Loss (脱落): It refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels.
Addition(添加):
Sounds may be added to the original sound sequence.
Ra p scallion(流氓,恶棍): “p” was added inside the root “rascal”.
Japanese language is good at adding a vowel to each of the consonants to form syllables. “sutoraiki” is from English”strike”.
3) Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.
“bird” from “brid” in O.E.
“ask” from “/aks/” in O.E.
“tax” and “task” were etymologically ralated.
4) Assimilation (同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound. It can be explained by “the theory of least effort”.
For example:
im mobile, ir revocable, il legal, etc.
Morphological Change (形态变化)
Words may change their forms on the side of inflectional affixes(屈折词缀形式的形态变化) The present tense of third person singular in O.E. was “-eth”, and the second person singular w as “-est”. E.g. “do(e)th, goeth, findeth”; “do(e)st, playest, hearest”.
(…s) form in O.E. (of phrase) in M.E.
(tendency to restore old forms now.)
e.g. the university?s campus
China?s modernization
Syntactical Change (句法变化)
The syntactical features of words have changed much.
Split infinitive:
I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it.
Postponed preposition:
That person is impossible to work with.
Objective case of relative pronoun:
The girl who he talked about is a violinist.
Semantic Change (语义变化)
1)Broadening(词义扩大)
It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.
2)Narrowing (词义缩小)
The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.
1）
2）
3) Meaning Shift (词义转移)
The meaning of the word changed as a result of its metaphorical usage(隐喻用法).
e.g. bead: 祈祷—念珠—玻璃、金属、或木头的小圆珠子
4) Class Shift (词性转换)
The meaning of the word changed from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution by shifting the word class.
(conversion变换, zero-derivation零派生）
e.g. stump: 树桩—挑战
5) Folk Etymology (俗词源)
It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.
e.g. wiz(wizard的缩写形式）:神汉，男巫—行家、能手—whiz极其聪明的人，奇才
Counterpoint of Phonology and Morphology
音位学和形态学的对立
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound.
A morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.
Morphophonology or Morphophonemics is the subject to study the “joint venture” of the two levels.
1.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.
a) boys
b) boy?s phoneme /z/
c) raise
a) represents the plural morpheme, b) represents the morpheme of the possessive case, c) represents nothing at all.
2. Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.A morpheme may be monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.
3. The syllabic (phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic(grammatical) structure do not necessarily correspond.
汉语新词的构词特点：
一以汉语中既有的构词材料和构词方式作为语言基础。
如“热线、硬件、大腕、直销、发屋”等词，都是使用旧有的构词材料（热、线、硬、发）
等词，都是按偏正关系组织起来的。如果语言中没有这些原有材料和原有构词方式，要想一下子创造出这么多的新词，那是不可想象的。这个特点也是创造新词的基本途径。
二数量多。
新时期所产生的新词，数量多是又一个鲜明的特点。新词几乎涉及到了社会各个领域。上海辞书出版社87年出版的《汉语新词词典》收录了78年到87年十年间出现的词共1654 条，那么从87年到97年这十年中间又有多少新词产生，目前还没有人做过统计。不过，我们可以从新修定的《现代汉语词典》中作一大致估计，新修定的《现代汉语词典》由87年的五万余条增加为六万余条，增加了约一万余条新词，这是个很可观的数字了。这其中还有一些新词仍没有收进去，如“创意、品牌”等。
三双音节词占优势，三音节词也有增长的趋势。
上面提到的《现代汉语词典》所收的1654条新词语中有1242条是双音节词，占总数的75％；三音节词有234条，占总数的14．4％。双音化是现代汉语构词的主要特点之一，新词继续保持这一特点，这是现代语汇意义精密化的体现。
抱抱团,慢活族,群租,医闹,洋漂族
四复合式结构仍是新词产生的主要方式。
新词的产生大多是以合成词的面貌出现的，而复合式结构是其主要构成方式，即由“词根＋词根”方式构成。这其中又以偏正型、联合型、动宾型为主，其它形式较少，
如：偏正型：
电脑反思大款软件函授热线特区春运
力度倒爷火爆盲流微机婚纱直销发屋
上班族多媒体发烧星微波炉机器人电子琴保龄球
联合型：
信息档次休闲紧俏品牌影视评估开放
录放传导赞助摊挡团伙框架工程扫描
挂靠坚硬腐败商贸
动宾型：
滑坡触电下海打的创意写真牵头涉外
吹风破产下岗出台厌学盗版扫黄保值
超员接轨超编录音打白条炒鱿鱼
上面三种构成方式在新词中占绝大多数，相比之下，汉语其它的构词方式，如主谓型、补充型的新词比较少。如：
补充型：
搞活理顺推出看好走俏盘活（股市用语）
五词缀化的词明显增多，虚语素加实语素的构词方式比较活跃。
汉语中新词的产生，一部分原来的实词逐渐虚化，变成了意义较虚的虚语素。
如：
热：足球热冰箱热购物热英语热时装热气功热彩电热健身热
感：失落感紧迫感超脱感责任感
型：管理型保守型开拓型开放型
性：开放性一次性可读性可塑性技术性实质性政策性抗药性两重性活性多：多层次多方位多功能多渠道多角度
化：法制化老龄化多元化优化净化淡化老化
度：知名度透明度清晰度开放度能见度
超：超星系超音速超音波超人超导
观：择业观价值观家庭观爱情观
派：改革派保守派京派海派
这一类词有一个特点就是，它逐渐在虚化过程中，因此，其原来的实在意义与虚化后的意义
共同存在于语言中。由这些虚语素构成的词多为名词，如“足球热、保守型、责任感”等；也有
是动词的，如“优化”等。
六缩略语的大量出现。
缩略语是数词缩语的统称。新时期，由于社会的急剧变革，社会发展速度加快，要求语言的信息量增大而传达快速，因而新词的缩略语在新时期得到了空前的发展。但是，令人略感不足的是，有许多简称表义不明，胡乱节缩，容易引起歧义，或者根本不知所云，有些只能是在小范围内使用。
台胞（台湾同胞）名优（名牌优质）
关贸组织（关税和贸易组织）足协杯（中国足球协会杯赛）
立交桥（立体交叉桥）消协（消费者协会）
三包（包修、包换、包退）空姐（空中小姐）
扫黄打非（扫除黄毒和打击非法出版印刷）公关（公共关系）
高考（高等学校统一考试）微机（微型机算机）
家电（家用电器）普九（普及九年制义务教育）
超市（超级市场）放化疗（放射性疗法和化学疗化）
家教（家庭教师）一国两制（一个国家两种制度）
公交（公共交通）交警（交通警察）
教改（教学改革）
五个一工程（每年出一部好电影、一本好书、一首好歌、一出好戏、一部好电视剧）
三资（中外合资、中外合作、外商独资）
三铁（铁饭碗、铁工资、铁交椅）教改（教学改革）
三栖（影、视、歌全能）东盟（东南亚国家合作联盟）
五讲四美（讲文明、讲礼貌、讲卫生、讲秩序、讲道德；心灵美、语言美、行为美、环境美的缩略）
人流（人工流产）特区（经济特区）
这些缩略语在日常生活中已经起到了大家的人可，起到了简洁便利的交际作用。
另有一些缩略语却让人不知所云，或容易引起误解，如：
※中文人（中文系师生）※打拐办（打击拐卖妇女儿童办公室）
※人维（人造纤维）※人革（人造革）
※文程（文化程度）※业校（业余学校）
※打手（用电脑打字写作的作家）※摩修部（摩托车修理部）
※人府（人民政府）※战英（战斗英雄）
七科技与经济类新词占主体。
近二十年来产生的新词以科技与经济方面的新词所占比例较大。在《汉语新词词典》中所收的1654条词语中，科技方面的新词占有200余条，这反映出科学技术在社会生活中占有越来越重要的地位
近几年来，由于经济的迅猛发展，经济新词如雨后春笋般层出不穷，特别值的一提的是，由于经济体制的改革，一些过去曾经批判过的或一度经淘汰的词语重新占领了语言市场，出现在人
们的生活中。这一类词更充分地反映出改革开放给人们带来的可喜变化。
科技类新词：
载体信息电脑克隆多维输导超导拷贝
反馈光盘激光硬件软件视盘电视数控
多媒体频谱仪软着陆VCD DVD
经济类新词：
传销直销当铺盗版下海破产熊市牛市
投诉偷税搀市名牌精品股市创利漏税
合资三资独资特区倒爷走私创税到位
商厦创收龙头广告承包透支回涨看涨
个体户信用卡炒鱿鱼皮草行写字楼拍卖会宏观调控
八值得注意的“旧瓶装新酒”现象。
新时期所产生的新词，除一部分是完全新造之外，还有一部分是利用原有的词语，使它具有新的意义，或者使它原来的意义范围有所扩大。
有两种情况值得人们住意：
一是一些词一度退出交际场所，作为一种历史词存在，随着经济体制的改变，现又找到了用武之地，活跃在人们的交际场合。这一类词绝大部分是经济行业的词。如：
兼并吞并股票广告雇工劳务经理通货膨胀
当铺偷税漏税乡长资本董事长
另一类是在原词的意义基础上扩大其范围，使其获得新义，令人有耳目一新之感。如：包装休闲投入品位运行运转出台到位
强人下海下岗徘徊波动接轨联姻启动
风景起飞
⑼高频率词与词族现象。
新加坡《联合晚报》曾刊登过前几年在大
陆使用频率很高的20个新词：
走俏吹风牵头档次盲流涉外敲定一刀切
小报告大锅饭过电影走过场靠边站吹喇叭背黑锅摘帽子
文山会海论资排辈倒买倒卖第一把手
由于某些词获得了人得青睐，人们就以某词为主干，造出一系列有血源关系的新词，行成了一种特殊的“词族”现象。如：
工程：五个一工程扶贫工程节水工程安居工程
再就业工程菜篮子工程米袋子工程给水工程老板：老板裤老板鞋老板烟老板杯老板牌×族：追星族上班族工薪族打工族
×星：明星舞星球星影星歌星笑星
导×：导厕导游导购导读导吃导姐
空姐：空姐空嫂巴嫂军嫂
×市：米市邮市股市
炒×：炒地皮炒金子炒股票炒外汇炒债券炒港币炒水泥炒鱿鱼炒楼
×的：面的板儿的
十几个身价倍增的数词。
518 （谐音“我要发” ）
168 （谐音“一路发” ）
666 （意味着“大顺” ）
888 （谐音“发发发” ）
5188 （谐音我要“发发发” ）
1688 （谐音一路“发发发” ）