语言学第六章之后

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1. 语言与认知

6.1.What is Cognition认知?

a.Mental processes, information processing

b.Mental process or faculty of knowing,including awareness,perception, reasoning, and judgment.

2.The formal approach:形式法structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.

The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.

The conceptual approach:认知法：how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.

6.2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学

The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.

6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得①Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段Stage of three-word utterances三词句阶段④Fluent grammatical conversation stage

6.2.2 Language comprehension理解

Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances Connectionism（连结主义）: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.

Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones

Word recognition单词识别: recognition of spoken words and printed ones.

Cohort theory:集群模型

Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)

The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. Eg. To an instruction” pick up the candle”, listeners sometimes glances first at a picture of a candy.

Interactive model:交互模型

Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. eg.In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, list eners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.

Race model:竞争模型

Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed eg.listeners use phonotactic information such as

the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boundaries.

Factors involved in word recognition: ?

Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.

Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.

Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.

Lexical ambiguity词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank. Comprehension of sentences句子的理解

Serial models串行模型: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a langu age’s grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information.

Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence.

Structural factors in comprehension理解中的结构因素Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment最小配属: the “structurally simpler”--structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her.

Garden path sentences花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates.

Lexical factors in comprehension词汇因素

The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. eg.The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans.

Syntactic ambiguity句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases.

Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence. Eg. John painted the car in the garage.

Comprehension of text语篇理解

Resonance model:共振模型information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.

Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferences

Schema:图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. eg.The customer enters a restaurant, looks for a

table, decides where to sit, walks to the table…

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3518853606.html,nguage production语言的生成

（1）Access to words语言提取：步骤 1.Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. 3.: Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.

（2）Generation of sentences句子的生成

1.Conceptual preparation概念准备: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed

2.Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge

3.Processes of sentence generation

4.Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit

(3) Written language production:

similar to those in the production of spoken language. A major different is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather than the phonological form that must be retrieved and produced.

6.3 Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学

Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.

6.3.1 Construal and construal operations识解及操作

Construal识解: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways

(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显: the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that is salient to us. eg. We drove along the road.

(2)Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比: the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]

(3). Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置: we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we’re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. Eg. My bike is in front of the car.

6.3.2 Categorization范畴化

The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.

Three levels: basic level superordinate level subordinate level.

6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.

An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.

1.A center-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple

2.A containment schema 容器图示human bodies as containers

3.A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks

4.A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity

5. A link schema 连接图式

6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式

7. A path schema 路径图式

8. A scale schema 标量图式

9. A verticality schema 垂直图式

6.3.4 Metaphor隐喻George Lakoff and Mark Johnson

Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.

Target domain 目标域- what is actually being talked about.

Source domain 源域- the domain used as a basis for understanding target

Eg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source domain of money.

1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living

2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argument.

3. Orientational Metaphor方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UP

adding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise.

6.3.5 Metonymy转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff

On the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:

the w orld of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events”

(1)Whole ICM and its part(s) 整体与部分间的转喻：

(i) Thing-and-Part ICM事物及部分转喻eg. America for “United States” (ii) Scale ICM标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your age? (iii) Constitution ICM. 构成转喻eg.: wood for “forest” (iv) Event ICM. 事件转喻Eg.Bill smoked marijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM. 范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for “birth control pill”(vi)Cateory-and-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for “black people”(vii) Reduction ICM 压缩转喻eg.crude for “crude oil”

(2) Parts of an ICM 部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM. 行为转喻eg.o author a new book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM. 因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I’ve got a Ford for “car” (v) Control ICM控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) Possession ICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “person with money”(vii) containment ICM容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Reference ICMs符号和指代转喻

6.3.6 Blending Theory整合理论 1.Cross-Space Mapping跨空间映射 2.Generic Space 类属空间3.Blend整合 4.Emergent Structure层创结构

Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society

7.1 Language and culture语言和文化

7.1.1 How does language relate to culture

In 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology (the study of humanity ), encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics

London School伦敦学派:

Malinowski马林诺夫斯基: The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given context

Ethnography of communication交际民族学：1.speech community言语社团

2.situation, event and act 场景，事件，行为

3.SPEAKING(situation,participants,ends,act,sequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,ge nres)

Speech community言语社团: a group of people who form a community, and share the same language or a particular variety of language

Theory of the context of situation(情景语境理论)J. R. Firth (1890-1960):

A.The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.

1.The verbal言语action of the participants

2.The non-verbal action of the participants

B.The relevant objects.

C.The effects of the verbal action.

“who speaks what to whom and when and to what end”

Halliday: Study language from a social semiotic or interactional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature

7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.

Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)

The strong version(强式说): The weak version (弱式说):

7.1.3.Case studies个案研究

Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “idiomatically-governed” and “culturally-specific”.

7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic study

A study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivation and directionality in language change.

7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom文化在语言学习中的重要作用：

A. To get the students familiar with cultural difference.

B. To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.

C. To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.

7.2. Language and Society

7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent science 一元性或自治性

Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性

A situationally and socially variationist perspective

A maxim in sociolinguistics: “You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言)

WOMEN REGISTER 女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象

7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.

7.2.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要启示：sociolinguistics’ contributions: 1. It has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching. 2. …innovations in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of language development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.

applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学

In language classrooms In law courts In clinic settings

7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 跨文化交际

What should we know all about cross-cultural communication? 1.Try to look at things from other persons’ point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue 3.Try to understand their way of knowing the world

7.3.2 Case studies 个案研究

When in Rome do as the Romans do Put yourself in other’s shoes

One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding.

Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用

What is pragmatics语用学? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics 语义学?

Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of ：(1) H ow the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.

Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.

8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论

8.1.1 Performatives and constatives施为句和叙事句

1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).

2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.

3. Felicity conditions of performatives施为句的条件:

(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.

(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.

(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.

8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act会话含义理论

1. What is a speech act言语行为?

A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.

Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义: This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.

Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force)言外之意: This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.

A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.

2. Locutionary act言内行为: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.

3. Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.

4. Perlocutionary act言后行为: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.

8.2 The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论

8.2.1 The cooperative principle合作原则

1.Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims会话准则:

(1) The maxim of quantity数量:

a. Make your contribution as informative as required.

b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.

(2) The maxim of quality质量: Try to make your contribution one that is true.

a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.

b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

(3) The maxim of relation关系: Say things that are relevant.

(4) The maxim of manner方式: Be perspicuous.

a. Avoid obscurity of expression.

b. Avoid ambiguity.

c. Be brief.

d. Be orderly.

2. Conversational implicature言外之意: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.

8.2.2 Violation of the maxims准则的违反

1. Conversational implicature言外之意

In real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal

meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.r the speakers’ intention through the words.

8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability可推导性2.Cancellability / defeasibility可取消性3. Non-detachability不可分离性4.Non-conventionality非常规性

8.3 Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展

8.3.1 Relevance theory关联理论

Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R原则

The Q-principle is intended to invoke t he first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.

The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人) is:

(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);

(2) Say as much as you can (given R在符合R原则的前提下).

The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:

(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);

(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)

8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则

Q-principle:

Speaker’s maxim准则: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.

I-principle

Speaker’s maxim: the maxim o f minimization最小化原则

Say as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.

Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment rule

Amplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by fin ding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.

M-principle

Speaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix冗长的, obscure模糊的or marked显著的expression without reason.

Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.

Chapter 9 Language and Literature

9.1 Theoretical background概述

1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person’s speech or writing or a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.

2. Stylistics文体学: According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.

9.2 Some general features of the literary language文学语言的一些普遍特征

9.2.1Foregrounding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式

1. Foregrounding前景化: Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put something or someone in the most essential part of the description or narration, other than in a background position.

2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning.

9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language字面语言和比喻语言

1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal meaning.

2. Figurative language: A. k. a. trope, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.

We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.

Simile明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like.

Metaphor暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.

Metonymy转喻：means a change of name

Synecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.

9.2.3 The analysis of literary language文学语言的分析

9.3 The language in poetry诗歌语言

9.3.1 Sound patterning语音模式

9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning不同形式的语音模式

1. Rhyme押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).

2. Alliteration头韵: The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).

3. Assonance准押韵: Assonance describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc).

4. Consonance辅押韵: Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as having consonance (cvC).

5. Reverse rhyme反韵: Reverse rhyme describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant (CVc).

6. Pararhyme压副韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).

7. Repetition反复: A complete match of the syllable (CVC).

9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterning重音和韵律模式

1. Iamb抑扬格: An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.

2. Trochee扬抑格: A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an unstressed syllable.

3. Anapest抑抑扬格: An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.

4. Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed –a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed ones.

5. Spondee扬扬格: A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely consist only of spondees.

6. Pyrrhic抑抑格: A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.

7. Metrical patterning韵律模式

(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter

(7)Heptameter (8)Octameter

9.3.4 Conventional forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式

1.Couplets对句: Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.

2.Quatrains四行诗: Stanzas of four lines, known as quatrains, are very common in English poetry.

3.Blank verse无韵诗: Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.

9.3.5The poetic functions of sound and meter语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：

1. For aesthetic pleasure

2. To conform to a convention / style / form

3. To express or innovate with a form

4. To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure

5. For emphasis or contrast

6. Onomatopoeia拟声现象

9.3.6 How to analyze poetry?如何分析诗

1. Read a poem more than once.

2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.

3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is written to be heard: its meanings are conveyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip reading is a good habit.

4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggestions.

5. As aids to the understanding of a poem, we may ask some questions about.

(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?

(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?

(3) What is the occasion?

(4) What is the setting in time (time of day, season, century)?

(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?

(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?

9.4 The language in fiction小说中的语言

9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view小说与视角

1.First-person narrator (I-narrator)叙述者: The person who tells the story may also be

a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case, the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or an I-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I” is used.

2.Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者: If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they.

3.schema-oriented language图式语言

4.Deixis指示功能: A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to

a time, place, or a person.

9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation言语和思维的表达

1. Speech presentation言语的表达：

(1) Direct speech (DS)直接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.

(2) Indirect speech (IS)间接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the speaker’s words are not reported as they were actually said.

(3) Free indirect speech (FIS)自由间接引语: A further category which is an amalgam of direct and indirect speech features.

(4) Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达: A minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summary of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more back-grounded than indirect representation would be.

(5) Narrator’s representation of spee ch (NRS)叙述者对言语的表达: A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech acts involved.

2.Thought presentation思维的表达

(1) Direct thought (DT)直接思维: Direct thought tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought. E.g. “He will be late,” she thought.

(2) Indirect thought (IT)间接思维: A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. E.g. She thought that he would be late.

(3) Free indirect thought (FIT)自由间接思维: A kind of mixture of direct and indirect features. E.g. He was bound to be late!

(4) Narrator’s rep resentation of thought acts (NRTA): A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters is exactly as that used to present speech acts. E.g. She considered his unpunctuality.

(5) Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify

the speech acts involved.

(6) Stream of consciousness writing意识流文学: The term stream of consciousness was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology (1890) to describe the free association of ideas and impressions in the mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and others experimenting early in the 20th century with the novelistic portrayal of the free flow of thought.

9.4.3 Prose style散文风格

1. Authorial style作者风格: When people talk of style, they usually mean authorial style. This refers to the “world view” kind of authorial style. In other words a way of writing which recognizably belongs to a particular writer, say Jane Austin or Earnest Hemingway.

2. Text style文本风格: Text style looks closely at how linguistic choices help to construct textual meaning. Just as authors can be said to have style, so can text.

9.4.4 How to analyze the language of fiction?如何分析小说语言

1. Patterns of lexis (vocabulary);词汇模式

2. Patterns of grammatical organization;语法组织模式

3. Patterns of textual organization (how the units of textual organization, from sentences to paragraphs and beyond, are arranged);

4. Fore-grounded features, including figures of speech (rhetorical devices);

5. Whether any patterns of style variation can be discerned;

6. Discoursal patterning of various kinds, like turn-taking or patterns of inferencing;

7. Patterns of viewpoint manipulation, including speech and thought presentation. 9.5 The language of drama 戏剧语言

9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?如何分析戏剧：1.understand the text better 2. Understand how conversation works 3.appreciate better the skills playwrights have demonstrated in the way they have written the speeches of their characters 4. See things in the text that other forms of analysis might have allowed us to miss.

9.5.2 Analyzing dramatic language分析戏剧性语言

1.Turn quantity and length话轮数量和长度

2.Exchange sequence交际序列

3.Production errors产出性错误

4.The cooperative principle合作原则

5.Status marked through language通过语言标记地位

6.Register语域

7.Speech and silence言语和沉默

9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts?如何分析剧本: paraphrase the text--write a commentary---select a theoretical approach, perhaps from those discussed above Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching语言学与语言教学

11.1 T he relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching语言学与语言教学的关系

1. Both linguistics and foreign language teaching take language as their subject. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, so it is clearly related with language teaching. However, linguistics and language teaching differ in their attitudes, goals and methods towards language.

2. Linguistics regards language as a system of forms, while the field of foreign

language teaching considers it as a set of skills. Linguistics research is concerned with the establishment of theories which explain the phenomena of language use, whereas foreign language teaching aims at the learners’ mastery of language.

3. Applied linguistics serves to reconcile and combine linguistics and foreign language teaching.

(1) Applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching.

(2) Applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology.

11.2.1 Grammar and language learning语言学与语言学习

1. Focus on form: Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.

2. Universal grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.

11.2.2 Input and language learning输入和语言学习

According to this hypothesis, learners acquire a language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.

11.2.3 Interlanguage in language learning语言学习中的中介语

Constructivism建构主义: Language is socially constructed. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. They construct language in certain social and cultural contexts

Interlanguage:中介语The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language/ a language syste m between the target language and the learner’s native language

11.3Linguistics & Language Teaching语言学和语言教学

11.3.1 Discourse-based view of language teaching基于语篇的语言教学Communicative competence交际能力A learner’s knowledge about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Communicative language teaching(CLT)交际语教学法and Task-based language teaching (TBLT)任务型语言教学

Drawbacks of discourse-based view基于语篇的教学观的缺点：

a. Overemphasizing the role of external factors;

b. Similar to behaviorist view of language acquisition;

c. Failing to notice the universal principles that guide language acquisition

11.3.2 The universal grammar and language teaching普遍语法与语言教学

The universal grammar supports the idea that the external input per se may not account for language acquisition.

11.4 Linguistics & Syllabus design语言学与教学大纲的设计

11.4.1 A clarification of terms : syllabus and curriculum教学大纲与课程计划Syllabus:教学大纲The planning of a course of instruction. A specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.

Curriculum:课程计划all the learning goals, objectives, contents, processes, resources and means of evaluation planned for students both in and out of school.

二者区别：A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. A curriculum, however, provides:(1)general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching(2)detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose and (3)implementation of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum. 11.4.2 Theoretical views behind syllabus design教学大纲设计的理论背景Grading分级staging分阶段sequencing排序

11.4.3 Types of syllabus教学大纲的类型

--Structural syllabus-结构教学大纲：is a grammar oriented syllabus based on s selection of language items and structures.

-Situational syllabus-情景教学大纲does not have a strong linguistic basic, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of it is specifying the situations in which the target language is used.

-Communicative syllabus -交际教学大纲: aims at the learner’s communicative competence. It teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.

-Task-based syllabus任务型教学大纲:is more concerned with the classroom process which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. It consists of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in class and the target language.:1. A task should have a clear purpose. 2. A task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events. 3. A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying. 4. A task should involve the students in some modes of doing things. 5. A task should involve the meaning-focused use of language.

11.4.4 Components of syllabus教学大纲的组成要素

1.Aims

2. Objectives目标

3. Non-language outcomes非语言结果

4. Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills,etc.学习策略

5. Implementation实施

6. Assessment 评定

11.4.5 Current trends in syllabus design教学大纲设计的现行趋势

A. The co-existence of the old and the new.新旧并存

B. The emphasis on the learning process强调学习过程

C. The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus大纲中包含非语言目标

D. The emergence of the multi-syllabus多元大纲的出现

11.5 Contrastive analysis and Error analysis对比分析和错误分析

11.5.1 Errors, mistakes, and error analysis

1. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.

2. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.

3. Lapse: Lapse refers to slips of the tongue or pen made by either foreign language learners or native speakers.

4. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to the language learner.

11.5.2 Attitudes to errors：1. The structuralist view 2. The post-structuralist view

11.5.3 Procedure of error analysis错误分析的程序：1. Recognition识别 2.

Description描述3. Explanation解释

11.5.4 Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis

1. Contrastive analysis (CA)对比分析: CA is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages. E.g. the comparison of the sound or the grammatical system.

2. Transfer转移: Transfer refers to the carrying over of learned behavior from one situation to another.

(1) Positive transfer (facilitation)正转移: Positive transfer is learning in one situation which helps or facilitates learning in another later situation. E.g. when the structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer.

(2) Negative transfer (interference)负转移: Negative transfer is learning in one situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.

3. Overgeneralization过度概括: A process common in both first and second language learning, in which a learner extends the use of a grammatical rule of linguistic item beyond its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more regular pattern. E.g. in the sentence “* He speaked English.”, “speaked” is wrong (overgeneralized).

4. Hypercorrection矫枉过正: Overgeneralization of a rule in language use. E.g. some learners constantly miss the articles in English, and after they are corrected, they tend to overuse them.

Interlingual errors 语法内错误(transfer errors)

Intralingual errors跨语言错误(developmental errors)

修订版《语言学纲要》第六章文字和书面语答案

第六章文字和书面语 —、知识题 1、世界上独立产生的、成熟的古文字系统（自源文字）有（甲骨）文、文、（苏美尔）文、（玛雅）文、（古埃及）文等。 2、我国传统文字学中的“六书”是指（象形）、（指事）、（会意）、（形声）、（转注）、（假借）。 3、指出下列汉字属于六书中的哪一种：手（象形）、泪（会意）、拖（形声）、刃（指事）、其（“其中”的“其”）（假借）。 4、简述字母文字的产生历程。 二、思考题 1、文字和图画的根本区别是什么？成为文字必须具备哪些基本条件？ 图画在古时候也是用来记事的一种重要方法。图画记事只是帮助记忆，传达信息的手段，有很大的随意性。只有当事人才比较清楚所表述的内容，因此不是记录语言的书写符号，不具有文字意义。但是，图画记事较之实物记事前进了一步，是实物的替代物，有一定的象征性，概括性，能记录较复杂的内容。图画记事为文字的出现奠定了初步的基础，记事的图画是文字的前身，而实物记事与文字的产生没有什么关系。 判定文字系统已经产生，有三个基本的条件。 第一，具有数量足够多的与某种语言里的语素或词相对应的小图形，这些小图形可以按这种语言的音读出来； 第二，这些小图形可以重复使用而所表达的音义不变； 第三，这些小图形的排列规则足以反映这种语言说话时语素或词的排列次序，小图形排列的顺序不同，所反映的语言单位的排列次序也就不同，表达的意思也因此不同。也就是说，文字形体所表达的信息一定是与某种语言的音义结合体及其排列相对应的信息，而不是直接描画现实。 2、既然所有文字都是既表音又表意的，为什么还有表音文字、意音文字的区

别？ 语言有大大小小的单位：语素、词、词组/短语、句子，它们都是大小不同的音义结合体。语言的语音层面也有大大小小的单位：音位、音节、音步等等，它们是大小不同的语音片段。文字是形体符号的系统，它也有大小不同的单位一大小不同的形体单元。任何文字系统都有一级单位对应于语言中的音义结合体。 比如汉文中的“方块字”和英文中的“（文字）词”。汉文中的“字”以一个方块的形体出现，几乎都对应于汉语中的音义结合体一语素。英文中的一个“词”，以前后有空格的一串字母的形体出现，对应于英语的音义结合体一词。 从这一级文字单位来看文字和语言的关系，是无所谓表音文字或意音文字的区别的，因为这一级单位都是既表音又表意的。 与语言中的音义结合体相对应的那一级文字单位（字或文字词），还可以拆分为更小的形体单元。比如，英文的词可拆分为“字母”，汉文的方块字可拆分为“字元”（传统称为“偏旁”、“部首”），我们把所有文字的最小单元统称为“字符”。从字符的层级上看它们所对应的语言项，不同的文字的差异十分明显。英文的字符只与英语的音有关系，而与英语语词的意义无关。汉文的字符则有的与语素的意义有关，有的与语素的音有关。根据字符与所记录的语言的关系，可以把文字分为表音文字和意音文字。 3、表音文字又可分为哪几种重要的类型？世界上存在单纯的表意文字吗？ 表音文字，又叫做“拼音文字”或“字母文字”，它们的最小文字单位一字符只表示语言符号的音，而不表示语言符号的意义。可以分为： 音位文字：有的字符表元音，有的字符表辅音，字符可以记录语言中所有的音位。如拉丁字母。英文就是使用拉丁字母作为字符的音位文字。 辅音文字：字符只表示语言中的辅音，元音没有专门的字符表示。如阿拉伯文。 音节文字：字符表示语言中的音节。如日本的假名。 4、世界上独立产生的、成熟的古文字系统（自源文字）有哪些共同特点？ 世界上有悠久历史和丰富文献的自源文字有四种：中东两河流域的苏美尔古文字、埃及地区的埃及古文字、中国中原地区的甲骨文和美洲的玛雅文字。这些早期的自源文字都是不完善的意音文字，字形的象形程度也都很高。早期古苏美尔文、古埃及文和中国甲骨文中都有很多跟实物形体相像的图形，用来表示现实中

“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.

语言学纲要练习答案第五章_第十章

第五章语义和词用 一：名词解释 1.基本词汇 和一般词汇相对而言，是词汇中的核心部分，具有使用上的普遍性。 2.多义词 是具有多项意义的词，这些意义互相之间有一定的联系。 3.反义词 是意义相对相反的词。 4.施事 自主性动作、行为的主动发出者。 5.焦点 人们之所以要说话，是为了向对方传递他们所不知道的信息，也即新信息。从信息的角度看，句子中的新信息是说话者所传递信息的重点所在，是说话者认为受话者不知道，因此希望受话者特别关注的部分。这就是句子的“焦点”。 6.情态 情态是体现“说话这对所言的主观看法”畴。主要表达“必然性”、“可能性”、“必要性”等方面。 7.语气 语气是表达“句子的言语交际作用”的畴，指的是句子所携带的反映说话人使用句子的目的和说话人情绪的意义，包括述、疑问、祈使、感叹等。 8.言语行为 人们说出的话不仅仅是人类经验的映像（句义），也不仅仅是特定说话者对人类经验的具体认知，它还是一种社会行为，像大人、吃饭等其他社会行为一样，“说话”这种社会行为也有对行为者之外的事物（特别是受话者）或行为者自身差生某种效力的目标，也有因行为而引发实际变化的效果。简而言之，言语交际行为本身也构成新的人类经验，与现实世界中的其他人、物、现象、事件有着“行为——效力”的关联。这些是语言在另一层次上的意义。从这一视角对语言意义的关注策划能够为言语行为研究。 二、填空 1.、_______、________是词义概括性的三个重要的表现形式。

2．多义词有多项意义，最初的那项意义叫，离开上下文人们就能知道的那项意义叫。汉语的“老”有“年纪大”、“经常”、“旧的”等意义，其中，“年纪大”是，其余的是。 三、分析题 1.略 2.指出下列同义词的意义差别。 父亲——爸爸：语体色体不同，父亲是书面语体，爸爸是口语语体。 得到——获得：感情色彩不同，“得到”是中性词，“获得”是通过努力得到好的结果，是褒义词。 眼红——嫉妒：语体色体不同，嫉妒是书面语体，眼红是口语语体。 秘密——绝密：词义轻重不同，秘密轻，绝密重。 3.收集汉语“烹调类”单音节动词，用一组语义特征描写它们的词义。 蒸、煮、烹、煎、烤、烘、煨、炸、煸、爆 4.试分析下列句子的语义结构。

英语语言学笔记讲解

第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3518853606.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is

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字是用“形”通过“音”来表达“义”的，或者说文字是用“形”通过“音”来和语言中的语素或词发生关系的，这是文字的关键。文字和语言既有密切的联系，但它们之间又有着质的区别。 1)语言是第一性的，文字是第二性的。文字是在语言的基 础上产生的，没有语言就没有文字。语言是伴随着人类 社会同时产生的，而文字则是人类社会发展到一定阶段 才产生的，文字是记录符号的符号。 2)语言和文字虽然都是交际工具，但它们在社会中的作用 是不一样的。语言是社会必需的交际工具，没有语言，社会就不会存在。而文字对一个社会来讲，则不是不需 的，一个社会可以没有文字而照样存在。文字只是辅助 语言的交际工具，它只是扩大了语言作为交际工具的功 能。世界上还有三分之二的语言没有文字，当然，没有 文字的社会不会是发达的社会。 3)文字和语言发展变化的速度不同。文字和语言都处于不 断变化发展之中，但文字的发展变化要比语言慢得多，语言的变化不能马上在文字中表现出来。因此常常发生 文字与语言脱节，文字落后于语言发展的现象。这样就 形成了文字的书写形式与语言的实际发音的矛盾。文字 作为辅助交际工具的长处是它能克服时间和空间的限 制。 4)文字可以改革、借用，而语言一般则不能。当文字脱离 语言达到一定的程度时，即影响到交际功能时，文字就 得改革，在一定的历史条件下，人们还可以创造新的文 字。文字还可以借用。一个民族在一定的历史时期可以

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1）同义关系 . . 同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。 , : a)–. . 方言同义词－用在不同地域方言中的同义词。 英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。 示例： 英国英语美国英语 b)–. , . , , , . 文体同义词－在文体上有差异的同义词。 有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。 示例： , , , , , , , , c) , . 情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。 有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。 示例： 合作者同谋者，帮凶 , , , , , , , , , d)–. , ., . . 搭配同义词－同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。示例： … … … e)–. 语义上不同的同义词－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。 示例： 暗示困惑和迷惑暗示难以置信 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事意味匆匆离开 2）多义关系 . , . , .

2019自考语言学概论笔记第六章(文字)

2019自考语言学概论笔记第六章（文字） 第六章文字 1. 解释“字符” 答：字符即文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，是直接跟某种语 言单位相联系的符号。 2. 解释“他源文字”。 答：他源文字是在已有的别的文字的基础上创制的文字。 3. 解释“复合字符”。 答：复合字符是由单纯字符组合而成或由单纯字符和复合字符再 组合而成的字符。 4. 解释“表意文字”。 答：表意文字即全部字符都是意符的文字。 5. 解释“意音文字”。 答：意音文字即一部分是意符，一部分是音符的文字。 6. 所有的书写符号都是文字吗? 答：文字是用来书写某一种语言单位的符号，如果不是用来书写 某一种语言单位的符号，即使表示一定意义，也不是文字。如红绿灯 不直接与哪个语言单位对应，所以是一种符号，但不是语言符号，因 而也不是文字。旗语、莫尔斯电报代码则不同，它们直接代表文字符号，能够说是文字的符号，所以是语言的符号。 7. 什么是文字的作用? 答：文字的作用能够从三方面来理解：(1)从交际层次看，文字 作为人类最重要的交际工具，它克服了语言在时间和空间上的局限性，

扩大和完善了语言的交际功能。(2)从文化遗产和科学知识层次来看，文字是人们积累文化遗产和传播科学知识的媒介。(3)从整个人类的发展历史看，文字的产生是人类进入文明社会的标志。 8. 现代汉语中的“文字”含有那些义项? 答：(1)书写或记录评议的符号，也说“字”或“字母”。如汉字，英文字母。(2)语言的书面形式或书面语，如中文、英文等。(3)文章(多指形式方面)。 9. 解释“楔形文字”。 答：楔形文字是公元前4000多年前，苏美尔民族用芦管在泥版上“压印”出来的文字。它们的笔道像一个个楔子，所以后人就叫这种文字为楔形文字。楔形文字是一种词语文字，同时也是意音文字。 10. 简答“文字的创制”含义。 答：文字的创制指现代社会里为没有文字的语言创制文字，特别是政府或语言学家为没有文字的民族创制文字，不涉及历各种民族语言的文字的创制过程。 11. 简答文字改革的类型有哪些情况。 答：文字改革的类型有三种情况：(1)整个文字类型和字符类型不变，仅仅对正字法的个别规则和个别字符实行调整。(2)整个文字类型不变，但是字符类型变了，如1928年土耳其实行的文字改革，几个月内，用拉丁字母拼写的新土耳其文全面替代了用阿拉伯字母拼写的旧土耳其文。(3)整个文字类型和字符类型都变了。如越南原来使用汉字作为他们的表意文字，现在改用拉丁字母的表音文字。