英语语法的学习

大纲是方向、目标，广大考生必须仔细了解。 英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。通过该课程的学习，学员能够比较系统地认识英语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用英语的规范性。 在学习该教材时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、难懂；二是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准备就能对付过去。 其实，两种看法都失偏颇。现代语法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，该教程则采取的是‘a system of two tenses and two aspects’—-—-—-两时两体体系。另外对phrases, clauses 的概念也有不同的定义。书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition], 分隔[discontinuity], 分裂句[cleft sentence]等都是一般语法书所不提及或者阐述不同。该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不过我们许多英语学习者没有考究过它们形成的理论根据，来龙去脉而已。 所以，为了使自己的英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、表达思想，英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学好。 现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试中考生容易忽略的测试要点或难点。 我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教材的学习方法，最后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。在整个讲解过程中，我们力争多采用教材里的素材以及往年试题中的一些经典考题，以便学员在学习、归纳语法现象的同时使自己的备考收效最大化。 先测试一下自己的现代语法水平(同时了解一下英语语法考试的题型、结构；每年考试形式基本相同，有些部分稍有调整。为了节省篇幅，这里各部分只选取几个样题) The Pre-course Quiz I、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分） Choose the best answer from the choices given: 1. In the end, he __________. a. got invited b. gets invited c. was invited d. was to be invited 2. Do what I tell you --__________! a. or else b. or so c. and that d. and do 3. __________ , he managed to remain among the top 5% of his class. a. To work hard as he did b. Working hard as he did c. Work hard as he did d. Worked hard as he did 4._____ there be life on Mars? (p171) a. May b. Can c. Might d. Ought 5.Stay _____ have dinner with us, will you?(p263) a. to b. or c. and d. here 6.You _____ be shocked at the news.(p168) a. sh

ould well b. must well c. may well d. can well 7. You have to wait a minute, ______? a. haven't you b. do you c. don't you d. shouldn't you 8. Staying in hotel cost ________ renting a room in a dormitory for a week. a. twice as much b. twice as much as c. as much as twice d. twice than 9. I don't think she meant_________ you. (p206) a. hurt b. to hurt c. hurting d. be hurt 10. ___ I worked hard at school, I ___ this kind of work now. a. Had... wouldn't have done b. Had... wouldn't be doing c. If... wouldn't do d. If... wouldn't be doing II.多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每题2分，共10分） Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below: a, the, any, some, all 1. __________ of us decides what to take into the future and what to leave behind. That's why__________ arrival of the Year 2000 has become such a personal moment. 2. be, is, was, are ,were, will be, shall be, has, have had a. She is one of these girls who _______ trouble running around. b. This one of the many houses here which _______ destroyed in the earthquake. 3. seem, seems, me, I, mine Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____. (p59) 4. less, less of, than, as, like Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee. (p237) III.填空题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分） Fill in the blank with an appropriate coordinator or subordinator: 1. It was an island __________ name I have forgotten. 2. He carried his luggage all the way home, __________ was actually unnecessary. 3. He soon made it clear __________ he had asked for a meeting. 4. The police arrived, after __________ the situation became calmer. Fill in the blanks with proper words: 5.I like Australia best _______ all the English-speaking countries. 6.I made a comparison _______ the major English speaking countries.(p251) IV.改错题（本大题共8小题，每小题1分，共8分） Correct errors in the following sentences: 1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading made a full man. 2. Go and get some fresh air! You were sitting here all morning. 3.The all of Paris welcomed the general. (p79) 4. I've got five brothers, and every of them is quite different from the others. 5. None of my parents are interested in my idea. (p344) V.改写句子（本大题共14小题，每题2分，共28分） Rewrite the following sentences as required: 1. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause: You sent my son an English-Chinese dictionary. Thank you very much. 2. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause: Twenty horses were put into the corral. They were to be trained for riding. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3114916736.html,bine the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:(p289) My boss is a very considerate person. His predecessor was not a considerate person at all. 4.Rewrite the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate: A: Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School? B: No, I don't think John is trying to enter Harvard Law School. He hates lawyers. 5. Use disco

ntinuity: Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful than expected to children. VI.名词解释（本大题共2小题，每小题2分，共4分） Define the following terms with examples: 1. Non-finite verbs 2. Determiners VII.简答题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分） 1. What are inherent adjectives? 2. Can HOW - exclamations be used to highlight the noun? If not, what can HOW - questions highlight? Key to the pre-course quiz I. 单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分） 1、a 2、a 3、b 4、b 5、c 6、c　7、c 8、b　9、b　10、b II. 多项选择填空题（每小题2分，共10分，） 1. Each, the （共2分，一格1分） 2. have, were（共2分，一格1分） 3. seem, mine（共2分，一格1分） 4. less of, than（共2分，一格1分） III. 填空题（每题1分，共20分） 1. whose 2. which 3. why 4. which 5. among 6.between IV. 改错题（每小题1分，共8分） Correct errors in the following sentences: 1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading makes a full man. 2. Go and get some fresh air! You have been sitting here all morning. 3.The whole of Paris welcomed the general. 4. I've got five brothers, and each of them is quite different from the others. 5. Neither of my parents are interested in my idea. V. 改写句子（每题2分，共28分） 1. Thank you very much for the English-Chinese dictionary you sent my son. 2. Twenty horses that were to be trained for riding were put into the corral. 3. My boss is a very considerate person, which his predecessor was not at all. 4. No, I don't think so. He hates lawyers. 5. Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful to children than expected. VI. 名词解释（每题2分，共4分） 1. The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. 2. Determiners refer to words which are used in the pre-modification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that pre-modify the head word. VII. 简答题（每小题2分，共10分） 1. Generally speaking, adjectives denoting inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun. e.g. A big house refers to a house whose size is big. 2. No, they can't. They can highlight the adjectives, adverb or verb. 第二部分：教材的学习与使用 一． 首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。二． 由于教材涉及的术语较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。可参照书后《课程内容与考核目标》所列出的主要概念中英文对照。如：词素（morphemes），词缀法(affixation), 修饰性状语(adjunct) ，评注性状语(disjunct)等。三． 对于每个概念，术语，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念的理解及记忆。

如：（1）Morpheme(p4): A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realizes the morpheme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是抽象的形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不同的形素来体现) （2）Mass nouns(p57): Those nouns that can not take plural forms are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词) 四． 在理解的基础上，熟记教材上的例句。从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上的原句或略作变动。例如：在全国2003年4月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第Ⅱ. 多项选择填空题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分)中，几乎所有的题目均能从书中找出： Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below: 21. bank, bunch, congregation, pack, series（P65） A. a _____ of musicians B. a___ of lectures 22. board, bunch, choir, packet, party（P66） A. a ______ of guests B. a______ of keys 23. is, are, was, were, will be, shall be（P344） Some money _____ carried to the spot and all the food and everything else _____ ready for the picnic. 24. seem, seems, me, I, mine（P59） Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____. 25. less, less of, than, as, like（P237） Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee. 26. more of, many of, much of, than, as, like（P236） John is as _____ a fool _____ Bill. 27. be, is, was, are, were, will be, shall be A. That she is still alive ______ sheer luck. B. Neither his oral statement nor what he wrote _____ true. 28. have, has, had, will have, shall have（P346） A. She is the only one of her family who ______ trouble making up the mind. B. This is the only family in the community who ____ different opinions while making up the mind. 五． 每一章后面设计的练习题也非常重要，学员要做到每一题都能够理解，作答正确。许多题目被用作以往的考题，将来的试卷同样会从中选择不少题目。六． 勤于动手，加强实践。该教程共分十六章，学习时可以把每一章节的重点概念摘录出来，把重点例句归纳出来，供自己复习巩固。只有这样，才能让自己掌握好各章节的精华。我们不主张大家去找别的语法练习来训练，因为采取不同的语法体系编辑的练习题有可能差距很大。教材上的例句及练习题稍作变动就可以产生无数的新语法题，足以让同学得到充分地训练。七． 善于请教，多方求索。学员对自己学习过程中弄不清楚的问题，可以与别的学员共同商讨，或请教老师。互联网也是一种很好的助学手段，但不要在那上面花太多的精力，因为那里的东

西庞杂而良莠不齐。只要通过 ‘https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3114916736.html,’ 或 ‘https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3114916736.html,’，输入你想搜寻的内容的关键词, 如：‘自考语法’；‘语法考试’等，它们就会为你提供大量的网站或网页供你登陆或浏览。八． 学会归纳、总结。学习任何东西都应该多动脑筋。死记硬背得来的东西往往遗忘也很快，理解基础上熟记的东西才能长时间为主人服务。为什么“A book is on the desk..” 不对而“ On the desk is a book.” 正确；为什么“There is a bus over there.”是存在句，“There comes the bus”是倒装句；什么情况下 ‘family’ 之后的动词用复数，什么情况下 ‘family’ 之后的动词用单数。这些只有在理解的基础上，通过归纳总结才能真正牢记住。 第三部分：教材的重点与难点归纳 Chapter 1 The Structure of the English Sentence (第一章 绪 论) 一、 难点、重点 1. Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order. (指出构成层次结构的语法单位.) Answer: The grammatical units that form a hierarchical order are explained and shown as follows: Higher | A sentence consists of one or more clauses | A clause consists of one or more phrases | A phrase consists of one or more words Lower | A word From the macro-grammatical point of view, we can come to a hierarchical structure as: Higher | A text consists of one or more sentences | A sentence consists of one or more clauses | A clause consists of one or more phrases | A phrase consists of one or more words | A word consists of one or more morphemes Lower | A morpheme 英语句子的结构层次是：分句(clauses)、词组(phrases)、单词(words)，图示如下： 高级层次 句子(由一个或多个分句组成) 分句(由一个或多个词组组成) 词组(由一个或多个词组成) 低级层次 词 图1.1语法单位的层次(Leech等，1982：27) 如果从语义的角度来考虑，单词以下还可再分为词素(morphemes)；句子以上还有更大的语言单位，即把句子按一定逻辑规则组织起来的语篇。所以，从超语法的角度来看，语法层次结构可以如下图所示： 高级层次 语篇(由广个或多个句子组成) 句子(由一个或多个分句组成) 分句(由一个或多个扣组组成) 词组(由一个或多个词组成) 词(由一个或多个词素组成) 低级层次 词素 图1.2 扩大的语法层次结构图 2． Morphemes词素 (Terms: morpheme, morph, allomorph, free morpheme and bound morpheme) （注：此部分内容的学习可以借鉴‘词汇学’的相关内容，然而必须注意两门课程描述的不同点。）什么是词素(morpheme)?词素是语法的最小区别性单位，即最低一级的语法单位。词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素(morph)。词素是一种抽象形式的成分，在不同的环境中一个词素可以由若干个不同的形素体现，如英语中的复数词素可以表现为／s，z，iz

／。某一词素在不同的环境中可以用不同的变体或词素变体(allomorph)表示。所谓词素变体是指词素的非区别性变体，几个不同的变体一起构成一个词素。词素又分为自由词素和粘附词素。自由词素(free morpheme)是指本身具有完整意义，可以独立使用的词素。它可以是简单的单词，如boy，girl，do，so等，也可以是派生词的词根，如im-polite，self-ish等。自由词素具有较强的构词能力。粘附词素 (bound morpheme)是指没有完整意义不能独立使用的词素。粘附词素只表示一种附加意义或语法意义，这种词素不能单独存在和使用，只有粘附在其他词素(主要是自由词素)上才能表示出它的意义。粘附词素的主要功能是在构词中充当词缀，如unfriendliness中的un-，-ly，-ness等。 3.Finite clauses and infinite clauses (限定性分句与非限定性分句,定义参见下面的简答题部分) 注意这里分句的概念与传统语法的区别，特别是非限定性分句。 Finite Clauses (1)名词性分句 What he said was incredible. (2)关系分句 This is one of the best books I’ve ever read. (3)状语分句 If I were in your shoes, I wouldn’t quit. Non-finite clauses： (1) 非限定性名词性分句： She didn’t know what to say． (2)非限定性关系分句： The man standing by the window is her brother. (3) 非限定性状语分句： Published ten years ago，this is still the best dictionary． 二、 重要概念 1. morpheme (参见第一部分测试题) 2. parsing：Breaking a sentence into smaller components for analysis and then grouping them into various classes in a systematic way. 把一个句子中的各种词按语法范畴给出名称一如主语、宾语、动词、性、数、格等一叫做句子成分分析(parsing)。 3. Define the complex sentence The complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause that are joined together by subordinating one to another．[复杂句是用从属连词(如if, when, though等)连接的一个以上分句的句子.] 三、 典型考题 I. 选择题 1. There are ( ) morphemes in “gunfighter”. A. two B. three C. four D. one 2. In “He downed his beer and punched me on the nose. ” “downed” belongs to ( ) . (P13) A. backformation B. clipping C. conversion D. blending 3. Suffixes basically change ( ) . A. word meaning B. word class C. nothing D. word formation 4. The prefix“uni-” means ( ) . A. without B. self C. false D. one Key: 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D II. 简答题 1. In terms of which three factors are words classified? The three factors are: the environment where words occur, their internal structure and their meaning. 2. Define the finite clauses and the non-finite clauses. The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates．The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms．(限定分句是主语加

限定动词作谓语的分句。非限定分句是省略主语而动词以非限定形式出现(主语省略是因为其前面或后面已有主语。) Chapter 2 Sentence Types (第二章 句子类型) 一、 难点、重点 1. The four major types of sentences in English and their discourse functions. The four major types of sentences are declaratives，interrogatives， imperatives and exclamatives．These four types are respectively associated with giving information，requiring information，requiring actions and expressing the speaker’s impression of something．英语句子四大类型为陈述句，疑问句，祈使句和感叹句；这四种句型分别表示提供信息，寻求信息，要求动作进行和表达说话者的情感. 2. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in positive statements and assertive words in questions. (解释在肯定句中使用非肯定词和在疑问句中使用肯定句的情况。) When a positive answer is expected, assertive words can be used in questions, such as: Would you like some more coffee? Is somebody waiting for me? And in affirmative sentences in which there are negative import, if-clauses, putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses, non-assertive words can be used, such as: He is too young to take any job. If anyone calls me at this moment, it must be Xiao Zhang. It’s odd that the hero should say anything like that. He’s better than anyone else in this company. 疑问句中如期望肯定回答,可用肯定词，在含有带否定含义的词，If-分句,should 推定分句,比较分句中也可用非肯定词. 3．Explain the difference between a tag question with a final rising tone and one with a final falling tone．(解释附加疑问句结尾升调与降调的区别。) With a rising tone，the question expresses the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and invites the hearer to verify the truth of the proposition in the statement．With a falling tone，the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement．It can be regarded as similar to an exclamation．(念升调，附加疑问句的说话者对对方的回答不是很确定；念降调，说话者期望对方证实他的陈述，有点类似于感叹句。) Examples: Lovely weather, isn’t it? (Seeing the student’s ID) You are a student, aren’t you? 以上两句，都应该念降调。 另外，在附加疑问句中，HAVE一词也是常考的重点： You have heard me, haven’t you? (Auxiliary ‘have’) Mary has to live on her own, doesn’t she? Tom has coffee with milk, doesn’t he? (In the sense of ‘possess’, ‘own’, etc.) You have a big house, don’t / haven’t you? 4．Commands 1) Be patient. (Command) 2) You be patient. (Emphatic effect, or to light a contrast) 3) Do be patient. (To reinforce a command) 4) Be patient, please! (To smooth away abruptness) 5) You be patient, please! (This sentence is incorrect!) So the following sent

ences are also commands: 1) Someone take out the rubbish. 2) Anybody help him! 3) Everyone freeze! 二、 重要概念 1. Alternative questions: Those questions that suggest two (or more) alternatives and usually imply that one of them could be true. 2. How-exclamations: Exclamations that are led by the adverb ‘how’. It highlights the adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations. 三、 典型考题 I. 选择题 1. You have to wait a moment, ______? A. haven't you B. do you C. don't you D. shouldn't you 2. "Mary wasn't in the reading - room, was she?" "_________." A. Yes, she wasn't B. No, she was C. Yes, she was D. She wasn't Key: 1. c 2. c II. 简答题 1. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their shared semantic feature?(转移否定经常与哪些动词同现?它们有什么共同的语义特征?) The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are：think，believe，suppose，imagine and expect．They are the verbs that express “opinion”．(转移否定经常与think，believe，suppose，imagine和expect等动词连用。这些动词都是表示“意见”的语义。) 2. What are the two major types of exclamations?(感叹句的两大类型是什么?) The two major types of exclamations are WHAT—exclamations and HOW-exclamations．The former is followed by a noun phrase；the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb．感叹句分为WHAT- 感叹句和HOW-感叹句。前一种后接名词词组，后者接形容词或副词。 III．完成下列句子 1. You’d rather we didn’t go there,_______ 2. I don’t think he will come,________? 3. They must have lost their way,_____? 4. Let’s talk about it later,_____? 5. Everyone is here,________? Key: 1.hadn’t you 2. will he 3. mustn’t/ didn’t they 4. shall we 5.isn’t here/aren’t they Chapter 3 Noun and Noun Phrase (1): Noun and Number (第三章 名词和名词词组(1)：名词和名词的数) 一、 难点、重点 1. The functions of noun phrases: In function, a noun phrase can play such grammatical roles as subject, object, complement, modifier and even adverbial. 名词词组的功能，可以作主语、宾语、补语、修饰语（a tea table），有些的甚至可以作状语(yesterday, last week)。 2. Noun classes 名词可以以多种方法分类,如具体名词(table, water)与抽象名词 (happiness, hatred),可数名词(table, girl)与不可数名词(water, money),有生物名词(boy, monkey)与无生物名词(table, water)等.但名词通常按以下方式分类: 名词-----|专有名词Proper nouns (nouns) |可数名词----------|普通名词(common nouns) (c. nouns) |物质名词(mass nouns) 我们在可数名词和物质名词中还可以再划分具体名词和抽象名词: 名词--|专有名词 |普通名词--|可数名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns) (common n.)| |抽象名词(abstract nouns |物质名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns) |抽象名词(abstract nouns) 3.缩略词：加-’s，-s，双

写或零形式复数，首字母缩略词， 加-‘s或-s： MP(议员) MP’s／MPs POW(战犯) POW’s／POWs VIP(要人) VIP’s／VIPs laser lasers 缩略词加-s，双写或用零形式复数：缩略词加-s Dr．(医生) Drs． hr(小时) hrs．(或hr．) yd．(码) yds． Yr. (年) yrs． 双写: ex．(例子) exx． gal．(加仑) gall． 1. (行) ll． p．(页) pp 或用零形式复数 ft．(英尺) ft kg．(公斤) kg． km．(公里) km min．(分) min． sec．(秒) Sec 4.熟记教材（P65）单位名称表 二、 重要概念 1. Proper noun: Proper nouns are nouns referring to specific person, place or thing,such as Smith, Mark (persons), Washington D.C., London (places), NATO, United Nations (things)(专有名称是特指人,地方或事物的名词) 2. Mass noun: Those that can not take plural are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词) 3. Unit noun: It is also called "partitive", is a very special class of words that is used to specify the quantities measures and shapes of the modified noun such as: piece, batch, bunch, item, etc. (单位名词亦称 “部分词”用于说明所修饰名词的量、大小和形状等) 4. Foreign plurals：They are words borrowed from some other languages which still take their original forms of plural，Most often，they are from-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc．(外来词复数是指从外语中借来尚保持原来复数形式的复数名词，多是拉丁语、法语和希腊语等) 三、典型考题 I. 选择题 1. _________ plastics are made in this chemical plant. A. Many kind of B. Many kinds of C. Many kinds D. Many kind 2. "Jack has just moved into a new house." "Did he have to buy ________for it?" A. many new furniture B. much new furnitures C. much new furniture D. many new furnitures 3. Michael took _______ as to what he should do. A. his friend's advise B. his friend's advises C. his friend advice D. his friend's advice Key: 1. B 2. C 3. D II. 简答题 1. Collective noun: These are generally countable nouns, but even in the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc. (集体名词一般是可数名词,但就是单数,也指人, 动物或事物的群体) 2. singular invariables: They are proper nouns like country names, personal names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United States，the United Nations，Black，Jones，classics，physics，bronchitis，bowls，et。．(单数名词指的是某些国家名称，人名和表示学科、疾病和运动项目等形式上有以—s结尾的名词，一般用作单数) 3. plural invariables：They are 1)names of tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts：binoculars，compasses，jeans，shorts，etc．2)some collective nouns：cattle，people，police

，etc．3)geographical names of mountain ranges，waterfalls，groups of islands：the Rockies，the Balkans，Niagara Falls，etc．4)other nouns ending in-s：archives，arms，etc．(复数名词指由两部分构成的工具或服饰；某些集体名词；山脉、瀑布、群岛等地理名词以及其他以-s结尾的名词，用作复数) III. 其他题型 Supply the appropriate unit noun from the list below: company collection troop herd bundle drop piece ray swarm can school pack fleet crew 1. a ______ of ships 2. a ______ of lies 3. a ______ of firewood 4. a ______ of whales 5. a ______ of sailors 6. a _____ of bees 7. a ______ of tourists 8. a _____ of crude oil 9. a ______ of cattle 10. a _____ of music 11. a _____ of monkeys 12. a _____ of coins 13. a _____ of blood 14. a _____ of sunshine Key: 1. fleet 2. pack 3. bundle 4. school 5. crew 6. swarm 7. company 8. can 9. herd 10. piece 11. troop 12. collection 13. drop 14. ray Chapter 4 Noun and Noun Phrase(2)： Determiner and Genitive (第四章 名词和名词词组(2)：限定词和属格) 一、 难点、重点 1. The constraints that the double genitive is subject to: The second noun in the double genitive almost always refers to persons， never to objects，and the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite．(双重属格的第二个名词指人，不指物，第一个名词不确指，通 常用不定冠词，第二个名词必须确指) a window of the house’s / a page of the newspaper’s the friend of that reporter’s /the friend of a teacher’s [以上表达均有错误！] 2.Group genitive集体属格 集体属格是指把’s加在后位修饰词组或并列名词词组后面的属格，如： someone else’s car，an hour and a half’s test(一个半小时的测试)，a week or so’s break(一个星期左右的休息)。 但集体属格不用于含有后位修饰分句(限定分句和非限定分句)的名词词组中： * the lady living next door’s hat * the children killed in the war’s pictures 3. Genitive : Generally, of-phrase is not used with first names, but would be acceptable with full names: * The bike of Tom The car of George Bush 4. Determiners The pre-determiners or central determiners are mutually exclusive: * all half the employees (two pre-determiners) * all the his employees (two central determiners) 5. The difference between ‘all’ and ‘whole’ when they modify a proper name: All Beijing was excited at the news of winning the bid. The whole of Beijing was excited at the news. * Whole Beijing was excited at the news. * The whole Beijing was excited at the news. * The all Beijing was excited at the news. 二、重要概念 1. Determiners(什么是限定词)? Determiners refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the headword．(限定词是指用于各词词组的

前位修饰语的词，限定词放在修饰中心词的 形容词前面) 2.Genitives Forms or construction used to denote possession, measurement or source. Example: John’s car; a moment’s digression; the resistance of Iraq 三、 典型考题 I. 选择题 1. Jack is ____________________. a. a friend of a doctor’s b. the friend of a doctor’s c. the friend of the doctor’s d. a friend of the doctor’s 2. This is ________________________. a. the passport of John b. the passport of John’s c. the passport of John Smith d. the John passport Key: 1. d 3. c II. 简答题 1. What are generic reference and specific reference(什么是类指和特指)? Generic reference and specific reference are the two uses of articles．Genetic reference indicates the whole species or kind，while specific reference，specific one or thing.[类指和特指是冠词的两个用法。类指指事物(或人)的整个种类，而物特指则是某一具体的事物(或人)] 2. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice versa?(在什么情况下用属格不用of-词组，什么情况下用of-词组，不用属格?) When nouns refer to people，and the relation between the nouns is one of definition，classification，etc，genitives are preferred，when nouns refer to inanimate，lifeless objects，and the head words of noun phrases are classifying adjectives, of—phrases are preferred．(当名词指人，或名 词之间属于定义或归类关系时，用属格；而当名词指无生物，或中心词是the+形容词时，用of-词组) examples: men’s clothes / the teacher’s book the color of the car / the struggle of the exploited Chapter 5 Verb and Verb Phrase(1)： Tense，Aspect and Future (第五章 动词和动词词组(1)：时、体和将来时间) 一、 难点、重点 1. Why does this book adopt the system of two tenses and two aspects? The reason is threefold. First of all, the traditional system identifies tense forms on the basis of reference to time distinctions, in which case tense is basically equivalent to time. Secondly, tense and aspect are independent grammatical categories, the former being inflectional and the latter analytical. And thirdly, from the pedagogical point of view, the new system contributes to English learning by simplifying grammatical categories. 本书采用两时两体体系,理由有三。 第一，传统语法是以时间为参照划分英语时态的，而在处理像The train leaves at eight tomorrow morning和 They would have heard the news last night等句子时遇到麻烦，因为在语言中形式与意义是不常等同或对应的。我们将英语的时分为两时——现在时和过去时，是基于对英语形态的考虑。像汉语这样没有词汇屈折变化的语言根本就没有时。 第二，时（tense，）和体（aspect）是两个彼此独立的语法范畴。前者基于词汇的屈折变化，而后者基于结构分析。由于时与体经常合

用，所以导致时体不分，时指动作发生的时间而体标记动作发生的状态或方式。第三，从教学角度上看，新的时体体系简单易学，还可以让学生懂得一种意义可以用不同的形式表示，一种形式也可表示不同的意义。 2. Why do most contemporary English grammarians adopt a two-tense system?(当代英语语法家为什么采用两时体系?) Because tense is a verb form．Morphologically，only present tense and past tense have their forms of verbs．A language (such as Chinese)which has not verb forms has no tense.(因为时态是动词的形式。从形态上讲，英语只有现在时和过去时，动词才有变化形式，所以英语是两时体系。一门语言(如汉语)如没有动词的变化形式就没有时态。) 3. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?(过去时为什么常用来表示客气的语气?) Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct．It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker．(因为过去时使疑问句、陈述句或建议不直接提出，显得委婉，所以说话者觉得它比现在时更利于表达客气的语气。) 4. Non-progressive verbs: verbs that cannot occur in the progressive aspect. 非进行体动词不用于进行体中非进行体动词也可再分为关系动词(如be，have，own，equal，weigh，等)，感知动词(如see，smell，taste，等)和态度动词(如think，wonder，guess, like等) e.g. *I am liking the car. *He isn’t thinking that is right. However, they can take the progressive form in the circumstances where they suggest temporariness, gradual increase of decrease, etc. 但在表达动作的短暂性、逐渐增加或减少时也使用进行体形式： e.g. You are being impolite. Mary is resembling her mother increasingly as she grows older. The milk is tasting worse. 5. Since-分句一般不用于否定句： We haven’t seen each other since 1989. * It’s ten years since I didn’t see him． * He’s had several jobs since he wasn’t a student． 6. 现在进行体表示将来时间指的是人的行为和努力，别的情况不能用现在进行体： * It’s raining tomorrow． * The trees are losing their leaves soon． 二、重要概念 1. Tense: Any one of the inflected forms in the conjugation of a verb that indicates the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs. 时态指示时间如过去、现在动词的各种曲折变化形式的任何一种 2. Aspect: aspect reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time.(反映动词的动作在时间上被识别和经历的方式。) 三、典型考题 I. 选择题 1. Five and five ________________ ten. a. make b. made c. will make d. is make 2. The weather ________ very cold as soon as the night fell in that mountainous area. a. was to be b. was going to be c. was d. was getting Key: 1. a 2. b II. 简答题 1. Explain the

relationship between tense and time． (时态与时间有何区别?) Time and tense are not the same thing；time is concept and tense is a grammatical device．Different tenses can express the same period of time，such as the present．(时间与时态不是一回事；时间是一种概念而时态是一种语法手法。同一个时段(如现在)可以由多个不同的时态表示。) 2. If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to? (如果时与时间有关，体又与什么有关?) When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs，aspect“reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time．”时与一个事件或状态的具体时间有关，而体则“指与时间有关的动作发生的方式”。 III. 其他题型 Correct the following sentences: 1. Have you had a good time last week? 2. The children ran out to play after they finish their homework. 3. It rains tomorrow. 4. He can't go on holiday because he broke his leg. 5. When Father came back, we have already gone to bed. Key: 1. Did you have a good time last week? 2. The children ran out to play after they (had) finished their homework. 3. It will/is going to rain tomorrow. 4. He can't go on holiday because he has broken his leg. 5. When Father came back, we had already gone to bed. Chapter 6 Verb and Verb Phrase (2): Passive Voice and Subjunctive Mood (第六章 动词和动词词组(2)：被动态和虚拟式) 一、 难点、重点 1. Get-passive and be-passive Get-passive is far less popular than be-passive. The reasons are: first, get-passive is generally avoided in forma syle, and even in informal English it is far less frequent than be-passive. Second, semantically, get-passive is typically used to refer to an event, rather than a state; to denote the consequence rather that the rocess, of an event; and to lay emphasis on what happens(usu. Unfavorably) to the subject as a result of the event, rather than who actually causes the event. get-型被动态的使用不如be-型被动态广泛，在正式语体中，通常避免使用get-型被动态，即使在非正式语体中，get-型被动态也不如be-型被动态使用率高。从语义上看，get-型被动态常用于表示突然发生、未曾料到的事件(或事故)，而非一种状态；它强调动作所产生的结果，而非动作本身；它强调动作对主语的影响(通常是不利的)，而非动作的执行者。 e.g. The children got punished. *Can the kite get seen now? *The play got written by Cao Yu. 2. The difference between regular passive and the pseudo-passive: A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectivalized so that it becomes a subject complement. As an adjective, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get. 真假被动态的一些主要区别：假

被动态是被动的形式，主动的意义，其中的-ed分词已经形容词化，在“主语一动词一补语”(SVC)结构中作主语补语(即表语)。作为形容词，—ed分词可有比较等级形式。除了-by词组，-ed分词可与许多别的介词搭配使用；除了be和get，—ed还可与别的连系动词连用：become，feel，look，seem，remain。 e.g. She became more annoyed at his negligence at work now. 3. 动词+介词 这一结构通常叫做介词动词(prepositional verb) 然而“动词+介词”结构在形式上易与“动词+介词词组”相混淆： They finally arrived at the station． … the conclusion． The police carefully went into the tunnel． … the case．不可转换成：*The station was finally arrived at．但可以说The conclusion was finally arrived at．不可转换成：*The tunnel was carefully gone into by the police．但可以说：The case was carefully gone into (by the police)． 二、重要概念 1．Voice: A property of verbs or a set of verb inflections indicating the relation between the subject and the action expressed by the verb. (态)是表示主语和动词之间的主动或被动关系的动词形式，英语动词有两种态：主动态和被动态。例如：People almost all over the world speak English.(主动态)； English is spoken almost all over the world．(被动态)。(see 6．1) 2．Mood: A set of verb forms or inflections used to indicate the speaker's attitude toward the factuality or likelihood of the action or condition expressed. In English the indicative mood is used to make factual statements, the subjunctive mood to indicate doubt or unlikelihood, and the imperative mood to express a command. 语气用来强调说话人对表达的行为或条件的真实性或可能性所持有态度的一系列动词形态或变化形式。在英语中陈述语气(式)用于描绘真实的陈述，虚拟语气(式)则用于强调怀疑或不可能，而祈使语气(式)则用来表达一个命令. (式)是表示语气的动词形式，英语动词有三种式：陈述式、祈使式和虚拟式。例如：We study English hard．(陈述式)；Let’s play chess tonight(祈使式)；He ordered that a11 the employees be there at 8 sharp tomorrow．(虚拟式)。 三、典型考题 简答题 1． What are the voice constraints? The voice constraints refer to grammatical constraints, semantic constraints and stylistic constraints.(语态限制有：语法，语意及文体限制)。 2． be-passive(be-型被动态)：The passive made up of ‘auxiliary be + v-ed’由“助动词be的一定形式+及物动词的-ed分词”构成的被动态叫be-型被动态，例如：The book was written by Hamilton. 3. be-subjunctive (be-型虚拟式): The be-subjunctive is formally marked by the use of the base of the verb; that is , the verb invariably occurs in the base form free from the concord constraints with the subject and from the tense agreement with other verb

s.不管主语是什么人称,一律以动词原形表示的虚拟式,例如:It is important that the boss handle it in person. 4. What are the three mood forms: The three mood forms are: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. Chapter 7 Verb and Verb Phrase (3): Modal Auxiliaries (第七章 动词和动词词组(3)：情态助动词) 一、 难点、重点 1. could可用来泛指过去的一般“能力”，但通常不能用其表示过去做某一特定事情的“能力” (其否定形式couldn’t／could not除外)。要想表示过去做某一具体事情的“能力”，可用be able(to)，manage，succeed等： * They worked hard and could pass the test． They play hard but still couldn’t win the game． * He ran fast and could catch the first bus. He ran fast and managed to catch the first bus． 2. 表示推测意义的may很少用于疑问句，这时通常用can代替： Can there be life on Mars? (* May there be life on Mars?) Where can he be found? (* Where may he be found?) 3. have to 与 have got to have to 和have got to的区别： a．have to比较正式而have got to属于口语体 b．have got to很少用过去时形式 c．have got to没有非限定动词形式，所以不能说：* will have got to，* to have got to，* having got to而须说：will have to，to have to，having to d．have to往往表示客观上的必要性而have got to却通常表示主观上的必要性，与must同义。 4. dare a. 情态助动词dare意为“胆敢”，语法作用与need相近，通常用于非肯定语境： Dare you jump down from the top of that wall? b. 主要用作主动词, 后面可以跟一个不带to的不定式： He does not dare(to)say that． I wonder how he dares(to) do such things． You have never dared to challenge him，have you? 二、 重要概念 Modal auxiliary: One of a set of English verbs, including can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, would and etc., that are characteristically used with other verbs to express mood or tense. 情态助动词一组英语动词中的一个，包括 can、may、mast、ought、shall、should、will和 would等，其特点是与其它动词联用表示语气或时态 三、典型考题 I. 选择题 1. A new theory __________ before it can be put into practice. a. must be tested b. be tested c. can be tested d. to be tested 2. Where _______ the boss be found? a. can b. may c. dare d. ought Key: 1.a 2. a II. 简答题 1. What are the two major semantic categories of modal auxiliaries? 情态助动词从语义来看分为哪两大类? The predictive and non-predictive(also termed ‘epistemic and non epistemic’)推测性意义和非推测性意义 2．The three major semantic components of ‘can’ are: possibility, ability and permission. 推测性意义的possibility(可能性)和非推测性意义的ability(能力)和permission(许可) III. 其他题型 Rewrite the following sentences by using modal auxiliaries: 1. I am sure you have left your dictionary in the

dormitory. 2. They were obliged to sell their car to pay for the medicine. Key: 1. You must have left your dictionary in the dormitory. 2. They had to sell their car to pay for the medicine. Chapter 8 Verb and Verb Phrase (4): Non-finite Verbs (第八章 动词和动词词组(4)：非限定动词) 一、 难点、重点 1. The non-finite verbs are so called because they are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. There are three types of non-finite verbs: infinitive, -ing participles and –ed participles. 英语动词形式按其在句子中所起的作用可分为限定动词和非限定动词。两者的主要区别在于：非限定动词一是没有“时”的标志，二是不必在人称和数上与主语保持一致。非限定动词有三种形式，即不定式、-ing分词和-ed分词。 2. 如果介词but／except之前有动词do的某种形式，其后的不定式通常不带to，否则要带to。例如：The enemy had no choice but to surrender．敌人除了投降之外，没有别的选择了。 (介词but前面没有动词do的任何形式，所以不定式要带to)： They could do nothing but surrender． You can do anything except leave the room． 3. 一个及物动词的不定式，既不带主语也不带宾语,在用作后置修饰语的时候，会产生歧义： He is too good a man to kill．可有两种理解： 他太好了我不忍杀害他。 他太好了是不会杀害别人的。 She is the next person to consult．也有两种理解： 她是下一个我要请教的人。 她是下一个要请教我的人。 如果没有上下文语境，需要将不定式分句按例句方式进行扩展或是合适的话，使用一个被动结构： He is too good a man to be killed． She is the next person to be consulted． 4. begin，cease，continue，start后面可以用不定式，也可以用分词-ing。当后接的动词表示“知道、理解、喜爱、嫌恶”等意义时多用不定式。 但是-ing分词不能用于下列语境： I began to like English when I was ten．(不可说：* I began liking English…) They ceased to love each other after their only daughter died.(不可说：* They ceased loving each other…) She continued to hate her first husband twenty years after their divorce．(不可说：* She continued hating her…) I’m glad to find that you finally start to see my point.(不可说：* you finally start seeing my point．) 注意：(1)如果句中已经有了动词的-ing形式，其后就不可再接-ing分词，如： He’s beginning to change his habit.(不可说:* He’s beginning changing his habit.) It’s no use continuing to complain．(不可说：* It’s no use continuing complaining．) 5. Dangling participle垂悬分词 无主分词又叫“悬垂分词”或者“无依着分词”，指-ing分词或-ed分词在句中找不到它的逻辑主语，因而处在一种“悬垂无依着”状态，即“无主”状态，这在句法上是错误的，在逻辑上

是不合理的。如： * Trying to be quiet，the floorboard creaked． * Grilled on the charcoal，we liked the fish much better． * Cooking in the kitchen, the phone rang. 上述这几个句子显然是错误的，因为它们的-ing分词或-ed分词结构没有逻辑主语，与句子其他部分“无依着”。从逻辑上说，意思讲不通。 二、 重要概念 1. The non-finite verbs: The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. 2. Dangling participle: When the subject of a participle is not expressed, it is normally understood to be the subject of the main clause. If the rule is broken, the participle is regarded as a dangling one. 三、典型考题 I. 选择题 1. The boss expects all the documents __________ promptly. a. being typed b. to be typed c. having been typed d. to have been typed 2. The information was later admitted __________ from well-informed people. a. to be obtained b. to have been obtained c. that it has been obtained d. that it was obtained 3. We still have a lot of problems __________. a. unsolved b. unsolving c. unsolve d. to be unsolved 4. He regretted __________ her the truth. a. having told b. to have told c. had told d. to tell Key: 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. a II. 简答题 1. What are the three types of non-finite verbs? They are: infinitive, -ing participle and –ed participle 2. The bare infinitive? The infinitive, which occurs as a verb in the base form without to is called bare infinitive. III. 其他题型 Correct errors in the following sentences: 1. There is no point to argue with him. 2. He began liking English at the age of 5. 3. What we can do now is to wait. 4. You might try to cut it with a knife. 5. He will do whatever he can help us. Key: 1. There is no point to arguing with him. 2. He began to like English at the age of 5. 3. What we can do now is wait. 4. You might try cutting it with a knife. 5. He will do whatever he can to help us. Chapter 9 Adjective Phrase and Comparison (第九章 形容词词组和比较) 一、 难点、重点 1. The four features of adjective: Attributive function, predicative function, pre-modification by the intensifier ‘very’ and comparative/superlative forms 形容词具有四个特点：即定语特点、补语特点、用强调词very前置修饰的特点及比较级和最高级特点。 2. 只有极少数的单个形容词可作后置修饰语： (1)the minister designate(尚未上任的部长) the president elect(当选的主席) He has friends galore. (他有许多朋友。) (2)broad(广阔的)，deep(深的)，high，long，old，tall，thick，wide等词必须用在数量名词后，表示大小、持续时间、事物的年代及人的年龄： six feet tall three meters wide (3)concerned(担心的[前置],有关的[后置]),involved(复杂的[前置],涉及的[后置] present (目前的，现在的[前置]；出席的，到场的[后置])；proper(适合的，适当的[前置],严格意义上的，本身的

[后置])responsible(认真负责的，尽责的[前置]；有责任的，应负责任的[后置])等这些形容词用在名词前或后，其意义有所改变： the mother concerned(所提到的母亲) the concerned mother(焦虑的母亲) the man responsible(应负责任的人，负有责任的人) the responsible man(认真负责的人，有责任心的人) (4)affected(受影响的；假装的，做作的)，available(可得到的，可达到的)，required(需要，要求的)suggested(建议的)等这些词可用在名词前或名词后，意义没有变化： available information information available (可获得的信息) suggested improvements improvements suggested (建议的改善方法) 3.形容词sick和healthy可以用作定语，而i11和well则通常用作补语，如： What’s the matter with Mr. White?——He’s a sick man． Tom was very ill，but he’s now a healthy man． How are you?——I’m very well，thank you．／I’m fine，thanks． 4. 比较级结构注意当所比较的两个称呼不属于同层次时，修饰语不能前置,如， Mr. White is a professor much more learned than his students． *Mr. White is a much more learned professor than his students． There are a lot of women more intelligent than John． *There are a lot of more intelligent women than John． 三、典型考题 I. 简答题 1. What are attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives? 定语形容词和补语形容词各指什么? An attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase. An predicative adjective refers to an adjective that can modify a noun by way of serving as a subject complement or an object complement．(修饰语形容词指用来修饰名词,可放名词前或名词后的形容词。补语形容词指通过用作主语补足语或宾语补足语来修饰名词的形容词。) 2. When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense, what are their syntactic and semantic features? 当形容词表示动态意义时，其句法特征和语义特征是什么? When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense，their syntactic features are to denote subjective measurement or suggest a temporary state; and their semantic features are that the qualities denoted by the adjectives can be controlled or restricted.(当形容词用作动态意义时，其句法特征是表示主观评定或暂时情况，其语义特征是形容词表示的特征能被控制或限制。) 3.What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives? 限制性形容词和非限制形容词各指什么? A restrictive adjective helps identify the referent of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities．Whereas a non—restrictive adjective merely provides some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent．(限制性形容词通过描述与众不同的特征来识别名词所指的对象.非限制性形容词仅仅提供一

些额外信息，而这些信息不是识别名词所指对象的根本。) Chapter 10 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase (第十章 介词和介词词组) 一、 难点、重点 1. The major functions prepositions: Apart from the spatial and temporal relations，prepositions call be used to indicate a manner in which an action is done，an instrument with which a task is fulfilled，or a purpose that is aimed at and so on．介词除了表 示空间和时间外，还可表示动作进行的方式，完成任务所使用的工具，以及瞄准的 目标等。 Examples: In Beijing (space), on Monday (time), leave without a word (manner), listen to the radio (instrument), pray for peace (purpose) 2. between和among用法比较 a. between表示两者之间，among表示三者或三者以上之间： She sat between the two children． She sat among the three children． b. between表示两者之间的关系，作“在…之间”解，可以表示位置、时间、顺序、距离、数量等。而among表示“在…中间；被…所围绕”： Our house stands between a school and a supermarket． He lost his son when the film was over and found him among the people outside the cinema． 电影散场时，他找不到儿子了，在电影院外人群中找到了他。 c. between表示: “介于…之间”,among表示“在…之中”；其中之一(与最高级连用)： A good teacher must be neither too strict nor too weak；his manner must be between these two． 好教师既不能太严厉又不能太软弱；其举止必须介于两者之间。 Among his many good qualities， punctuality is the most impressive one． 在他众多优秀品质中，守时给人留下了最深刻印象。 He made a comparison between the major English speaking countries. I like New Zealand best among all the English speaking countries. d. We always use ‘between’ when we speak of clear and exact locative positions: The village is between three mountains. Ecuador lies between Colombia, Peru, and the Pacific Ocean. 二、 重要概念 Preposition: In some languages, a word placed before a substantive and indicating the relation of that substantive to a verb, an adjective, or another substantive, as English at, by, in, to, from, and with. 介词在一些语言中放在一实词前，用于表示这一实词与动词、形容词或另一实词的关系，如英语中的 at, by, in, to, from和 with 三、典型考题 I. 选择题 1. Some people show an indifference _____ changes in the weather. a. to b. for c. with d. by 2. Doesn't Jack have any sympathy ______ the crippled boy? a. at b. for c. in d. of 3. The president refused to accept other people's opinions ___ careful thought. a. for b. in c. of d. without 4. University graduates have an advantage ____ others in getting a job. a. of b. over c. above d. for 5. Mr. Smith has the capability _____ doing first-rate work. a. in b. from c. on d. of 6. Our factory is located _________ three mountains. a. a

mong b. over c. between d. inside Key: 1. a 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. d 6.c II. 简答题 1. 解释表示空间关系的介词静态及动态使用方法? We use prepositions to indicate the place where someone or something is，or the place where an action occurs．This distinction may also be regarded as one between the static use and the dynamic use of prepositions，the former related with static location and the latter with movement with respect to an intended direction．(我们用介词表示某人或某物所在的位置，或者某个动作发生的位置。其区别在于介词的静态使用和动态使用。 介词静态使用指与静态位置有关，动态使用指与所指方向有关的运动。) 2．指出表示持续时间和非持续时间介词的例子。 (1)He was ill for a week，and during that week he ate little． 他病了一周，这一周，他吃得很少。(for，during表持续时间) (2)The airplane left Japan at seven in the morning。 飞机早晨7点离开日本。(at表非持续时间) 3. The syntactic functions of a prepositional phrase: a post-modifier in the noun phrase, an adverbial and a complement.介词词组，在句子中作后置修饰语、状语、补语等。E.g. a girl in white, handle it in a proper way, be interested in cooking. III. 其他题型 Correct the following sentences: 1. The culture in Iraq is very different than that in the U.S. 2. Come in the room, please. 3. A man of words and not of deeds is as a garden full of weeds. Key: 1. than ---- from 2. in-----into 3. as----like Chapter 11 Coordination and Subordination (第十一章 并列与从属) 一、 难点、重点 1. Coordination and subordination are two important ways in which two or more units are combined into larger and more complex units, even sentences. Coordination is typically realized by coordinators (also termed as coordination conjunctions) which join units at the same level, whereas subordination, realized by subordinators (also termed as subordinating conjunctions, involves the linking of units at different levels so that they form a hierarchy. 并列和从属是连接句子的两个手段。并列是靠并列连词(coordinating conjunctions)实现的，它把同一层次的几个单位连接起来。从属是靠从属连词(subordinating conjunctions)实现的，它把不同层次的几个单位连接起来，从而形成了一个等级(主从关系)。 2. And具有多种功能,如： a. The professor went into the classroom，opened his notebook，and started the lecture．教授走进教室，打开笔记本，然后开始讲课。 (and表示先后顺序，然后，其后) b. He heard his dog bark at door，and he looked out of the window only to find that his house was surrounded by a large crowd of angry people．他听到狗冲门叫，于是朝窗外看，发现他的房子被愤怒的群众包围了。(and = therefore表因果) c. Work harder and you’ll pass the test．如果努力学习，考试就会及格。 (=