考研英语历年真题来源报刊阅读100篇

Thermoelectrics：Ev ery little helps

HERE is a thought: approximately 60% of the energy converted in power generation is wasted. The price of energy is high, both in terms of the actual cost to the consumer and the consequences of the climate change that generating power from fossil fuels causes. If even a small proportion of this wasted heat could be converted to useful power, it would be a good thing.

At this week’s meeting of the American Physical Society, in Baltimore, Mercouri Kanatzidis of Michigan St ate University proposed such a scheme. He advocates attaching thermoelectric devices that convert heat into electricity to chimney stacks and vehicle exhausts, to squeeze more useful energy from power generation.

The technology to do so has existed for years. If one end of an electrical conductor is heated while the other is kept cool, a small voltage is created between the two. Placing two dissimilar metals, or other electrically conductive materials, in contact with each othe r and then heating them also generates a voltage. Such devices, called thermocouples, are nowadays usually made using semiconductors. They are widely used as thermometers. But if they could be made cheaper, or more efficient, or both, they could also be employed to generate power.

Dr Kanatzidis is developing new thermoelectric materials designed to be capable of converting up to 20% of the heat that would otherwise be wasted into useful electricity. The challenge lies in finding a substance that conducts electricity well and hea t badly. These two properties define what physicists call the “figure of merit” of a thermoelectric substance, which describes the power a devic e made of that substance could generate. Dr Kanatzidis’s group aims to make materials with higher figures of merit than those attainable with today’s semiconductors.

Since the electrical properties of solids depend on their crystal structures, his group is experimenting with new atomic lattices. In particular, they are working on a group of chemicals called chalcogenides. These are compounds of oxygen, sulphur, selenium and tellurium that are thought to be particularly suitable for thermoelectric applications because their structure allows electric currents to flow while blocking thermal currents. They thus have a high figur e of merit. Dr Kanatzidis’s group is developing new ways of making these compounds crystallise correctly.

But even existing devices could become economically useful as fuel prices rise, Dr Kanatzidis argues. In America, transport a ccounts for a quarter of the energy used. Fitting small thermoelectric devices to the exhaust pipes of vehicles could squeeze another 10% from the fue l—a saving that would be especially relev ant in hybrid petrol/electric devices where the b attery is recharged in part by recyclin g energy that would otherwise be dissipated by energy-draining activities such as braking. Similarly, attaching thermoelectric devices to the flues of power plants could generate more useful power.

And thermoelectric devices could be used in other areas. They could work alongside solar cells and solar heating systems. They could also be used in geothermal and nuclear power plants. Dr Kanatzidis argues that wherever heat is generated as part of power generat ion, thermoelectric devices could help extract more useful energy. Waste not, want not.

考研词汇：

converted [k?n'v?:tid] a.更换信仰的, 修改的

advocate [??dv?kit] n.提倡者，鼓吹者；v.提倡，鼓吹

［真题例句］One of the first advocates (n.) for a national list was a researcher at Laval University. ［2005年新题型］

［例句精译］Laval大学一位研究人员是首先提出创立全国性代理机构的倡导者之一。

［真题例句］The journalist advocating (v.) participatory democracy in all phases of life, whose own children are enrolled in private schools.［2000年阅读5］

［例句精译］倡导终生参与民主制的新闻记者却把自己的子女送进私立学校。

capable [?keip?b?l]a.①有本领的，有能力的；②（of）可以……的，能……的

［真题例句］I believe that the most important forces behind the massive M&A wave are the same that underlie the globalization process: falling transportation and communication costs, lower trade and investment barriers and enlarged markets that require enlarge d operations capable (②) of meeting customers? demands.［2001年阅读4］

［例句精译］我认为，推动这股巨大的并购浪潮的最主要的力量，也是推动全球化进程的力量，包括日趋下降的运输与通讯费用，较低的贸易与投资壁垒，以及市场的扩大和为满足市场需求而进行的扩大生产。

compound [k?m?paund]n.混合物，化合物；a.混合的，化合的，复合的；v.合成

［真题例句］Vitamins are organic compounds (n.) necessary in small amounts in the diet for the normal growth and maintenance of life of animals, including man.［1996年完形］

［例句精译］维生素是有机化合物，饮食中必须含有少量维生素以维持动物（包括人）的生存和正常生长。

merit [?merit] n.优点，价值，功绩；v.值得，应得

drain［drein］n.①排水沟，阴沟；②消耗，负担；v.排去，放干

背景常识介绍：

热电转换技术是一种利用半导体材料实现热能和电能直接相互转换的绿色能源技术。使用这项技术，利用农作物、垃圾、汽车余热甚至人体热能，在住宅、农庄、汽车上就可以建立一个小型发电系统，满足人们对小功率电能的需求。采用不同的热电材料可以制成发电器或者制冷器，它们无须使用传动

部件，系统体积小，适用温度范围广，工作时无噪音，与太阳能、风能、水能等二次能源一样，具有不排放污染物的优点。

参考译文：

热电学：每一小部分都是有用的

有人认为，在发电过程中，其中大约有60%的能量在其转化成电能时被浪费掉。无论从消费者的实际花费，还是从用化石燃料发电所引起的气候变化的角度而言，使用能源的代价都是很高的。如果把浪费掉的很小的一部分热能转换为有用的能量，这都是件好事。

美国物理学会本周在巴尔的摩举行的例会上，密歇根州立大学的Mercouri Kanatzidis建议，把热电转化装置安装在烟囱和车辆排气管上，从而获得更多可用能源。

这项技术已经研发出好多年了。如果电导体一段加热，另一端不加热，就会在电导体两端产生少量的电压。把两种不同的金属或其他非金属电导体连在一起，进行加热，也会产生一定的电压。这样的装置被称为热电偶，现在通常由半导体材料制成。这些热电偶被广泛用作温度计。如果它们的造价再低一些，或效用再高一些，或同时降低造价、提高效用，就可以用它们来发电了。

Kanatzidis博士正在研发的一种新型热电材料，可以将原本会浪费掉的热能中的20%转化为电能。他目前面临的困难是，要找到一种物质，同时是很好的电导体又是热的不良导体。这两种属性决定着热电材料的“品质因数”。“品质因数”是用来描述用热电材料所制成的元器件的输出功率的单位。Kanatzidis博士团队的目标就是研制出“品质因数”更高的热电材料。

由于固体的导电性能由其晶体结构所决定，Kanatzidis博士团队于是实验新的原子晶格。具体来说，他们就是在研究一种叫做“硫系化合物”的化学品，其成分包括氧、硫、砷、碲。这些元素被认为很适于热电应用，因为它们的结构能够在阻挡热流的同时允许电子流通过。因此，它们具有很高的“品质因数”。Kanatzidis博士团队正在研究能够使这些化合物适当结晶的方法。

Kanatzidis博士认为，随着化石燃料价格上涨，即便是当前的热电装置，也可以变得更经济实用。在美国，交通运输所需能源占能源消耗总量的四分之一。在机动车排气管上安装小型的热电装置，可以节省另外10%的燃料。这部分燃料所包含的能量，在混合燃料发动机或电动发动机运转的过程中，通过位于发动机上的电池充电，被部分的再次利用，成为循环能量，从而不至于在诸如刹车这样的能量流动过程中白白流失。同理，在发电厂的烟囱上安装热电装置，就可以收集更多的能量，从而发更多的电。

热电装置还可以用于其他领域，比如太阳能电池和太阳能加热系统。除此以外，还可以用在地热发电厂和核电站。Kanatzidis博士认为，热电装置可以收集发电过程中产生的热能，并将其转化为其他可用能量。俭以防匮。

Tracking your every move

Some families in America and elsewhere have started buying child?friendly mobile phones outfitted with GPS (Global Positioning System) technology.

These phones and their related tracking services allow parents to pinpoint the location of their children with ease. Parents agree to pick up the phone bill in return for the reassurance of knowing where their children are; children are prepared to put up wit h the snooping if they are allowed to have a phone.

Mobile operators in America are now launching tracking services. Under a federal mandate known as E911, they had to upgrade their networks to ensure that anyone dialling the 911 emergency number could be located to within 100 metres. Some operators opted for triangulation technology, which determines the location of the handset by comparing the signals received by different base?stations. But Verizon and Sprint chose to adopt the more expensiv e but more accurate GPS technology instead, and are now looking for ways t o make money from it.

Verizon calls its service “Chaperone”. For $10 a month, parents can call up the location of their child’s LG Migo handset from their own mobile phones, or from a PC. The child receives a message saying that the handset’s position has been requested, and the pare nts receive an address, or a marker on a web?based ap, giving the child’s location. For a n extra $10 per month, they can sign up for Child Zone, a service that, among other things, fires off an alert when a youngster (or, at least, the youngster’s handset) trays outside a specifi ed area.

For its part, Sprint has launched a similar service that can also let parents know when a child arrives at a p articular location.

Another location service is av ailable from Nextel, a mobile operator that was taken over by Sprint in 2005. Nextel opened up some of its systems to enable other firms to build their own software and services on top of its GPS technology. One example is AccuTracking, a small company which offers a tracking service for $6 a month and boasts that it is “ideal for vehicle tracking” or to keep “virtual eyes on kids”. Some customers are a lso using the service to track their spouses, by hiding phones in their cars.“Mine is hidden under the hood, hot-wired to the battery—it works very well and it is easy to hook up continuous power,” writes one customer on AccuTracking’s message board, who i s tracking her husband.

Start-ups are working on everything from city-wide games of hide-and-seek to monitoring the locations of Alzheimer’s patients. Services that monitor jogging routes, and work out distance travelled and calories consumed, might also prove popular.

As a result, mobile operators, handset-makers and start-ups could transform and expand a small, specialist market hitherto dominated by expensive, dedicated tracking systems.

考研词汇：

outfit［?aut?fit］n.装备，供给

pinpoint ［?pinp?int］

n. 精确a.极微小的v.查明

reassurance［?ri:?'???r?ns］

n. 放心

snoop［snu:p］

vi. 探听, 调查, 偷窃n.到处窥视, 爱管闲事的人, 私家侦探

federal［?fed?r?l］

a.联邦的

［真题例句］A few premiers are suspicious of any federal?provincial deal?making.［2005年新题型］

［例句精译］有几个省的政府官员对这种全国性代理机构持怀疑态度。

spouse［spauz］

n.配偶（指夫或妻），保证人，主办人；vt.发起，主办；v.赞助

背景常识介绍：

GPS全称为“全球定位系统”，它是一种基于卫星的导航系统，其精确度已经达到10米以内。而用户无需为接收的卫星信号本身支付任何费用。而在手机上或者其他掌上移动设备中，当GPS的定位功能与数字地图相结合时，就可以为人们提供更加具体的更加直观的导航帮助，而不是仅仅告诉你目前的“经度、纬度”。特别是GPS系统与手机的结合，更是方便了大家的出行，既可以方便联系，也可以实现车载GPS系统的导航功能。

参考译文：

追踪你的一举一动

美国与其他地方的一些家庭已开始购买适合儿童使用，配有GPS（全球卫星定位系统）的移动电话。

这种电话与相关的追踪服务让父母可以轻而易举地查明孩子在什么地方。父母很情愿支付这笔电话费以知晓孩子身在何处，以换来自己的放心。孩子们想要父母给他们买个电话，则必须愿意忍受被秘密监视。

美国的移动电话运营商们正在推出追踪服务。遵照一条叫做E911的联邦法令，他们要升级服务网络，确保能找到任何拨打911呼救电话的人所处的位置，误差不超过100米。一些运营商采用了三角定位技术，此技术通过比较不同基站接收的手机信号来确定手机所处的位置。Verizon 与Sprint 两个运营商则选用了更昂贵、但更精确的GPS技术，现在正在此基础上推出新服务，希望能以此赚钱。

Verizon 把它的服务叫做“陪护者”。每月花上10美元，父母用手机或个人电脑发出一个要求，就可以知道他们孩子的LG Migo手机的位置。孩子会收到一条“该手机的位置被要求发送”的信息，父母则收到一个地址，或是网络地图上的一个标记，指示出孩子的位置。如果每月多付10美元，父母就可以成为一个叫“孩子地带”的用户，如果一个年轻人（或至少是这年轻人的手机）在一个特定的区域外游荡时，该服务就会立刻发出警告给父母，类似的服务还有一些。

Sprint在这方面是怎么做的呢？它推出了类似的服务，也能让父母知道孩子什么时候到达某个地点。

2005年被Sprint兼并的Nextel 则有另一项定位服务。Nextel开放了它的部分系统，可以让其他公司在其GPS技术平台上建立自己的软件与服务。Accu寻踪公司就是一个范例，这家小公司提供的追踪服务每月收费6美元，号称是“理想的车辆追踪工具”，还可以“时刻盯着孩子”。有些客户把电话藏在配偶的车里，用Accu寻踪公司的服务追踪他们。该公司的一个顾客在公司网站的留言版写道：“我把电话藏在引擎盖下边，并插在汽车电池上——真的很管用，而且挂接不间断电源也很容易。”这位女士是在追踪她的丈夫。

新生的公司正推出各种各样的新服务，从全城范围的捉迷藏游戏到追踪老年痴呆患者。一边监控慢跑路线，同时算出跑的路程与消耗的热量，这样的服务可能也会受欢迎。

寻踪服务的市场现在还只是个小规模的专业化市场，由收费昂贵、用途单一的各种寻踪服务把持，但移动运营商、手机制造商与许多新兴公司的介入可能使市场发生改变，并进一步扩大市场。

Treasure on the ocean floor

TODAY, deep-ocean mining is done only by the oil and gas industry. Yet the dream of mining the mineral wealth of the deep has never gone away. Now two firms hope to succeed where others have failed.

Nautilus Minerals, based in Vancouver, is the more advanced of the p air. It has an exploratory licence from Papua New Guinea and has already begun drilling operations 1,600 metres below sea level off the east coast of the country. Another company, Neptune Minerals, based in London and Sydney, has completed test drilling in the deep waters near New Zealand.

Nautilus’s deep-water exploration relies on a modified deep-sea remotely operated vehicle (ROV) of the kind normally used in the oil and telecoms industries. It has a manipulator hand containing drilling and cutting tools that allow the robot to retrieve samples of rock from the ocean bed. So far the drilling has only been exploratory, but the prospects look good.

The presence of these rich deposits has been known about for years, says Steven Scott, a geologist at the University of Toronto. He has been researching underwater geology since the 1980s, and in the 1990s he co-discovered the deposit that Nautilus is exploring. So why has it taken so long to move towards the commercial exploitation of deep sea massive sulphide deposits? Mr Heydon says it is because the ROV technology has only recently become capable enough. He eventually hopes to use rock-cutting ROVs that will drive across the sea floor, grinding ore as they go and sending it to the surface via a tube at a rate of 400 tonnes per hour. It might also be possible to lift large deposits using compressed air.

All of this can be done, Mr Heydon believes, for about half as much as opening a new land?based mine. Nautilus has spent about $12m in the past year on exploration, and Dr Scott says one test drilling found deposits 19 metres deep. Unlike manganese nodules, which are like

golf balls scattered across the seabed, these deep-ocean deposits occur in small areas around extinct hydrothermal vents. Such concentrated deposits ought to make underwater mining highly efficient.

Even if the economics stack up, however, Nautilus and Neptune must overcome concerns over environmental damage. Dr Scott argu es that underwater mining will be far less disruptive to the environment than terrestrial mining: there will be no piles of waste rock, since the deposits are directly on the sea floor. And whereas the oil industry lays pipelines underwater, mining would not l eave any permanent structures behind. But governments will need to be convinced of the merit of these arguments before mining can begin.

考研词汇：

terrestrial［ti?restri?l］

a.陆地的；n.陆地生物

remotely［ri'm?utli］

ad.遥远地, 偏僻地

retrieve［ri?tri:v］

v.重新得到；n.找回

deposit［di?p?zit］

v.①存放；②储蓄；③使沉淀；④付（保证金）；n.①存款，保证金；②沉积物

［真题例句］More and more of these credit cards can be read automatically, making it possible to withdraw or deposit (v.②) money in scattered locations, whether or not the local branch bank is open.［1994年阅读2］

［例句精译］越来越多的信用卡可以自动读取，于是持卡人就可以在不同地方存取，而不管本地支行是否营业。

grinding

a.磨的, 磨擦的, 碾的

scatter［?sk?t?］

v.①散开，驱散；②散布，散播

［真题例句］More and more of these credit cards can be read automatically, making it possible to withdraw or deposit money in scattered (①) locations, whether or not the local branch bank is open.［1994年阅读2］

［例句精译］越来越多的信用卡可以自动读取，于是持卡人就可以在不同地方存取，而不管本地支行是否营业。

背景常识介绍：

深海采矿技术是深海采矿业中的支柱性技术，它对海洋的其他产业技术，如近海矿产业、深海油气业、海洋能源业、船舶制造业等都会有重大的影响。专家们预测，未来的深海采矿业很可能是一组采矿、海洋能源利用和深海农牧渔业等综合发展的高新技术产业群。深海采矿技术是未来海洋产业中的先导性行业技术，它对整个海洋高新技术的潜在影响是深远的。

参考译文：

海底宝藏

今天，深海采矿只是在石油和天然气工业领域得以实现。然而开发深海金属矿藏的念头始终萦绕在人们脑海中。现在两家公司正希望去实现别人未能完成的愿望。

位于温哥华的鹦鹉螺矿业公司是这两家公司里比较超前的一家。它拥有巴布亚新几内亚的开发执照并且已经开始在该国东海岸海面下1600米处进行钻探。另一家公司是海王星矿业公司，分别设在伦敦和悉尼。该公司已经在新西兰附近完成了深水钻探。

鹦鹉螺公司的深水开发依赖于一种由普通用在石油和电信工业上的深水远程操作工具改进而来的机器。这种机器有一个操作臂，其中包括了钻头和开掘工具，使得机器人可以从深海海底回收岩石样品。到目前为止这种钻探仅仅是探索性的，但是其前景很看好。

知道这些富矿的存在已经有多年了，多伦多大学地质学家史蒂芬·斯科特说。史蒂芬·斯科特自20世纪80年代就开始研究水下地质学。在20世纪90年代，他与别人共同发现了鹦鹉螺公司正在开发的这个矿藏。那么为什么深海金属硫化物矿的商业化开发要等这么长时间？海登说，这是因为ROV技术只是在最近才得以真正用于实战。他最终希望能用可以横穿海底的岩石开掘机ROV将矿石碾碎，然后通过一条管道以每小时400吨的速度将其运至海面。利用压缩空气来向海面运送大块矿石或许也是可行的。

海登相信，只要花费相当于一个陆地矿井一半的费用，所有这些就都可以实现。斯科特博士说，鹦鹉螺公司过去的一年中在勘测上花费了1200万美元，有一次钻探发现了19米深的矿物层。与锰结核像高尔夫球洞一样分散在海底不同的是，这些深海矿物层则在熄灭了的海底烟囱附近小范围内存在。这样的集中式分布可以使水下开采效率大大提高。

即使经济上的问题堆积如山，鹦鹉螺公司与海王星公司仍必须克服人们对于环境破坏的忧虑。斯科特辩解说水下开采将比陆地开采带来的环境破坏少得多：由于是直接在海底作业，因此将不会有大量的岩石废料。由石油工业在海底铺设的管线而留下的永久建筑，在采矿业中将不会出现。但是在开采启动之前，政府仍需相信这些辩解中提到的优点。

University bonds: An education in finance

Less well known is the increasing willingness of colleges to borrow in the m arkets, too. On May 15th, for example, Cor nell University sold

$250m-worth of bonds.In recent weeks both Harvard and the University of Texas have also raised hundreds of millions of dollars in t his way.

Such debt-raising is becoming more common. There are abundant reasons to believ e that the market will grow much bigger yet.

Largely this is because colleges are only belatedly becoming aware of how useful the financial markets can be. No doubt some of their hesitation has been cultural: academics may have been reluctant to look at their universities as businesses; or they may have misunderstood what was needed to help those businesses grow.

If they did look at their institutions in economic terms, people in education tended not to think that universities lacked ca pital. Rather, they thought that they had a structural inability to use capital and labour more efficiently. Unlike the car industry, many schools felt that they must maintain, or even increase, the ratio of employees (teachers) to customers (students). Small class sizes are taken as a signal of high quality, so investing money to save on teachers’ salaries is not an attractive strategy.

Schools had other reserv ations as well. Poor schools were worried about being unable to service debt. Rich schools with huge endowments may have seen no need.

So much for an academic perspective. A growing number of investors saw things differently. Those lovely buildings on rolling campuses, the better universities’ reputations, taxpayers’ backing of state-owned institutions: all this looked to them like a deep pool of assets against which lots of money could be borrowed. The money raised could be used to attract more customers, who are choosy about the product and whose demand varies little with the price (loudly though they may complain).

Some of the richest universities may be using another tactic too, although they would be loth to admit it. To understand this, it helps to know that America has three types of university-public ones; private, not-for-profit institutions; and private schools run for profit. Both public and not-for-profit universities often issue tax-exempt debt. This tends to be cheap. They can then invest the money they raise in the higheryielding taxable market but, because of their non-profit status, avoid taxes.

This is not quite a licence to print money, but it is not far off. Under a 1986 law, money has to be raised for a purpose, such as a building.However, this is a matter of substance rather than form. Money is fungible. As long as the tax authorities are happy that the promised sum is being spent on the stated projects, a university can borrow cheaply and, in effect, earn a spread. Reflecting just how complex this market has become, most universities borrow at v ariable rates and then hedge their interest-rate risk through swaps.It is all pretty clever.

Outside America, schools hav e been hesitant to tak e this approach largely because their operations and spending are more closely tied to the state, but they too are changing, if slowly.

考研词汇：

willingness ［?wili?nis］

n.自愿，乐意

abundant ［??b?nd?nt］

a.丰富的, 充裕的, 丰富, 盛产, 富于

financial ［f??n?n??l］

a.财政的；金融的

hesitation ［?hezi?tei??n］

n.犹豫, 踌躇

institution ［?insti?tju:??n］

n.公共机构, 协会, 制度

perspective［p??spektiv］

n.①视角；②透视法；③(in~)正确地

［真题例句］(63) The emphasis on data gathered first?hand, combined with a cross?cultural perspective (①) brought to the analysis of cultures p ast and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.［2003年翻译］

［例句精译］（63）强调收集第一手资料，加上在分析过去和现在文化形态时采用跨文化视角，使得这一研究成为一门独特并且非常重要的社会科学。

［真题例句］Not everyone sees that process in (28：perspective) (③).It is important to do so.［2002年完形］

［例句精译］并不是所有人都能正确看待这一进程，虽然了解这一点非常重要。

背景常识介绍：

在美国，1995年发行债券的高等院校已经达到160所，债券总额达26.7亿美元。1996年，发行债券的学校又增加到189所，债券总额达到41.4亿美元。债券的形式有两种，一种是普通债券，一种是免税债券。债券偿还期分中长期和长期两种。中长期债券的还贷期在25—30年间，利息在5—6%之间。而长期债券的还贷期要长得多，利率也要稍高一些。发行债券的用途有哪些？概括地说：（1）为了周转资金；（2）为了偿还当前的其他债务；（3）为了用于学校大型项目的建设。

参考译文：

大学债券：教育经费的新窗口

不为人知的是，越来越多的大学开始热衷于向市场贷款。例如，康奈尔大学于5月15日出售了价值2亿5千万美元的债券。最近几周，哈佛大学和德克斯大学也通过这样的途径获取了数以亿计的资金。

像这种贷款集资的方式已经越来越普遍，我们有足够的理由相信市场会得到大幅度的扩张。

这主要是因为，很多大学才刚刚发现金融市场的用处有多大。当然，受传统文化的影响，一部分人还持怀疑态度：学术派不愿看到学校过于商业化；或者他们没有看清帮助这种商业扩张需要的是什么。

如果他们从经济学的观点来看这些学校，教育者们难以接受这些大学会缺乏资金。他们更倾向于认为，学校有足够的组织能力来驾驭资金和劳动力。与汽车行业不同的是，很多学校愿意为了消费者（学生）的需要而保持，甚至增加员工（教师）的比率。小型的课堂教育被认为是高质量的标志，因此投入资金来节省教师薪水并不是有吸引力的方案。

各个学校也有其他方面的限制。普通学校担心自己无法偿还债务。名牌大学由于有巨额的资金捐赠或许没有必要向市场贷款。

学术派的观点暂且讨论到这里。更多的投资者们持不同的看法。校园里面漂亮的教学楼，更佳的学校声望，国有机构的纳税者支持：所有这些对于他们而言，借来的资金就像丢进了一个无底洞。更多的资金可以吸引到更多的消费者（学生），这些消费者对产品之间的微小差别会吹毛求疵，而不会太在意价格的不同。

一些最有钱的大学或许会采用另一种方法，虽然他们不愿承认。要理解这一方法，我们首先要清楚美国的大学分为三类——公立、私立和非盈利型；私立学校为了利润而经营，而公立学校和非盈利学校常常发行一种免税债券，而这种债券并不昂贵。他们可以在高税收的领域投入资金，然而，由于他们的非盈利性质，常常避开纳税。

这虽谈不上像拿到印钞许可证一样，但实质上也差的不远。根据1986年的法律，筹集资金需要一定的理由，比如修一栋楼之类的。然而，这只是其实质并非表面。货币是可替换物。只要税务机构对这些花费在国有工程的许诺金额满意，大学就能相对便宜地借到资金，有效地赢得其中的差额。这就反应出了市场变得是多么的复杂，很多大学贷款的比例都不一样，然后通过交换来保护利率风险。这些想法都相当聪明。

在美国以外的学校对于全面采用这种方式集资还徘徊不前，因为学校的运作和开销与国家的联系更为紧密，但是他们也在慢慢转变。

University expansion

BRITAIN’S universities are in an awful spin. Top universities were overwhelmed by the 24% of A-level applicants sporting indistinguishable straight As; newer ones are beating the byways for bodies.

Curiously, both images of education—the weeping willows of Cambridge and the futuristic architecture of UEL—are cherished by the government. Ministers want to see half of all young people in universities by 2010 (numbers have stalled at 42%), without relinquishing the world?class quality of its top institutions.

Many argue that the two goals are incompatible without spending a lot more money. Researchers scrabble for funds, and student s complain of large classes and reduced teaching time. To help solve the problem, the gove rnment agreed in 2004 to let universities increase tuition fees.

Though low, the fees hav e introduced a market of sorts into higher education. Universities can offer cut-price tuition, although most have stuck close to the $3,000. Other incentiv es are more popular. Newcomers to St Mark & St John, a higher-education college linked to Exeter University, will receive free laptops.

As universities enter the third week of “clearing” , the marketing has become weirder. Bradford University is luring students with the chance of winning an MP3 player in a prize draw. Plymouth University students visited Cornish seaside resorts, tempting young holiday-makers with surfboards and cinema vouchers. These offers suggest that supply has outstripped demand.

Not so the top universities that make up the “Russell group”, however. Their ranks include the likes of Imperial College London and Bristol University along with Oxford and Cambridge. Swamped with applicants, only half offer any places through clearing. The y have a different problem: they need money to compete for high?calibre students and academics, both British and foreign, who coul d be temp ted overseas by better?heeled American universities or fast?improving institutions in developing countries such as India.

Higher fees and excess supply are causing students to look more critically at just what different univ ersities have to offer. And the crunch could become more acute. The number of 18-year-olds in Britain will drop around 2010 and decline over the following ten years, according to government projections.

Bahram Bekhradnia, the director of the Higher Education Policy Institute, a think?tank, says the government hasn’t a hope of getting 50% of young Britons into higher education by 2010. And the decline of home-grown student numbers will have a “differential effect” on universities, he reckons. Those at the bottom end will have to become increasingly “innovative” about whom they admit and some may not survive.

The Cambridge shades evoked by Rupert Brooke were gentle, nostalgic ones. Many vice?chancellors today are pursued by far more vengeful spectres of empty campuses, deserted laboratories, failed institutions. Markets, after all, create winners—and losers.

考研词汇：

awful［??:ful］

a.①极度的，极坏的，糟糕的；②威严的，可怕的；ad.十分，极度地

overwhelm ［??uv??welm］

vt. 淹没, 覆没, 受打击, 制服, 压倒

curiously［?kju?ri?sli］

ad.好奇地

imperial［im?pi?ri?l］

a.皇帝的；帝国的

swamp［sw?mp］

n.沼泽, 湿地, 煤层聚水；v.陷入沼泽, 淹没, 覆没

acute［??kju:t］

a.①敏锐的，尖锐的；②（疾病）急性的

［真题例句］Acute (①) foreign observers related American adaptiveness and inventiveness to this educational advantage.［1996年阅读4］［例句精译］目光敏锐的外国观察家把美国人的适应能力和创新能力与这种教育优势联系起来。

innovative ［?in?uveitiv］

a.创新的, 革新(主义)的

背景常识介绍：

20世纪80年代英国进行了教育市场化和教育私有化。随后的20多年是英国高等教育实施激烈的市场化改革并取得初步成效的时期；同时1988年通过的教育改革法和1992年通过的高等教育改革法，则更是明确要求英国教育转向完全面向市场的体制。政府经过近30年的改革实践，现已逐步改变原来的政府负债局面，走上了良性发展的轨道。

参考译文：

大学扩张

英国大学正处在一种糟糕的迷惑状态。顶尖大学申请者人满为患，其中成绩清一色全A的A级生比例高达24%；新兴大学则为生源争得头破血流。

奇怪的是，教育界两个景象迥异的学校——垂柳依依的剑桥和建筑前卫的UEL——都是政府扶植的对象。部长们希望2010年半数年轻人能读大学（目前大学生比例在42%左右），同时保证顶尖学府的世界级质量。

许多人指出要同时实现两个目标须花费更多的钱。研究人员需要钱，学生抱怨大班上课和课时缩减。为解决该问题，政府于2004年同意大学提高学费。

学费虽然不高，却已经引来了高等教育的初级市场。尽管多数大学的学费已经固定在接近3000镑的价位，但仍可以减少学费。其他激励措施则更为流行。St Mark & St John大学（与Exeter大学合作的高等教育学院）的新生可以免费获得笔记本电脑。

当大学进入“调剂”的第三周，市场经营手段也更加新奇。Bradford大学用抽奖赢MP3的活动来吸引学生。Plymouth大学的学生造访Cornish海滨度假村，用冲浪板和影院优惠券来吸引年轻度假人士。种种好处暗示大学市场供大于求。

构成“罗素联盟”的顶尖大学却不是这样。该联盟包括诸如伦敦帝国大学，Bristol大学，牛津大学以及剑桥大学等名校。由于申请者众多，所以只有半数学校在调剂阶段还在招人。这些学校则面对不同的问题：他们需要钱去争夺英国乃至海外的高才生和优秀教师，这些人容易被更富有的美国大学和发展中国家（如印度）高速发展的学校所吸引。

更高的学费和供大于求导致学生在挑选学校的时候更为慎重，所以竞争将更为激烈。而政府预计2010年起英国18岁年轻人的数量将开始逐年减少，并持续10年之久。

高等教育政策学会（一个智囊机构）主任Bahram Bekhradnia说，政府在2010年达成让50%的英国年轻人读大学的目标渺茫。他估计，本土大学生数量的减少将对大学产生“差异化效应”。那些在底层的大学在招生上将不得不变得更富于创新，而其中的一些可能会惨遭淘汰。

Rupert Brooke所唤起的剑桥记忆是温柔而怀旧的。如今许多大学校长则更多地被空荡荡的校园、荒废的实验室、废止的机构里的幽灵所追逐。毕竟，市场成就胜者，也造就败者。

Winning ways

Ever since the stunning victory of Deep Blue, a program running on an IBM supercomputer, over Gary Kasparov, then world chess champion, in 1997, it has been clear that computers would dominate that particular game. Today, though, they are pressing the attack on every front. They are the undisputed champions in draughts and Othello. They are generally stronger in backgammon. They are s teadily gaining ground in Scrabble, poker and bridge. And they are even doing pretty well at crossword puzzles. There is one game, however, where humans still reign supreme: Go. Yet here too their grip is beginning to loosen.

Go is a strategic contest. Each player tries to stake out territory and surround his opponent. The rules are simple but the play is extraordinarily complex. During a game, some stones will “die”, and some will appear to be dead but spring back to life at an inopportune moment. It is often difficult to say who is winning right until the end.

Deep Blue and its successors beat Mr K asparov using the “brute force” technique.

Unfortunately, brute force will not work in Go. First, the game has m any more possible positions than chess does. Second, the number of possible moves from a typical position in Go is about 200, compared with about a dozen in chess. Finally, evaluating a Go pos ition is fiendishly difficult. The fastest programs can assess just 50 positions a second, compared with 500,000 in chess. Cle arly, some sort of finesse is required.

In the past two decades researchers have explored several alternative strategies. Now, however, programmers are making impres sive gains with a technique known as the Monte Carlo method. Given a position, a program us ing a Monte Carlo algorithm contemplates every move and plays a large number of random games to see what happens. If it wins in 80% of those games, the move is probably good. Otherwise, it k eeps looking.

This may sound like a lot of effort but generating random games is the sort of thing computers excel at. In fact, Monte Carlo techniques are much faster than brute force. Moreover, two Hungarian computer scientists have recently added an elegant twist that allow s the algorithm to focus on the most promising moves without sacrificing speed.

The result is a new generation of fast programs that play particularly well on small versions of the Go board. In the past fe w months Monte

Carlo-based programs have dominated computer tournaments on nine?-and 13?line grid s. MoGo, a program developed by researchers from the University of Paris, has even beaten a couple of strong human players on the smaller of these boards—unthinkable a year ago. It is ranked 2,323rd in the world and in Europe’s top 300. Although MoGo is st ill some way from competing on the full?size Go grid, humanity may ultimately have to accept defeat on yet another front.

考研词汇：

stun［st?n］

vt.使晕倒，使惊吓，打晕；n.晕眩，打昏，惊倒

dominate［?d?mineit］

v.①支配，统治，控制；②占优势

［真题例句］The coming of age of the postwar baby boom and an entry of women into the male?dominate d (①) job market hav e limited the opportunities of teenagers who are already questioning the heavy personal sacrifices involved in climbing Japan?s rigid s ocial ladder to good schools and jobs.［2000年阅读4］

［例句精译］战后婴儿出生高峰期的到来及妇女进入男性为主的就业市场，限制了青少年的发展机遇，这些青少年已经开始质疑在进好学校、找好工作、攀登日本等级森严的社会阶梯的过程中所做出的巨大的个人牺牲是否值得。

reign［rein］

v.①（over）统治，支配；②盛行，占优势；n.①统治，统治时期，支配；②朝代

［真题例句］(72) The existence of the giant clouds was virtually required for the Bi g Bang, first put forward in the 1920s, to maintain i ts reign (n.①) as the dominant explanation of the cosmos.［1998年翻译］

［例句精译］（72）巨大的宇宙云的存在，实际上是使20年代首创的大爆炸论得以处于宇宙起源论的主导地位所不可缺少的。

supreme［su:?pri:m］

a.①极度的，最重要的；②至高的，最高的

［真题例句］The Supreme (②) Court?s decisions on physician?assisted suicide carry important implications for how medic i ne seeks to relieve dying patients of pain and suffering.［2002年阅读4］

［例句精译］最高法庭关于医生协助病人结束生命问题的裁决，对于如何用药物减轻病危者的痛苦这个问题来说，具有重要的意义。

brute［bru:t］

a.残忍的, 畜生般的n. 残忍的人, 畜生

sacrifice［?s?krifais］

n.①牺牲，献身，牺牲品；②祭品，供物；v.（for，to）牺牲，献出，献祭

［真题例句］The coming of age of the postwar baby boom and an entry of women into the male?dominated job market have limited the opportunities of teenagers who are already questioning the heavy personal sacrifices (n.①) involved in climbing Japan?s rigid social ladder to good schools and jobs.［2000年阅读4］

［例句精译］战后婴儿出生高峰期的到来及妇女进入男性为主的就业市场，限制了青少年的发展机遇，这些青少年已经开始质疑在进好学校、找好工作、攀登日本等级森严的社会阶梯的过程中所做出的巨大的个人牺牲是否值得。

背景常识介绍：

人工智能（Artificial Intelligence，简称AI）是计算机学科的一个分支，二十世纪七十年代以来被称为世界三大尖端技术之一（空间技术、能源技术和人工智能），也被认为是二十一世纪（基因工程、纳米科学和人工智能）三大尖端技术之一。这是因为近三十年来它获得了迅速的发展，在很多学科领域都获得了广泛应用，并取得了丰硕的成果。人工智能已逐步成为一个独立的分支，无论在理论和实践上都已自成一个系统。

参考译文：

取胜之路

自从1997年深蓝——一个运行于IB M超级计算机上的程序战胜当时的世界国际象棋冠军加里·卡斯帕罗夫起，计算机可以统治这一特殊的游戏就变得不言而喻了。计算机还对每个前沿流域发起攻击。它们是国际跳棋及黑白棋游戏无可争辩的冠军。在西洋双陆棋上它们通常表现得更好。它们正在稳步获得拼字游戏、扑克和桥牌的一席之地，它们在纵横字谜游戏中也有着优异表现。然而，还有一项游戏人类仍然占据统治地位：围棋。即便如此，人类在这一领域的控制力也开始丧失。

围棋是一种战略竞争。每位选手都要设法夺取领域并围住其对手。在一次游戏中，一些棋子将会“死掉”，而另一些看起来死掉但却会在不可思议的时候重获生机。通常不到最后是很难分出胜负来的。

深蓝及其后继者打败卡斯帕罗夫所用的是暴力破解技术。

然而不幸的是，暴力破解在围棋中将失去作用。首先，这一游戏有着远多于象棋的棋位。第二，一个围棋中的标准棋位上的走法大约有200种，而在象棋中大约是12个。最后，评估一个围棋棋位极度困难。最快的程序每秒可以估测出50步棋，而在象棋中，这一数字是500000。显然，还需要一些更好的策略。

过去的二十年间，研究人员探究了若干种可选性策略。然而现在，程序员利用一项被称为蒙特卡罗方法的技术取得了重大进展。给定一个棋位，应用蒙特卡罗算法的程序预测每一步走法并进行大量随机走法将会带来什么结果。如果它在那些游戏中获胜率是80％，那么这一步可能就是好棋。否则，它就会继续寻找。

这听起来需要花费大量努力，但是进行随机游戏正是计算机擅长的地方。事实上，蒙特卡罗技术要比暴力破解技术快得多。此外，两名匈牙利计算机

科学家最近又向其中增加了一种一流的手法使得该运算法则能够在不损耗速度的前提下集中关注最可能的棋路。这一切的结果是能够很好地在小棋盘上进行围棋的新一代快速程序的研发。

在过去几个月中基于蒙特卡罗技术的程序已经统治了9格和13格计算机围棋大奖赛。MoGo，一个由巴黎大学研究人员开发的程序已经在过去一年在小棋盘上出乎意外地打败了诸多人类围棋高手。该程序目前的世界排名是2323位，而在欧洲则处于前300位。尽管MoGo在完整棋盘上的竞争还有一段路要走，但是人类最终将不得不接受又一个领域的失败。

Women in the workforce

EVEN today in the modern, developed world, surveys show that parents still prefer to have a boy rather than a girl. One longs tanding reason why boys have been seen as a greater blessing has been that they are expected to become better economic providers for their parents’ old age. Yet it is time for parents to think again. Girls m ay now be a better investment.

Girls get better grades at school than boys, and in most developed countries more women than men go to university. Women will thus be better equipped for the new jobs of the 21st century, in which brains count a lot more than brawn.

Furthermore, the increase in female employment in the rich world has been the main driving force of growth in the past couple of decades. Those women have contributed more to global GDP growth than have either new technology or the new giants, China and India. Add the value of housework and child-rearing, and women probably account for just over half of world output. It is true that women still get paid less and few make it to the top of companies, but, as prejudice fades over coming years, women will have great scope to boost their productivity—and incomes.

Governments, too, should embrace the potential of women. Women complain (rightly) of centuries of exploitat ion. Yet, to an economist, women are not exploited enough: they are the world’s most under-utilised resource; getting more of them into work is part of the solution to many economic woes, including shrinking populations and poverty.

Some people fret that if more women work rather than mind their children, this will boost GDP but create negative social externalities, such as a lower birth rate. Yet developed countries where more women work, such as Sweden and America, actually have higher b irth rates than Ja p an and Italy, where women stay at home. Others fear that women’s move into the paid labour force can come at the expense of children. Yet the evidence for this is mixed. For instance, a study by Suzanne Bianchi at Maryland University finds that moth ers spent the same time, on average, on childcare in 2003 as in 1965.The increase in work outside the home was offset by less housework and less spare time and less sleep.

What is clear is that in countries such as Japan, Germany and Italy, which are all trouble d by the demographics of shrinking populations, far fewer women work than in America, let alone Sweden. If female labour-force participation in these countries rose to American lev els, it would give a helpful boost to these countries’ growth rates. Likewis e, in developing countries where girls are less likely to go to school than boys, investing in education would deliver huge economic and social returns. Not only will educated women be more productive, but they will also bring up better educated and healthier children. More women in government could also boost economic growth: studies show that women are more likely to spend money on improving health, education, infrastructure and poverty and less likely to waste it on tanks and bombs.

It used to be said that women must do twice as well as men to be thought half as good. Luckily that is not so difficult.

考研词汇：

longstanding［'l??'st?ndi?］

a.(已持续)长时间的,为时甚久的

rear［ri?］

n.后部，尾部；a.①后方的，后部的；②背后的v.饲养，抚养

prejudice［?pred??dis］

n.①偏见，成见；②损害，侵害v.抱有（存有）偏见

［真题例句］In tha t mirror we can see the strengths, the weaknesses, the hopes, the prejudices (n.①), and the central v alues of the culture itself.［1994年阅读3］

［例句精译］在这面镜子里，我们可以看到力量、弱点、希望、偏见和文化的核心价值。

embrace［im?breis］

v.①拥抱；②包含

［真题例句］In the American economy, the concept of p rivate property embraces (②) not only the ownership of productive resources but also certain rights, including the right to determine the price of a product or to make a free contract with another private individual.［1994年阅读1］

［例句精译］在美国经济中，私有财产的概念不仅包括生产资料的所有权，也包括一定的权利，比如，产品价格的决定权或与其他私有个体的自由签约权。

exploitation［.ekspl?i'tei??n］

n.开发, 开采, 剥削, 自私的利用, 宣传, 广告

negative ［?neg?tiv］

n.否定, 负数, 底片; a.否定的, 消极的, 负的, 阴性的; vt.否定, 拒绝(接受)

背景常识介绍：

随着时代的演进，特别是知识经济时代的来临，“重男轻女”的传统观念已失去左右企业甄选人才的能力。如今企业在选择人才时考虑的则是“他或她将为企业带来何种最大化的价值”。

参考译文：

女性工薪阶层

调查表明，即使在当今的发达国家，父母依然更喜欢男孩而不是女孩。认为男孩更具优势的一个传统原因是，男孩可以在父母年老时提供更好的经济帮助。现在父母该重新考虑了，女孩或许是更好的投资。

女孩在校学习的分数比男孩高，而且在大多数发达国家，上大学的女性比男性多。因此，面对21世纪的新工作，女性具备更好的就业能力，毕竟21世纪是讲究聪明的头脑而非强壮的肌肉的时代。

另外，在过去二十年中，就业女性的增长是发达国家经济增长的主要推动力。女性对全球国民生产总值（GDP）增长的贡献比新技术和新巨头（如中国和印度）的贡献多得多。加上处理家务和养育孩子的价值，女性的贡献或许超过全球产出的一半。虽然女性获得较少的工资，也难以荣升到公司高层，但是，就像这些年来人们对她们的偏见逐渐减少那样，女性在提高她们的生产率和收入方面具有很大的拓展空间。

政府同样要发挥女性的潜能。几百年来女性抱怨她们受到剥削（这是理所当然的），但对于一个经济学家来说，女性的潜能还没有充分开发，她们是世界上最没有得到充分利用的资源，为更多女性提供工作是许多经济难题（包括人口缩减和消除贫穷）的部分解决方案。

有人担心，如果更多的女性参加工作而不是在家照顾孩子，虽然她们可以推动国民生产总值的增长，但也会产生负面的社会现象，如人口出生率的降低。但是，较多女性参加工作的发达国家（如瑞典和美国）的人口出生率比较多女性留在家庭的国家（如日本和意大利）还要高。也有人担心女性加入雇佣劳动大军会影响孩子的成长。但这种现象是复杂的。例如，Maryland大学Suzanne Bianchi的研究发现，2003年和1965年母亲花在照顾孩子上的平均时间相同。工作时间的增加被较少的家务、休闲和睡眠时间抵消了。

显而易见，在深受人口缩减困扰的国家，如日本、德国和意大利，参加工作的女性比美国的少得多，更不用说瑞典的了。如果这些国家的女性劳动力能增加到美国的水平，那么这些国家的人口出生率将会大大增加。同样，在那些女孩上学机会比男孩少的发展中国家，增加教育的投资将会使国家获得巨大的经济和社会回报。受过教育的女性不仅能增加生产率，而且可以养育教育程度更高、更健康的孩子。更多女性在政府工作也可以推动经济增长：研究发现，女性更愿意把金钱花在改善健康、教育、基础设施和贫穷上面，而不会把大量金钱浪费在坦克和炸弹上。

过去传闻，女性必须做两倍于男性的工作才能获得一半于男性的良好评价。幸运的是，事实并没有如此困难。

Vaccines：A new health food

GETTING two for the price of one is always a good bargain. And according to a p aper in this week’s Proceedings of the Nationa l Academy of Sciences, that is what Tomonori Nochi of the University of Tokyo and his colleagues have done. Using genetic engineering, they have overcome two of the limitations of vaccines. One is that they are heat-sensitive and thus have to be transported along a “cold chain” of refrigerators to the clinics where they are used. The other is that, although they stimulate immune responses inside the body, they often fail to extend that protection to the outside, where it might prevent bacteria and viruses getting inside in the first place.In this context, the outside is not the skin: that is dry and hostile to germs. It is the damp and welcoming surface of places such as the lung and the gut that are at risk. Although these are casually called internal, technically they are not. Any nasties in the gut or lungs have to cross the walls of those organs before they can multiply inside the body.

Dr Nochi’s genetic engineering involved growing the v accine in rice. To prove the principle, he chose cholera, but it should work with other vaccines as well. With cholera, the immune response is induced by what is known as the cholera toxin B-subunit. This is a protein, and Dr Nochi took the gene that encodes it and inserted that gene into the genome of rice. Next to the B-subunit gene itself, he inserted a second piece of DNA called a promoter. This, as its name suggests, promotes activity in an adjacent gene. Promoters themselves are activated by other molecules, and whether they are switched on or not depends on whether the cell they are in provides the necessary stimu lation. In this case Dr Nochi picked a promoter that is active in the tissue of rice grains.

It was then just a question of growing the rice and feeding the resulting grains to some experimental mice to find out what w ould happen. The first thing that happened was that the grains protected the B-subunit from being broken down in the stomach, thus overcoming one of the regular bugbears of protein-based drugs: that they cannot be given by mouth, because they will be digested. This is a problem with today’s cholera vaccine which is indeed ta ken by mouth and therefore affords poor protection. When the B-subunits got to the intestines they did exactly what Dr Nochi hoped and induced the production of antibodies and the secretion of those antibodies into the mucous coating of the intestinal wall. Dr Nochi’s mice really were protected. When he fed them cholera toxin, they did not get sick.

On top of all this, he got as good a response with rice that had been stored at room temperature for 18 months as he did when he used fresh grains. For a v accine against a disease that is found predominantly in poor countries—places that tend to lack refrigerators and have only intermittent power to run those that do exist—that is an enormous advance. If Dr Nochi’s finding can be translated into a product that is safe and effective for people, it will be a big boost to the health of the world’s poor.

考研词汇：

overcome［??uv??k?m］

v.战胜，克服

［真题例句］If we do not confront and overcome these internal fears and doubts, if we protect ourselves too much, then we cease to grow.［1995年阅读2］

［例句精译］如果我们不能去正视并克服这些内在的恐惧和疑虑，如果我们过于自我保护，那么我们就会停止成长。

hostile［?h?stail］

a.敌对的，敌方的，敌意的

［真题例句］Stratford-on-Avon, as we all know, has only one industry—William Shakespeare—but there are two distinctly separate and increasingly hostile branches.［2006年阅读2］

［例句精译］正如我们所知，埃文河上的斯特福特就只有一个行业——威廉·莎士比亚——但是却有两个界限清楚并各怀敌意的分支部门。

induce［in?dju:s］

v.①引诱，劝使；②引起，导致；③感应

［真题例句］Indeed, the mere presence of a grape in the other chamber (without an actual monkey to eat it) was enough to induce (②) sullen behaviour in a female capuchin.［2005年阅读1］

［例句精译］事实上，一个笼舍里葡萄的存在（就算是没有猴子在吃），就足以引起另一只猴子愤愤不平了。

adjacent［??d?eis?nt］

a.（to）邻近的，毗连的

mucous［?mju:k?s］

a.黏液的, 黏液似的

enormous［i?n?:m?s］

a.巨大的，庞大的

［真题例句］Of course, the use of the Internet isn?t the only way to defeat poverty.And the Internet is not the only tool we have.But it h as enormous potential.［2001年阅读2］

［例句精译］当然，使用互联网不是惟一消灭贫困的方法。互联网也不是我们所拥有的惟一工具，但它却有巨大的潜力。

背景常识介绍：

疫苗，是指为了预防、控制传染病的发生、流行，而用于人体预防接种的疫苗类预防性生物制品。

疫苗是将病原微生物（如细菌、立克次氏体、病毒等）及其代谢产物，经过人工减毒、灭活或利用基因工程等方法制成的用于预防传染病的自动免疫制剂。疫苗保留了病原菌刺激动物体免疫系统的特性。当动物体接触到这种不具伤害力的病原菌后，免疫系统便会产生一定的保护物质，如免疫激素、活性生理物质、特殊抗体等；当

动物再次接触到这种病原菌时，动物体的免疫系统便会依循其原有的记忆，制造更多的保护物质来阻止病原菌的伤害。

疫苗的发现可谓是人类发展史上具有里程碑意义的事件。因为从某种意义上来说，人类繁衍生息的历史就是人类不断同疾病和自然灾害作斗争的历史。控制传染性疾病最主要的手段就是预防，而接种疫苗被认为是最行之有效的措施。

参考译文：

疫苗：全新健康食品

“买一送一”一向都是笔好买卖。这个星期的《国家科学院学报》发表的论文中，东京大学的Tomonori Nochi和他的同事就公布了这样一件好的成果。通过基因工程，他们突破了传统疫苗的两大局限。其一是疫苗往往是热敏性的，因此在运往临床使用地的途中，疫苗必须通过“低温运输系统”在冷藏库中低温运输。另一个则是尽管疫苗可以刺激人体内部的免疫反应，但他们往往不能将保护的范围扩大到外部，那里是能够预防细菌和病毒进入内部的第一道防线。在这里，外部不是指皮肤（皮肤过于干燥不适合微生物生存）。而是指潮湿且细菌容易接触的器官表面，例如肺和易感染的内脏就很易受感染。尽管习惯上这些地方被称为体内，但在学术上并不是。任何细菌要进入体内繁殖必须首先通过这些器官的表面粘膜。

Nochi博士进行的基因工程试验包括在大米中培育疫苗。为了证明这一原理可行，他选择霍乱疫苗进行试验，但这也应该同样适用于其他疫苗。应对霍乱，引起免疫系统反应的是被称为霍乱毒素B亚单位的蛋白质。Nochi博士分析出这种蛋白质的基因，并且将其插入大米的染色体组中。他还在邻近B 亚单位基因处插入被称为启动子的第二段DNA。就像这段DNA的名字一样，它会激活邻近基因的活性。启动子自身则由其他分子激活，这些启动子能否表达取决于其所在的细胞是否给其必要的刺激。在这个例子中，Nochi博士的启动子就是在大米组织中发挥作用。

现在，要做的就是种植这种大米并且用它们喂养一些试验用老鼠，以研究将会出现什么结果。首先，谷类粮食在胃中保护了B亚单位被直接消化，因此使传统上一直困扰蛋白质药物的一大难题——蛋白质药物会在胃中被消化往往不能直接口服——得到解决。这同样是霍乱疫苗的一大缺点，现今的霍乱疫苗实际上是口服的，因此往往只能起很小的作用。当B亚单位顺利进入肠内，大米疫苗实际上已经完成Nochi博士所希望的工作，同时疫苗会使人体产生抗体并将这些抗体分泌入肠内表面覆盖的黏液中。Nochi博士的老鼠在实验中得到了保护，当喂食它们霍乱毒素后，它们并没有染病。

但最关键的是，Nochi博士使用在室温下保存了18个月的大米与使用新鲜大米所得到的实验结果是一样良好的。由于需要疫苗来抵抗疾病的地方往往是那些贫穷国家，往往缺乏足够的冷藏系统并且没有足够的稳定电力来供这些系统运行。因此相较传统疫苗，大米疫苗的这一特点可以说是一个巨大的进步。如果Nochi博士的发明可以制成安全且对人有效的产品，对世界上广大贫穷人民的健康安全将会是一个巨大的推动。

Dolly on the dinner table?

Don’t worry about it

The Food and Drug Administration has declared that meat and milk from cloned animals is safe to eat, p aving the way for cloned products

to show up in grocery stores across the land, likely without any special labels or warnings.

This mak es sense because there is absolutely no evidence to show that there is anything unsafe about milk or meat from cloned cows, goats or pigs. (Actually, the FDA is holding off on deciding whether cloned sheep are a safe source of chops, saying not enou gh information is available yet.) But many of us hear the wo rds “meat from cloned animals” and get queasy. Dolly, fairly or not, is to blame.

Dolly, whose remains are on display at the Royal Museum of Scotland, spent her six years on earth as the object of scorn, fea r, derision and slander. The media had a field day upon her birth telling us that Dolly was the key to resurrecting the dead, creating vicious clone armies and a world in which everyone would be trailed by a hapless clone whose internal organs would be available on demand to prolong l ives threatened by disease or old age.

But worse was to follow. Soon wacky cults like the Raelians and nutty scientists were hollering about cloning rich people, cu lt leaders, and generally unsavory types to the rapt and stupefied attention of a media unable to discern the fact that dressing in a Star Trek uniform and displaying a very bad hair dye job did not prove your bona fides as the cloner most to be feared.

All of this nonsense took a toll. It made Americans forget that cloning is nothing more than artificially creatin g twins. It made us forget that every drop of wine we drink comes from cloned grapes.

Dolly got a bad rap. And it has stuck. But the FDA is right to follow the evidence and let products from clones enter the mar ketplace.

If people want these products labe led so they can choose not to buy them, that’s their right.

But, before you decide, remember the only thing you really have to fear from cloned animals is what human beings have done to ruin their reputations!

考研词汇：

pave［peiv］

v.铺砌，铺（路）

［真题例句］53. What can be inferred from the passage?［2000年阅读1］

［D］A long history of success may pave the way for further development.

［例句精译］53. 从本文我们可推知什么？

［D］长期经济成功的历史可能为进一步的发展铺平道路。

scorn［sk?:n］

v./n. 轻蔑，藐视

［真题例句］Few would dispute that the term applies to the Unabomber, whose manifesto, published in 1995, scorns（v.）science and longs for return to a pretechnological utopia.［1998年阅读3］

［例句精译］将该词（反科学）用在仇视现代文明的恐怖主义者身上，也不会引起多大争议，它在1995年公开发表蔑视科学、渴望回到前技术时代理想社会的声明。

vicious［?vi??s］

a.恶毒的，凶残的，邪恶的

［真题例句］47. Misled people tend to think that using an animal in research is.［2003年阅读2］

［C］inevitable but vicious

［例句精译］47?被误导的人们往往认为：在研究中使用动物。

［C］不可避免但邪恶

prolong［pr??l??］

v.拉长，延长

［真题例句］On another level, many in the medical community acknowledge that the assisted?suicide debate has been fueled in part by the despair of patients for whom modern medicine has prolonged the physical agony of dying.［2002年阅读4］［例句精译］另一方面，许多医疗界人士承认，致使医助自杀这场争论升温的部分原因是由于病人们的绝望情绪，对这些病人来说，现代医学延长了临终前肉体的痛苦。

discern［di?s?:n］

v.①认出，发现；②辨别，识别

［真题例句］63. Discerned (①) from the perplexing picture of population growth the 1980 census provided, America in 1970s.［1998年阅读4］

［B］witnessed a southwestern shift of population

［例句精译］63?根据1980年人口统计提供的人口增长的复杂图表可以看出，美国在20世纪70年代。

［B］经历了人口向西南地区的迁移

artificial［?ɑ:ti?fi??l］

a.①人工的，人造的；②人为的，矫揉造作的

［真题例句］Indeed the quest for true artificial (①) intelligence has produced very mixed results.［2002年阅读2］

［例句精译］实际上对真正的人工智能的追求已经产生了各种各样的效果。

［真题例句］The casual friendliness of many Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial (②), but as the result of a historically developed cultural tradition.［1997年阅读2］

［例句精译］很多美国人不经意表现的友好不应被看做是表面或虚假的应酬，而应该看成是文化传统历史发展的结果。

背景常识介绍：

自从科学家研究出第一只克隆羊多利之后，10年以来，不断地有克隆猪、牛、羊、马等牲畜问世，用于科学研究或饲养。

美国食品药物管理局日前表示，该局今年年底将完成相关风险评估，明年有可能出台批准克隆牲畜的肉、奶在美国上市销售的规定。这意味着克隆动物的肉奶制品，最终可能堂而皇之地摆上美国人的餐桌。据估计，美国现有克隆动物的数量在600头至2000头之间，科学家也一直在研究克隆牲畜的食用价值与前景。

多利出现在餐桌上？对此不要担心

食品药品管理局已经宣布从克隆动物身上取得的肉和奶是可以安全食用的，从而为在可能没有任何标签和警告的情况下，使克隆产品进入食品店铺平了道路。

这样做很有意义，因为现在还没有足够的根据来说明从克隆牛、克隆羊、克隆猪身上得到的奶和肉有任何的不安全性。（实际上，食品药品管理局说没有足够可以利用的信息，从而在拖延判断克隆羊是否是安全的食品来源。）但是我们中的很多人一听到“从克隆动物身上得到的肉”这样的字眼就会作呕。多利，不管公平与否，是有责任的。

多利遗留的东西现在都陈列在苏格兰的皇家博物馆，作为被藐视、恐惧、嘲笑和诋毁的对象，她在地球上度过了六年的时间。媒体在一个重要的日子宣布了多利的出生，告诉我们多利是使死亡复活的关键，创造了各种克隆群体和一个世界。在这个世界里，每个人都会被一个不幸的克隆人跟随着，他们的内部器官可以用来延续那些受到疾病或老龄威胁的生命。

但是更糟的事情接着来了。不久像Raelians这样的古怪教派和狂热的科学家都抱怨说，克隆富人、古怪的领导人和那些使媒体专注惊讶的通常令人讨厌的类型并不能辨别这样一个事实，即穿上Star Trek的外衣以及染上非常差的头发并不能证明你认为克隆人令人害怕是一种好意。

这些不合理的话造成了一种混乱。它使得美国人忘记了克隆只不过是人为地创造双胞胎而已。它使我们忘记了我们喝的每一滴酒都来自克隆的葡萄。

多利受到了糟糕的指责。她已经忍受了。但是食品药品管理局公正地依据证据使克隆产品进入了市场。

如果人们想让这些产品贴上标签，那么他们可以选择不去买它们，这是他们的权利。

但是，在你决定之前，只需记住一件事，你对克隆动物真正需要害怕的是人类怎样毁坏了他们的声誉！

College education:

The ladder of fame

ON AUGUST 18th US News & World Report released its 2007 rankings of America’s top colleges. The survey began in 1983 as a sim ple str aw poll, when the magazine asked 662 college presidents to identify the country’s best places of learning. It has since mutat ed into an annual ordeal for reputable universities. A strong showing in the rankings spurs student interest and alumni giving; a s lip has grave consequences for public relations.

University administrators deeply dislike the survey. Many reject the idea that schools can be stacked up against one another in any meaningful way. And the survey’s methodology is suspect. The rankings are s till based partly on peer ev aluations. They compare rates of alumni giving, which has little to do with the transmission of knowledge. Besides, the magazine’s data are supplied by the sc hools and uncorroborated.

But whether the rankings are fair is beside the point, because they are wildly influential. In the 1983 survey barely half of the presidents approached bothered to respond. Today, only a handful dare abstain.

Most, in fact, do more than simply fill out the survey. Competition between colleges for top students is increasing, partly because of the very popularity of rankings. Colin Diver, the president of Reed College in Oregon, considers that “rankings create powerful i ncentiv es to manipulate data and distort institutional behaviour.” A school may gam e the system by soliciting applications from students who stand no chance of admission, or by leaning on alumni to arrange jobs for graduates. Reed is one of the few prominent colleges that dares to disdain to take part in the US News survey.

In some ways, the scramble to attract applicants has helped students. Universities such as Duke in North Carolina and Rice in Houston are devoting more money to scholarships. That seems a reasonable response to the challenge of the rankings, as the National Centr e for Education Statistics reckons that roughly two-thirds of undergraduates rely on financial aid.

Other colleges, though, are trying to drum up excitement by offering perks that would have been unheard of a generation ago. Students at the University of Califor nia, Los Angeles now appreciate weekly maid service in the dorms. “The elev ators”, enthused a respondent to an online survey, “smell lemon fresh.” Students at Pennsy lvania State University enjoy free access to Napster, the music-sharing service. Multi-million dollar gyms have become so common that they are unremarkable.

University officials, defending this strategy, often imply that they are only responding to student demand. Discouraging words for those who believe that a college’s job is to educate, not c oddle.

考研词汇：

spur［sp?:］

n.①靴刺，马刺；②刺激，刺激物；v.刺激，激励

grave［greiv］

n.坟墓；a.严肃的，庄重的

［真题例句］Lots of Americans bought that nonsense, and over three decades, some 10 million smokers went to early graves (n.).［2005

年阅读2］

［例句精译］竟然有许多美国人买这些谬论的帐，30年来，大约有一千万烟民早早就进了坟墓。

reject［ri?d?ekt］

v.①拒绝，抵制，驳回；②丢弃；③排斥，退掉

［真题例句］In fact it is simply shallow: the confused center is right to reject (②) it.［1997年翻译］

［例句精译］事实上，它很肤浅；困惑的中间派正要放弃它。

［真题例句］(65) Until these issues are resolved, a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected (③), and with it possibly the only way to solve our problems.［2002年翻译］

［例句精译］（65）（如果）这些问题得不到解决，研究行为的技术手段就会继续受到排斥，解决问题的惟一方式可能也随之继续受到排斥。

peer［pi?］

n.同等的人，贵族；vi.凝视，窥视；vt. 与……同等，封为贵族

［真题例句］38. In the author’s opinion, advertising__________.［2006年阅读4］

［B］is a cause of disappointment for the general peer (n.)

［例句精译］38. 根据作者的观点，广告_________。

［B］是造成大部分人沮丧的原因

distort［di?st?:t］

v.歪曲，扭曲

［真题例句］Hallucinogens have their prim ary effect on perception, distorting and altering it in a variety of ways including producing hallucinations.［1997年阅读3］

［例句精译］迷幻剂主要影响人的感知，通过多种方式对感知加以扭曲或改变，其中包括产生幻觉。

scramble［?skr?mb?l］

n./v.攀爬，争夺

背景常识介绍：

近年来，各个机构、各个组织都打着各种旗号来进行所谓的大学排名，希望从一定方面来把大学的层次、水平进行有序排列，列出个英雄榜来。一列英雄榜，那自然是排名有分先后，水平高低也不一了。面对各种繁多的排名花样，仅从高校方就反映不一，有的宠辱不惊，安之若素，有的怒发冲冠、坚决抵制。对于排名榜本身的科学性和权威性来说，人们也不知该如何参照，却也全当是小儿游戏“排排坐”，合己胃口便充分采纳，反之则以其无科学依据缺乏权威等理由视而不见罢了。

参考译文：

高校教育名誉之阶

《美国新闻与世界报道（US News & World Report）》于8月18日刊登了2007年度美国名校的排名。这项调查最早在1983年以一种非正式投票的形式开始。当时，为挑出全国最好的大学，杂志向662所高校的校长发出了调查。从此以后，这项调查就成了那些名校一年一度必经的考核：如果学校名列前茅将吸引学生的兴趣和校友的赞助；排名下滑的话就会严重影响学校的声誉。

大学的主管们对这项调查深恶痛绝。他们认为将学校依次排序没有任何意义，而且调查的方法也令人生疑。排名仍要参考来自同僚的评估，调查还要比较各校的校友捐赠率，而这与传授知识并无干系。此外，杂志所采用的数据均由学校提供，并未经过核实。

然而排名公平与否并不重要，因为这些排名早已深入人心。1983年的调查中，不到一半的校长愿意给予答复；而今天，敢于不参与此项调查的学校寥寥无几。

实际上，大多数学校所做的不仅是简单地填写调查表。大学之间招收优等生的竞争日益激烈，部分原因是学生很看重大学排名。俄勒冈州里德大学校长科林·戴福尔（Colin Diver）认为，“排名（的重要性）使人们有强烈的欲望去捏造数据，或采用非正当手段（参与竞争）。”学校也许会给原本无望入学的学生发出邀请函，或者依靠校友为毕业生安排工作，以此来赢取好的排名。里德大学是为数不多的敢于拒绝《美国新闻》排名调查的名牌大学之一。

从某种程度上来说，生源的竞争使学生得益。加利福尼亚州北部的杜克（Duke）大学和休斯敦的莱斯（Rice）大学等均增加了奖学金的投入。这显然是为争取排名而采取的合理应对措施。因为据美国教育中心统计数据表明，约有三分之二的本科生依赖助学金就学。

然而，其他一些大学所采取的扩大生源的手段在几十年前闻所未闻。加州大学洛杉矶分校的学生现在非常赞赏寝室里每周一次的女佣服务。一名热心网友在网络问卷中这样说道“电梯闻起来有新鲜的柠檬味。宾夕法尼亚州立大学的学生可以免费使用Napster(一种音乐共享服务)。学校投入数百万美元建设健身房也已司空见惯。

校方人员为此类行为辩解时通常表示，他们只是满足学生的需求。对于那些认为学校的职责是教育而非溺爱的人而言，这样的话实在让人气馁。

Animal behaviour: A stilted story

IF THERE were a Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ants, Matthias Wittlinger of the University of Ulm, in Germany, would probably be top of its hate list. The reason is that Dr Wittlinger and his colleagues have, as they report in th is week’s Science, been chopping the feet off ants. And not only that. They have been making other ants walk around on stilts.

Saharan desert ants of the genus Cataglyphis have to travel long distances to discover food in their impoverished, sandy envi ronment. How they find their way home once they have done so is a mystery. Ants in more temperate climates often lay down chemical trails, but Cataglyphis, apparently, does not. Like honeybees and ancient mariners, they can navigate by the sun, so they know th e general direction in

which to travel. But, also like ancient m ariners (who knew their latitude, but not their longitude), such solar reckoning can not tell them when to stop.

Dr Wittlinger, therefore, decided to investig ate a century-old hypothesis that desert ants have internal pedometers—in other words, they count their steps out, and they count them back. When one total matches the other, they are home. To test this idea he traine d his ants to walk from their nests to a feeding station through a ten-metre-long channel. When they had picked up the food, he caught them and made them return through a different channel, which also led to the nest. When they made this return journey, they began their characteristic nest-searching behaviour, quartering the ground in detail looking for the entrance, after travelling about ten metres.

Once the ants had mastered this trick, the experiment proper began. Some ants, when they arriv ed at the feeding station, had the ends of their legs amputated, to shorten their stride length. Others were fitted with stilts in the form of pig-bristles glued to their feet. Both lots were then returned to the feeding station, to make the journey home.

As predicted, the ants on stilts, whose stride-length meant their internal pedometers had not clicked enough times, walked blithely past their nests, and were left stranded almost five metres on the far side before they started looking for the hole. Meanwhile, t he poor stumped ants travelled only about six metres before they started their search.

The story, however, has a happy ending. Having proved his point, Dr Wittlinger returned both stumped and stilted ants to the nest and gave them a few days to recover. Then he let them out for another run. Now that they could re-count their outbound journeys, they were able to calculate the journey home correctly. Ants may not be very bright, but it seems they have a head for figures.

考研词汇：

chop［t??p］

v.砍，劈，斩；n.排骨，肉块

［真题例句］His colleague, Michael Beer, says that far too many companies hav e applied re?engineering in a mechanistic fashion, chopping (v.) out costs without giving sufficient thought to long?term profitability.［1998年阅读2］

［例句精译］他的同事迈克·比尔说，太多的企业用机械的方式进行机构重组，在没有充分考虑到长期效益的情况下就降低了成本。

impoverish［im?p?v?ri?］

vt.使贫穷，使枯竭

［真题例句］To take advantage of this tool, some impoverished countries will have to get over their outdated anti?colonial prejudices with respect to foreign investment.［2001年阅读2］

［例句精译］要想利用互联网，某些贫困国家必须克服对国外投资所持的过时了的反殖民的种种偏见。

apparent［??p?r?nt］

a.①（to）明显的，显而易见的；②表面的，貌似的

［真题例句］It is generally recognized, (29：however), that the introduction of the computer in the early 20th century, (30：followed) by the invention of the integrated circuit during the 1960s, radically changed the process, (31：although) its impact on the media was not immediately (32：apparent) (①) .［2002年完形］

［例句精译］但人们普遍都承认，20世纪早期电子计算机的出现，以及随后20世纪60年代发明的集成电路，虽然对传媒没有产生立竿见影的影响，但是却完全改变了发展进程。

reckon［?rek?n］

v.①认为，估计；②指望，想要；③测算

［真题例句］In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned (①) as the crucial peri od for this change in the structure of science.［2001年阅读1］

［例句精译］然而，从科学这个整体来看，19世纪必须被视为科学结构发生变化的关键时期。

hypothesis［hai?p?θisis］

n.假说，假设，前提

［真题例句］Later, this idea became to be known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, but this term is somewhat inappropriate.［2004年翻译］［例句精译］后来此观点成为著名的Sapir-Whorf假说，但这一说法并不适当。

stride［straid］

v.大步走（过），迈进，跨过；n.迈步，阔步

［真题例句］Every morning, its people (41：swarm) into the offices and factories of America, seeking a d ay?s work for a day?s pay, one day at a time.［1997年完形］

(41)［A］swarm［B］stride

［C］separate［D］slip

［例句精译］每天早晨，公司的人们涌入美国的工厂和办公室，求得当日即付工资的工作，一次只干一天。

(41)［A］云集，涌往［B］大步走

［C］分离的，分开的［D］滑倒，滑掉

背景常识介绍：

说来也许令人难以置信，不少动物懂得计数，有些动物还是数学天才。有人对鸽子做了一项实验：给它喂食玉米，一粒一粒喂给它吃，每次都喂６粒。突然喂给它第７粒玉米，它竟不吃。科学家发现了灰松鼠在越冬之前要贮存食品，它将许多松果藏在不同的地方。可是以后它找到其中的六、七堆之后，

别的地方就不再找了。可能灰松鼠只能数到７。美国的动物学家试验过黑猩猩的计数本领：把香蕉放在箱子里，每次放10根，让黑猩猩自己打开箱子吃。有一次，箱子里只放８根香蕉，黑猩猩吃完后不肯离去；再给它吃１根，它还不肯走；直到吃满10根，它这才离去。黑猩猩也许能数到１０。还有小小的蚂蚁，其计数本领也毫不逊色。

参考译文：

动物行为：踩高跷的故事

假如有一个皇家防止残害蚂蚁协会的话，德国乌尔姆大学的马提亚·威特林格可能会首当其冲地成为其憎恨对象。这是因为威特林格博士和他的同事们在本周《科学》杂志上报道说他们砍去了一些蚂蚁的脚。这还不算，他们还让别的蚂蚁踩着高跷走路。

撒哈拉沙漠的箭蚁不得不在贫瘠的沙质环境中长途跋涉寻找食物。它们找完食物后如何返回蚁巢却一直是个谜。温和气候环境下的蚂蚁往往会在路途中留下化学记号，可箭蚁显然不会。它们跟蜜蜂和古代海员一样，可以通过日照导航，从而知道出行的大致方向。但是也跟古代海员一样（他们只会辨认纬度不会辨认经度），这种根据太阳测算位置的方法无法告知它们该在何时结束行程。

所以，威特林格博士决定验证一下这个世纪猜想——沙漠蚂蚁体内含有步数计（里程表），换言之，它们在出行时算好步数，然后再一步步数着返回。等到两者总数吻合时，就“到家”了。为此，威特林格博士对其养殖的蚂蚁进行了训练，让它们经过一条十米长的沟从蚁巢走到一个饲喂点。当它们获取食物后，就把它们捉住，让它们通过另一条通往蚁巢的沟返回。返回时，它们特有的觅巢行为就开始了，即在行走了大约10米远后，它们会在地上仔细地刻下指向蚁巢入口的标记。

等到蚂蚁学会了这一窍门，实验才真正开始。有的蚂蚁抵达饲喂点后，它们的腿部末端被切除，以缩短其步长。其他的蚂蚁则在其脚部粘上猪鬃，做成高跷。然后，两群蚂蚁均被放还至饲喂点，让其返回蚁巢。

不出所料，踩高跷的蚂蚁由于其步长造成体内步数计无法运作足够次数，因此竟似闲庭信步一般走过了蚁巢，结果在离蚁巢近5米远的地方愣住了，然后才开始继续寻找洞穴。与此同时，遭“截肢”的那些可怜的蚂蚁只走了大约6米远就开始寻找洞穴。

不过，这个故事的结尾还是令人高兴的。威特林格博士证实其猜想后，又把“截肢”蚂蚁和踩高跷蚂蚁都放回蚁巢，给它们几天时间来康复。然后，他把它们放出去开始又一轮试验。这一次它们可以重新计算出行步数，因此也就可以准确地计算出返程的步履了。蚂蚁也许并不太聪明，但似乎天生就是数字高手。

Why GM is good for us

Farm-raised pigs are dirty, smelly animals that get no respect. They’re also an environmental hazard. Their manure contains phosph orus, which, when it rains, runs off into lakes and estuaries, depleting oxygen, killing fish, stimulating al gae overgrowth and emitting greenhouse gases.

Doing away with the pig is not an option. Pigs provide more dietary protein, more cheaply, to more people than any other animal. Northern Europe still maintains the highest pig-to-human ratio in the world (2-1 in Denmark), but East Asia is catching up. During the 1990s, pork production doubled in Vietnam and grew by 70 percent in China—along densely populated coastlines, pig density exceeds 100 animals per square kilometer. The resulting pollution is “threatenin g fragile coastal marine habitats including mangroves（红树林）, coral reefs and sea grasses,” according to a report released in February by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

As it turns out, there is a solution to the pig problem, but it requires a change of mind-set among environmentalists and the public. Two Canadian scientists have created a pig whose manure doesn’t contain very much phosphorus at all. If this v ariety of pig were adopted widely, it could greatly reduce a major source of pollution. But the Enviropig, as they call it, is the product of genetic modification—which is anathema （忌讳）to many Westerners.

The Enviropig is one of many new technologies that are putting environmentalists and organic-food proponents in a quandary: should they remain categorically（无条件的）opposed to genetically modified (GM) foods even at the expense of the environment? Elsewhere, trees grown for paper could be made amenable to much more efficient processing, reducing both energy usage and toxic chemical bleac h in effluents from paper mills. The most significant GM applications will be ones that help alleviate the problem of agriculture, which accounts for 38 percent of the world’s landmass and is crowding out natural ecosystems and species habitats.

In fact, although all commonly used pesticides dissip ate so quickly that they pose a miniscule health risk t o consumers, allergic food reactions to natural products kill hundreds of children each y ear. Genetically modified foods could greatly reduce this risk. U.S. Department of Agriculture scientist Eliot Herman has already created a less-allergenic soybean—an important crop for baby foods. Through genetic surgery, Herman turned off the soy gene responsible for 65 percent of allergic reactions. Not only was the modified soy less allergeni c in tests but, as Herman explained, “the y ield looks perfectly normal, pla nts develop and grow at a normal rate and they seem to have the same kinds of protein, oil and other good stuff in them.” Other scientists have reported promising results in shutting off allergy?causing g enes in peanuts and shrimp. Should these advances be turned into products, organic soy or peanut products will be certifiably more dangerous to human health than comparable nonorganic products.

Unfortunately, this won’t happen any time soon. Because no society has ev er banned allergenic foods, conventional farmers have no incentive to plant reduced-allergy seeds. And many members of the public have been led to believe that all genetic modifications create health risks. In this climate, much of the needed research isn’t being pursued. Chances are, farmers wil l continue to grow their polluting organic pork, their allergenic organic soy and their neurotoxin?sprayed organic apples. Worse still, they will make sure that no one else gets a choice in the matter of improving the conditions of life on earth—unless, that is, others rise up and demand an alternative.

考研词汇：

deplete ［di?pli:t］

vt.用尽，使减少；耗尽资源

stimulate［?stimjuleit］

v.①刺激，使兴奋；②激励，鼓舞

［真题例句］The rats (49：develop) bacterial infections of the blood, (50：as if) their immune systems—the self?protecting mechanism against disease—had crashed.［1995年完形］

(49) ［A］develop［B］produce

［C］stimulate［D］induce

［例句精译］老鼠患血液细菌感染，似乎它们的免疫系统——抵御疾病的自我保护机制——已崩溃。

(49) ［A］发展，开发［B］生产，制造

［C］刺激，激励［D］引诱，导致

emit［i?mit］

v.散发，发射

［真题例句］According the the theory, the universe burst into being as a submicroscopic, unimaginable dense knot of pure energy that flew outward in all directions, emitting radiation as it went, condensing into particles and then into atoms of gas.［1998年翻译］［例句精译］根据这一理论，宇宙的形成是由一团亚微观的、极其稠密的纯能量团从四面八方向外扩散，首先放出辐射线，浓缩成粒子，然后形成气体原子。

amenable［??mi:n?b?l］

a.应服从的, 有服从义务的, 有责任的

dissipate［?disipeit］

v.驱散，（使）（云、雾、疑虑等）消散，浪费（金钱或时间）

allergenic［??l?:d?ik］

a.［医］引起过敏症的

背景常识介绍：

转基因食品(GM FOOD)，就是指科学家在实验室中，把动植物的基因加以改变，再制造出具备新特征的食品种类。“转基因食品”如今已经在世界上多个国家成了环境和健康的中心议题。并且，它还在迅速分裂大众的思想阵营：赞同它的人认为科技的进步能大大提高我们的生活水平，而畏惧它的人则认为科学的实践已经走得“太快”了。

参考译文：

为什么转基因食品对我们有好处？

农场饲养的猪又脏又臭，得不到人的好感。它们同样对环境也是一种威胁。它们的排泄物含有磷，下雨的时候，将被冲刷进入湖中和江河口，耗尽水中的氧气，杀死鱼类，刺激藻类的生长，并且释放温室气体。

但是不养猪也不是办法。猪比任何其他的动物都能够提供更多的更便宜的食用蛋白质给更多的人。北欧地区依然是世界上人平均拥有猪的比例最大的（丹麦2：1 猪/人），但是东亚这一比例正逐渐赶上来。在20世纪90年代，越南的猪肉生产翻了一倍，中国则增长了70%——在人口稠密的沿海一带，猪的拥有密度超过了每平方公里100头。根据联合国食品和农业组织2月份的一份报告，这种情况所导致的污染“正威胁着脆弱的海岸生态，包括红树林、珊瑚礁和海草”。

事实上，是有办法解决这个由猪导致的污染的问题的，但是它需要环保人士和公众改变一些根深蒂固的观点。两名加拿大的科学家培育了一种粪便当中不含有多少磷的猪种。如果这种猪被广泛采纳，将会极大减少污染的来源。但是这种被我们称为‘环保猪’的猪种是一种基因变异产品，这是很多西方人所忌讳的。

环保猪就是那些使得环保人士和有机食品支持者陷入两难境地的新科技之一：他们到底是否应当无条件地继续反对转基因食品，哪怕是要以牺牲环境为代价呢？在其他一些领域，被用来造纸的树木可以被改得更加容易处理，这样一来就会减少能量消耗和造纸厂化学漂白物的排放。更加重要的是，转基因将被用于缓和农业问题，农业如今占据了世界土地的38%，正排挤着生态系统和物种的栖息地。

事实上，尽管所有常用的杀虫剂都会很快挥发，对消费者的健康危害很小，但是对自然界食物过敏反应却每年都导致成百上千的儿童丧生。转基因食物将减少这一风险。美国农业部的科学家Eliot Herman 已经制造出了一种少一些过敏性的大豆——一种重要的婴儿食物。通过基因手术，Herman 将导致65%的过敏反应的大豆基因去除。这种改变不仅仅在试验当中少一些致过敏性，而且正如Herman 所说明的，“该产品看起来完全天然，植株的生长比例完全正常，并且似乎含有相同种类的蛋白质、油和其他的有益物质。”其他科学家也称在减少花生和虾的过敏性基因方面取得了积极的成果。如果这些技术进步被用到生产中，有机的大豆或者花生产品将比非有机的产品对人体的健康危害更大了。

但是，这不是会马上发生的事情。因为没有哪个国家曾经禁用过敏性的食品, 所以传统的农民没有任何动力去种植低过敏的作物。并且公众被引导认为所有的转基因都会产生健康威胁。在这种环境下，大多数需要的研究都没有进行。可能的情况是，农民将继续生产他们的污染环境的猪肉、过敏的有机大豆以及喷有神经毒素的有机苹果。更糟糕的是，他们将确保没有其他人能够有机会改进这地球上的生物状况——除非其他人站出来要求另外的选择。

Organ transplants: Your part or mine?

AS MARKETS in human organ s go, the one which flourishes on Tehran’s Vali Asr street, where Iran’s main transplant hospital is located, is not the cruellest—and there is no lack of people willing to discuss their transactions. Gholamreza, a 44-year-old man from northern Iran, expla ins what he did when his dialysis started to fail. “I put an advertisement in the paper for a kidney, and a donor came straig ht to me. We reached an agreement on the price quite quickly. In these cases, the recipient usually takes care of the donor afterwa rds. So I still visit my donor and help him out.”

Another man wandering round the district, aged around 30 and wearing torn, cheap clothing, is hoping he can find a buyer as decent as Gholamreza claims to be. He expects to get between $3,000 and $4,000 for one of his kidneys. “I need the money because I lost out in a pyramid investment scam. After the operation I won’t be able to lift heavy things, but I can still liv e with only one kidney.”

Iran’s Association of Kidney Patients, a non-government organisation which obviously enjoys official favour, is responsible for all legal kidney transplants: it insists that commercial deals are the exception, not the rule. For one thing, it says, the religious a uthorities encourage voluntary gifts: in other words, cases where a patient receives a kidney freely offered by a friend or relativ e. Pious Muslims may also offer up a kidney to anyone who needs it.

For surgeons, patients and medical economists alike, the shortage of kidneys seems frustrating, because no organ len ds itself better to transplant. As long as they receive decent after-care, kidney donors suffer only the tiniest increase in their own risk of dying of kidney disease. And transplants make economic sense: the cost of one kidney operation and a lifetime’s s upply of anti?rejection drugs equals that of three years’ dialysis. Kidneys donated by a living person last for a median 22 years in another body; when they are taken from a fr esh corpse, the figure is 14 years.

Whatever solution they propose to the shortage of kidneys, nobody doubts that the black market, as it now works, has grotesque effects, both for donors and recipients. Rich westerners who go to South Asia or Africa in search of kidneys often receive organs that are diseased or unsuitable.

Nancy Scheper-Hughes, an American professor of medical anthropology and campaigner against organ trading, says the way poor Brazilians were induced to travel to South Africa is typical of the abuses a market in body parts, especially an international one, is bound to cause. She say s donors in the Brazilian slums were given false promises about the money they would make, the care they would receive and the after-effects of the operation.

Some senior figures in the medical world draw a different conclusion: as long as some people are determined to obtain kidneys and others are desperate enough to sell them, the trade will be impossible to stop—so it makes better sense to regulate the business than drive it underground.

考研词汇：

flourish［?fl?ri?］

v.繁荣，茂盛，兴旺

［真题例句］It’s theory to which many economists subscribe, but in practice it often leaves railroads in the position of determining which companies will flourish and which will fail.［2003年阅读3］

［例句精译］这种理论得到了多数经济学家的认同，但在实际操作中，它使铁路公司获得了一个决定谁败谁荣的权利。

transaction［tr?n?z?k??n］

n.①办理，处理；②交易，事务；③［pl.］会报，学报

［真题例句］Conrail?s net railway operating income in 1996 was just $427 million, less than half of the carrying costs of the transaction (②).［2003年阅读3］

［例句精译］联合铁路公司1996年铁路运营纯收入为4.27亿美元，这还不足这宗交易运作成本的一半。

recipient［ri?sipi?nt］

a.容易接受的，感受性强的；n.①容纳者，容器；②接受者

［真题例句］This kind of support, like all government support, requires decisions about the appropriate recipients (n.②) of funds.［1996年翻译］

［例句精译］这种资助就像所有的政府资助一样，需要决定资金的合适的接受对象。

voluntary［?v?l?nt?ri］

a.自愿的，志愿的

［真题例句］Downshifting—also known in America as “voluntary simplicity”—has, ironically, even bred a new area of what might be termed anti-consumerism.［2001年阅读5］

［例句精译］具有讽刺意味的是，“放慢生活节奏”——在美国也称“自愿简单化”——甚至孕育了一个崭新的、可称之为反消费主义的生活方式。

bound［baund］

v./n. 跳（跃）；a.①被束缚的，理应……的，必定的，一定的；②准备（或正在）到……去的，开往……的；③（be bound up with）与……有密切关系

［真题例句］The innovator will search for alternate courses, which may prove easier in the long run and are bound (a.①) to be more interesting and challenging even if they lead to dead ends.［1994年阅读5］

［例句精译］创新者则会探寻另外不同的道路，而这样的道路将会最终被证实更简单、也一定更有趣、更富挑战性，即使它们通向绝境。

［真题例句］(72) Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of a country’s economy is directly bound (a.③) up with the efficiency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rests upon the efforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds.［2000年翻译］

［例句精译］（72）再者，显而易见的是一个国家的经济实力与其工农业生产效率直接相关，而效率的提高则又有赖于各类科技人员的努力。

desperate［?desp?rit］

a.①绝望的；②不顾一切的，拼死的

［真题例句］59. Which of the following best defines the word “aggressive” (Line 1, Paragraph 7)?［2002年阅读4］

［D］Desperate (①)

［例句精译］59.下面的哪个词最好地解释了“aggressive”一词（第七段第一行）的意思？

［D］不顾一切的

背景常识介绍：

1936年俄国人Voronov为一急性肾功能衰竭的病人进行了尸体肾脏移植,虽然只存活了48小时,但却揭开了肾脏移植的序幕,肾脏移植是迄今为止世界上根治肾功能衰竭最有效的办法。

参考译文：

器官移植：你的还是我的？

就人体器官市场而言，活跃于德黑兰瓦里阿瑟（Vali Asr）大街的市场还不算是最悲惨的，这里坐落着伊朗主要的移植医院——也从不缺愿意讨论交易的人。来自伊朗北部的44岁男子古拉姆瑞扎（Gholamreza）解释了他在肾脏透析治疗开始不起作用之后所做的事：“我在报纸上刊登了一则寻求肾脏的广告，就有一名捐赠者直接同我联系。我们很快就谈好了价格。在这类情况下，接受捐献者以后通常会照顾捐赠者。因此，我常看望我的捐赠人，并帮助他解决困难。”

另一名年约30岁、身穿破烂而便宜的衣服的人，则正在该区徘徊，希望能找到一个如古拉姆瑞扎所自诩的那种大方的买主。他希望自己的一只肾脏可以换得3000至4000美元。“因为我在传销骗局中失利，我急需钱用。尽管手术之后我不能干重活，但我还可以凭一只肾活下去。”

显然受到官方支持的非政府组织“伊朗肾脏患者协会（Iran’s Association of Kidney Patients）”负责所有合法的肾脏移植事务：该组织坚持称，商业交易是例外，而不是常态。它表示，首先，宗教权威鼓励自愿捐献；此外，患者通常接受的是由朋友或亲戚免费提供的肾脏。虔诚的穆斯林也会将肾脏捐献给任何需要的人。

对外科医生、患者及医疗经济学家而言，肾脏的匮乏似乎令人沮丧，因为没有比肾脏移植更适合的器官移植了。只要接受适当的病后护理与治疗，肾脏捐献者死于自身肾病的风险只有微小的增加。此外，移植也有经济学意义：一次肾脏手术以及终生抗排斥药物的供应与三年透析治疗费用相当。活人捐献的肾脏在另一人的体内平均可以维持22年；而从新鲜尸体上获得的肾脏则可以维持14年。

无论对肾脏短缺提出怎样的解决方案，没有人怀疑黑市对捐献者和接受者双方带来怪诞的结果，正如目前的情形那样。去南亚或非洲寻找肾脏的西方富人们通常得到的都是带疾病的或不适应的肾脏。

南希·谢柏?休斯（Nancy Scheper?Hughes）是一名美国医学人类学教授，也是一名反对器官买卖的活动人士，她说，劝诱巴西穷人前往南非旅行的方式是人体器官市场，特别是国际性的市场，所必然促生的典型弊端。她表示，巴西贫民窟的捐赠者只得到有关可挣钱款、所获照顾以及手术后果的虚假承诺。

医学界一些资深人物则给出了不同的结论：只要一些人决心获得肾脏，而另一些人铤而走险地贩售，交易就很难被阻止——因此，更理智的处理是规范交易，而不是消除它。

Affluence Happiness (and how to measure it)

HAVING grown at an annual rate of 3.2% per head since 2000, the world economy is over half way towards notching up its best decade ever. If it keeps going at this clip, it will beat both the supposedly idyllic 1950s and the 1960s. Market capitalism, the en gine that runs most of the world economy, seems to be doing its job well.

But is it? Once upon a time, that job was generally agreed to be to make people better off. Nowadays that’s not so clear. A n umber of economists, in search of big problems to solve, and politicians, looking for bold promises to make, think that it ought to be doing something else: making people happy.

The view that economics should be about more than money is widely held in continental Europe. In debates with Anglo-American capitalists, wil y bons vivants have tended to cite the idea of “quality of life” to excuse slower economic growth. But now David Cameron, the latest leader of Britain’s once rather m aterialistic Conserv ative Party, has espoused the notion of “general well-being” (GWB) as an alternative to the more traditional GDP. In America, meanwhile, inequality, over-work and other hidden costs of prosperity were much discussed in the mid-term elections; and “wellness” (as opposed to health) has become a huge industry, catering especial ly to the prosperous discontent of the baby-boomers.

Much of this draws on the upstart science of happiness, which mixes psychology with economics. Its adherents start with copious survey data, such as those derived from the simple, folksy question put to thousands of Americans every year or two since 1972:“Tak en all together, how would you say things are these days—would you say that you are v ery happy, pretty happy or not too happy?” Some of the results are unsurprising: the rich report being happier than do the poor. But a paradox emerges that requires explanation: affluent countries have not got much happier as they have grown richer. From America to Japan, figures for well-being have b arely budged.

The science of happiness offers two explanations for the paradox. Capitalism, it notes, is adept at turning luxuries into necessities—bringing to the masses what the elites have alway s enjoyed. But the flip side of this genius is that people come to take for granted things they once coveted from afar. Frills they never thought they could have become essentials that they cannot do without. People

are stuck on a treadmill: as they achiev e a better standard of living, they become inured to its pleasures.

Capitalism’s ability to tak e things downmarket also has its limits. Many of the things people most prize—such as the top jobs, the best education, or an exclusive home address—are luxuries by necessity. An elite schooling, for example, ceases to be so if it is provided to everyone. These “positional goods”, as they are called, are in fixed supply: you can enjoy them only if others do not. The amount of money and effort required to grab them depends on how much your rivals are putting in.

考研词汇：

cater［[?k eit?］

vi.备办食物，满足（需要），投合

［真题例句］“Instead of intimate shops catering to a knowledgeable elite.” these were stores “anyone could enter, reg ardless of class or background. This turned shopping into a public and democratic act.”［2006年阅读1］

［例句精译］“不像那些个人商店那样，只满足有学识的精英人士的需求”，这些商店“不论阶级与背景，任何人都能进入。这推进了购物大众化和民主化的进程。”

prosperous［?pr?sp?r?s］

a.繁荣的，兴旺的

［真题例句］America and Americans were prosperous beyond the dreams of the Europeans and Asians whose economies the war had destroyed.［2000年阅读1］

［例句精译］美国的国富民强是那些经济遭到战争破坏的欧亚诸国做梦也无法想到的。

derive［di?raiv］

v.取得，导出，引申

［真题例句］“Anthropology” derives from the Greek words anthropos “human” and logos “the study of.”［2003年翻译］［例句精译］Anthropology（人类学）一词来源于希腊词anthropos（人类）和logos（研究）。

elite［ei?li:t]］

n.①［总称］上层人士，掌权人物，实力集团；②出类拔萃的人（集团），精英

［真题例句］Reporters tend to be part of a broadly de fined social and cultural elite (②), so their work tends to reflect the conventional values of this elite.［2001年阅读3］

［例句精译］记者们属于广义的社会文化精英的一部分，因此他们的工作往往反映了这些精英传统的价值观。

stick［stik］

n.棍，棒，手杖；v.①刺，戳，扎；②粘合，附着；③坚持，固守

［真题例句］This means that our noses are (3：limited) to perceiving those smells which flo at through the air, (4：missing) the m ajority of smells which stick (v.②) to surfaces.［2005年完形］

［例句精译］这就意味着人的鼻子只局限于察觉飘浮于空气中的气味；而错过大部分粘附于物体表面的气味。

［真题例句］You w ill be on safer ground if you stick (v.③) to scapegoats like the Post Office or the telephone system.［2002年阅读1］［例句精译］如果你选择去评论邮局或电话局这样的替罪羊，那你就会处于比较安全的境地。

exclusive［ik?sklu:siv］

a.①专有的，独占的；②除外的，排他的

［真题例句］61. Physical dependence on certain substances results from.［1997年阅读3］

［B］exclusive (①) use of them for social purposes

［例句精译］61. 对某些物质的生理依赖是由于。

［B］出于社交目的而专用这些物质

背景常识介绍：

GDP的数字在增加，可清澈的河流和蔚蓝的天空却越来越少。当听到一个天真无邪的孩子和父母争论为什么天是灰色的时候，我们无言却不惊讶。当打开一幢漂亮别墅的窗子正要欣赏窗外美景的你突然闻到一股臭气扑面而来，你的幸福感觉还剩多少？当问一位病入膏肓的富翁他最想要的是什么时，他会毫不犹豫地回答是健康，即使散尽他的家财。

社会发展的最终目标是使人民获得幸福。然而用这个标准去考量GDP指标时，却发现它似乎并不是一个能够完整体现这一点的指标。是的，我们看到了经济增长，但却没有看到由此带来的人们幸福感同等程度的增加。GDP被萨缪尔森称为“20世纪最大的发明之一”，它虽然是一个重要指标，但却不是万能的。

参考译文：

富裕与幸福（如何衡量）

自2000年起就以人均3.2%的年速率增长着的世界经济如今已离目标——“创有史以来经济发展最好十年”——更加近了。如果继续这样大跨步前进，将超越人们心中“美好的50年代及60年代”。市场资本主义——世界绝大多数国家经济发展的引擎，似乎递交上了一份令人满意的答卷。

真是这样吗？曾几何时，大家都相信“满意的答卷”就是让人们生活更加富裕。但如今却不那么确定了。许许多多想要解决大问题的经济学家和想要做出大胆承诺的政治家们开始认为，“满意的答卷”应该不止这些，还应能使人们幸福。

欧洲大陆国家普遍接受这样一个观点：经济学绝不只是关于钱。在和盎格鲁血统的美国人争论时，那些老谋深算的奢华贵族们就常常打出“生活质量”

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手段，例如：挂图、音像等，丰富教学内容和形式，促进学生课堂学习；要利用计算机和多媒体教学软件，探索新的教学模式，促进学生的个性化学习；要开发和利用广播电视、英语报刊、图书馆和网络等多种资源，为学生创造自主学习的条件。 近年来，高考英语卷对考生的阅读理解能力的要求又有了较大幅度的提高，其主要特点是： A) 侧重语篇领悟能力和语言解码能力的考查，强调多学科知识的贯通； B) 注重语篇分析水平、合理判断能力及根据语义进行逻辑推理能力的考查； C) 读速要求大大提高，阅读词汇量逐年增加。 在进行实验前，我们以高XX级29、30两个班共计109位学生为调查对象，共发问卷109份，收回109份。这两个班都是理科实验班，学生英语基础较好，他们对于英语阅读的反映很大程度上代表了大部分学生的水平。他们中存在的问题基本上就是学生中普遍存在的问题。从所收回的这些问卷来看，现在获取信息的方式大多数学生还是通过课堂（占56.88%）,其次是通过报刊（占45.87%）和因特网、电视(占35.78%)。很少有学生课外阅读过身边的与学校英语学习不相干的英语资料（31.19%），他们所读的英语资料不外乎是教材或者是课文的一些配套材料，而那些材料多半是一

科研课题模板英语阅读开题报告详解

《提高小学生英语阅读能力的方法探究》课题开题报告 《提高小学生英语阅读能力的方法探究》课题组 2016-10-28

《提高小学生英语阅读能力的方法探究》课题开题报告 一、课题的提出： 1、提高学生英语阅读能力的重要意义。 社会生活的信息化和经济的全球化使英语的重要性日夜突出。我国与世界各国之间的交往日趋频繁，各层次的联系更为广泛，因此作为国际交流通用语言的英语学习就显得尤为重要和迫切。同时，英语在世界范围的通用性也决定其具有承载和传输信息的重要作用，而一个人英语阅读能力的高低，往往决定了他吸收有用信息的数量和质量。对小学生来说，阅读是语言学习的一个重要方面，成功的英语教学要依赖大量的语言材料和语言实践。《英语课程标准》明确规定：至小学毕业学生要达到二级英语水平，要掌握600—700个左右单词，阅读总量累计10—12万字。要达到这样的目标，没有足够的语言输入量是不行的。而阅读正是巩固和扩大词汇量的好方法，它可以帮助学生获取信息，提高阅读能力，为学生的后续学习打下基础。因此，在小学阶段我们就应重视培养学生的英语阅读能力。 2、目前小学英语教学中存在的问题。 目前，部分小学英语教师在阅读教学中方法单一，基本上沿用了老一套的阅读教学方法：把阅读教学当成一般课文教学，如讲解生词，补充词组，罗列搭配，逐句逐段分析，不厌其烦分析语法等，过分地重视了词汇和语法教学，忽略阅读训练，或者把阅读当作课外阅读，解释生词，对对答案。如此走过场的教学非但时间上得不到保证，而且也使扩大阅读量、提高阅读能力成了一句空话。我校是一所农村小学，学生学

习英语缺乏良好的语言环境，在教学实践中发现学生由于词汇量不足和涉猎课外英语信息少，限制了学生情感表达，由于接触英语阅读范例少而限制了学生英语书面表达。这些严重影响了学生阅读能力的发展。为了解决这些问题，作为一线教师，我们有必要探索出一条有效的阅读教学的新途径，具有重要的意义和推广价值。 二、课题的界定： 阅读是语言学习的一项重要技能。语言心理学认为，阅读是从文字系统中提取信息的过程。 英语阅读能力就是通过阅读，学生学会有效地获取书面信息以及对此信息进行分析、推理、评价和运用，能灵活运用语言知识，以一定的阅读速度来正确理解英语书面材料，掌握一定的信息。 三、国内外同一研究领域现状、本课题研究价值与创新之处。 在国内中学和大学的英语阅读教学相关研究较多、较成熟，而小学的英语教学阅读教学刚刚起步，目前尚无成型的小学英语阅读教学模式或策略。现在的阅读教学往往注重句型操练，而忽视语篇的理解；重视阅读结果，而轻视对学生阅读过程指导；固守课本的框框而难于跳出课本，缺少外延的拓展。这些因素极大的制约了学生的英语阅读能力的发展。 在国外特别是英语母语国家小学英语阅读教学进行得比较完善，重视学生自主的阅读实践活动，强调主体参与。重视个体阅读能力和兴趣的差异。阅读课里没有统一的阅读材料，把阅读材料的选择权留给学生。正确发挥教师的主导作用。由于学生阅读教材各不相同，因此教师指导