English Teaching Methodology

English Teaching Methodology

Figure 1: Basic Framework of English Teaching Methodology (ETM)

①②③④⑤⑥⑦

①Basic Concepts

②How to Teach English and How to Develop Ss? Linguistic Competence

③How to Cultivate Ss? Ability to Use English

④Classroom Management and Technology for English Instruction

⑤Assessment and Remedial Work

⑥FLT Approaches, History and Trend

⑦Teachers? Professional Development

Theories Principles Methods or Techniques

Teaching of Development of Cultivation of

linguistic knowledge language Skills comprehensive qualities

Figure 2: Disciplines Contributing to FLT

linguistics

sociolinguistics applied linguistics psycholinguistics

sociology theory and practice psychology

of ELT

1) 2) 3) ①②③④⑤

pedagogy

⑴(2) (3) (4)

1) group interaction 2) the status of the teacher and the school in the local culture 3) the social role of education as a whole

①memory span ②motivation ③cognitive development relating to the process of learning ④understanding and representing knowledge ⑤mental process of knowing

⑴ class management (2) questioning techniques (3) lesson planning (4) teaching strategies

Figure 3: The Tree of ELT

Figure 4: The Hierarchical System of AMT

Approach

Method 1 Method 2 Technique 1 Technique 2 Technique 3

When we use the word approach we mean that an idea or theory is being applied, that whatever the teacher does in a classroom, certain theoretical principles are always borne in his mind. It is much more general and has the implication that whatever methods or techniques the teacher uses, he or she does not feel bound by these methods or techniques, but only by the theory in which he or she believes.

A method is a set of procedures or a collection of techniques used in a systematic way which it is hoped will result in efficient learning. It will consist of a number of techniques, probably arranged in a specific order.

When we talk about a technique,we mean a procedure used in the classroom. It is the narrowest term, meaning one single procedure.

Figure 5: Four key concepts concerning FLT

Language Learning Teaching Context

FLT Approaches

Major Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

1) The Grammar-Translation Method语法翻译法

2) The Direct Method直接法

3) The Audio-lingual Method听说法

4) Situational Language Teaching情景语言教学法

5) Communicative Language Teaching/Communicative Approach/The Functional/Notional Approach交际语言教学法/交际法/功能意念法

6) The Silent Way沉默法

7) Community Language Learning社团语言学习法

8) The Natural Approach自然法

9) Suggestopedia暗示法

10) The Total Physical Response全身反应法

11) The Lexical Approach

12) The Task-Based Approach/The Task-Based Language Teaching任务型语言教学法

13）The Individual Instruction个别教学法

14）The Cognitive Code Approach认知符号法

15）The Audio-visual Method视听法

16）The Humanistic Approach人本主义教学法

17）The Synthetic Approach 综合教学法(区别与Integrated Approach)

Concrete Methods in Teaching English(英语教学的具体方法)

1.Intuitional Method(直观法)

2.Logical Reasoning(逻辑推理法)

3.Imitating and Analogizing(模仿类推法)

4.Situation Simulating(设置情景法)

5.Question-and-Answer Practice(问答法)

6.Sentence Making(造句法)

7.Integrating Isolated Language Points with the Whole Material Being Learned(点面互及法)

8.Technique of Fermentation(发酵法)

9.Technique of Rumination(反刍法)

10.Eliminating Difficulty(难点消蚀法)

11.Drills of Form(构形练习法)

12.Teaching Translation(翻译教学)

参考书目：

1. 英语教学法双语教程. 周辉等. 科学出版社

2. 现代外语教育学. 舒白梅. 上海外语教育出版社. 2005

3. 语言教学的基本概念（Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching）H. H. Stern 著上海外语教育出版社

4. 语言学习与语言教学的原则（Third edition）H·D·Brown 著外语教学与研究出版社

5. 语言教学的问题与可选策略H.H.Stern、Patrick Allen、Birgit Harley 上海外语教育出版社

6. 语言教学的环境与文化（Context and Culture in Language Teaching）Claire Kramsch 著上海外语教育出版社

7. 语言教学的流派（Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching）（第2版[英]理查德（Richards，J.C.），[英]罗杰斯（Rodgers，T.S.）著外语教学与研究出版社

8. 语言教学的挑战与变迁Jane Willis、Dave Willis 上海外语教育出版社

9. 第二语言学习与教学（Second Language Learning and Language Teaching）[英]Vivian Cook 著. 外语教学与研究出版社

Which one is the best among the 12 language teaching methods?

Actually there is no best language teaching method in the world. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Two major shortcomings of the LT methods:

·they are distant from actual class activities.

·they may divorce language from contexts and purposes.

Let’s take TBLT as an example:

·advantages of TBLT

1TBLT在学习者的母语和目的与之间架起了一座桥梁，为学习者提供了互动机会，能开掘学习者运用语言的潜力，激发他们创造性运用语言的活力。

2任务教学活动内容丰富多彩，它的实施给学习者以新鲜的感受，不但活跃了课堂气氛，激发了学习兴趣，自然也培养了综合运用语言的能力，充分体现了以学生为中心的教学思想。

3任务教学法最大的优势在于对学习动机的影响。给学生一个问题让其解决或一个具体任务让其完成，会使学生产生好奇心，问题解决或任务完成之后会产生成功感，而传统的语言训练方法常常达不到这种效果。

·disadvantages

1任务类型设置、难易顺序以及学习成绩评估等方面尚显不足。

2任务性教材与高考不一致。高考在沿用较为传统的方式，即笔试，注重词汇、语法、阅读、写作。

Should SL instruction be form-focused or meaning-focused?

英语教学法双语教程

《英语教学法双语教程》

作者: 周辉马学海

出版社: 科学出版社

ISBN : 703007284

原价: ￥30

总序

自序

编写说明

第一部分英语教学法概说(On English Language Teaching Methodology)

第二部分英语教学的操作(English Teaching Activities)

第一章我国外语教育政策的学习(Foreign Language Educational Policies in China)

一、两个《意见》

二、一个《纪要》

第二章课程计划和英语教学大纲的掌握(Curriculum Planning and Teaching Syllabuses on English Language Teaching)

一、中学课程计划和英语教学大纲(Curriculum Planning and Teaching Syllabuses for Middle School English)

二、小学英语教学与教材编写纲要(Teaching and Textbook Writing Syllabuses for Primary School English)

第三章英语教材的分析(An Analysis of Present English Textbooks)

一、初中英语教材(Junior English for China)

二、高中英语教材(Senior English for China)

三、小学英语教材(Elementary English for China)

第四章英语教学操作的力点(Main Points of English Teaching Activities)

一、心理活动的力点(Point of Psychology)

二、智力发挥的力点(Point of Intelligence)

三、内容组合的力点(Point of Content Treatment)

四、操作策略的力点(Point on Strategies)

五、操作关系的力点(Points of Relations)

第五章现行教材的课堂教学方法(Classroom Methodics of Teaching the Present English Textbooks)

一、课堂教学的模式(Teaching Models in Class)

二、课堂基本活动的技巧(Techniques of Class Activities)

第六章英语学习方法的开发(Development of Learning Methodics of English)

一、优效性的学习方法(Learning Methods with Good Results)

二、决策性的学习方法(Learning Methods Strategy)

三、差异性的学习方法(Learning Methods with Differential)

第七章教学的实施(Practice of English Teaching)

一、教学过程的逻辑性(The Degree of Logic of Teaching)

二、备课(Lesson Preparation)

三、课堂教学(Classroom Teaching)

四、课堂以外(Out of the Classroom)

第八章教学评价(Assessment of English Taching)

一、测试(Testing)

二、评课(Lesson Assessment)

PRART 3 THEORIES ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY(英语教学法的理论)

Chapter 9 Theories on English Language Learning(英语学习理论)

1.Two General Learning Theories(两种普通学习论)

2.Three Acquisition Theories of the Mother Tongue(三种母语习得论)

3.Four Theories on Acquisition of Second Language(四种第二语言习得论)

4.Practical Utilization of Language Learning Theory(语言学习理论的实际运用)

Chapter 10 On the Objectives of English Teaching(英语教学目的论)

1.Objectives(英语课的目的性)

2.Peculiarities(英语课的特殊性)

Chapter 11 Approaches to English Language Teaching(英语教学的途经)

1.Linguistics Approaches(英语学派途径)

2.Psychological Approaches(心理学派途径)

3.Empirical Approaches(经验派途径)

4.Approaches Adapted to the Teaching Circumstances(适应教学环境的途径)

Chapter 12 Operating and Motivating Systems in Teaching English(英语教学的操作系统与动力学系统)

1.Operating System(操作系统)

2.Motivating System(动力系统)

Chapter 13 What to Teach in English Class(英语课的教学内容)

1.Content(内容)

2.Textbook(教材)

Chapter 14 Principles of English Language Teaching(英语教学应遵循的原则)

1.Pedagogical Principles(教育原则)

2.Principles of General Didactics(普通教学原则)

3.Principles of Foreign Language Teaching(外语教学原则)

4.Principles of English Language Teaching(英语语种教学原则)

Chapter 15 Treatment of Various Relations in English Language Teaching(英语教学中多种关系的处理)

1.Student-teacher Relationship(学生与教师)

2.Learning and Acquisition(学习与习得)

3.Imitation and Reasoning(模仿与推理)

4.Native Language and Target Language(母语与目的语)

5.Structure and Function(结构与功能)

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4b5405990.html,prehension and Expression(理解与表达)

7.Knowledge and Skills(知识与技能)

8.Teachers Presentation and Students Practice(讲解与练习)

9. “Priority”, “Prominence” and All-round Trainings(领先、侧重与全面训练)

10.Reinforcement and Gradualness of Development(强化与循序渐进)

11.Spoken Language and Standard Varieties(口语与标准语)

12.Treatment of Materials to Be Learnt and Already Learnt and Intensive and Extensive Courses(新旧与精泛)

Chapter 16 Concrete Methods in Teaching English(英语教学的具体方法)

1.Intuitional Method(直观法)

2.Logical Reasoning(逻辑推理法)

3.Imitating and Analogizing(模仿类推法)

4.Situation Simulating(设置情景法)

5.Question-and-Answer Practice(问答法)

6.Sentence Making(造句法)

7.Integrating Isolated Language Points with the Whole Material Being Learned(点面互及法)

8.Technique of Fermentation(发酵法)

9.Technique of Rumination(反刍法)

10.Eliminating Difficulty(难点消蚀法)

11.Drills of Form(构形练习法)

12.Teaching Translation(翻译教学)

PART 4 RESEARCH ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY(英语教学法的研究)

Chapter 17 Origin of English Language Teaching Methodology(英语教学法的起源)

1.Rising of English Language Teaching(英语教学的产生)

2.Classification of English Language Teaching Methodology(英语教学法的类别)

Chapter 18 Schools of Rationalism(理性主义的教学法流派)

1.Individual Teaching and Dialogue Method(个别教学与对话式问答法)

2.The Reform of Latin Language Teaching Methodology(拉丁语教学法的改革)

3.Translation Methods(翻译法)

4.Cognitive Approach(认知法)

Chapter 19 Schools of Empiricism(经验主义的教学法流派)

1.Reform Movement and the Natural Method in Europe(欧洲外语改革运动及相关的自然法)

2.Direct Method(直接教学法)

3.Audio-lingual and Audio-visual Methods(听说法与视听法)

4.Krashens Acquisition Theory and Its Relevant Methodology(克拉申的习得论及相关的教学法)

Chapter 20 The Communicative Approach(交际教学法)

1.Beginning of the Communicative Approach(交际法的产生)

2.The Connotation and Varieties of the Communicative Approach(交际法的内涵与变化)

3.Theoretical Base and Historical Origin of Communicative Approach(交际法的理论根据与历史渊源)

Chapter 21 The Three-dimensional Approach of FLT(外语立体化教学法)

1.On the Hypothesis of the Three-dimensional Approach of Foreign Language Teaching(外语立体化教学法作为假说的论证)

2.A Survey of the Three-dimensional Approach of FLT as a School of FLT Methodology(外语立体化教学法作为流派的简介)

3.Ways and Mechanism to Realize the Three dimensional Approach of FLT(认识外语立体化教学法的方法和途径)

Chapter 22 Research Methods of Methodology on English Language Teaching(英语教学法的研究方法)

1.Research Methods of All Sciences(全科学的研究方法)

2.Linguistic Research Methods(语言学的研究方法)

3.Approaches to Research Work(研究工作的途径)

英语教学法双语教程-简介:

本书共四部分。前两部分用汉语讲述，从实践角度讲解英语教学法的基本概念和中小学英语教学的实际操作策略与技巧；后两部分用英语编写，从理论角度讲解英语教学法及其发展趋势和研究方法。各部分及各章既成整体又相对独立。所以本书是一部专著型的开放式教材，可供高等师范、教育学院本科、专科和中等师范英语班以及英语教师继续教育班用作教材，也可作为各级学校英语教师和英语教学法研究者的参考书。

CNKI

外语教学法的发展及其对我们从事外语教学的启示

美国外语教学模式给我们的启示

外语教学法分析及其启示

外语教学中语法翻译法与交际法的对比与启示

外语教学法研究的历史及其当前意义

美国外语教学模式给我们的启示

论从传统语言学到当代语言学对外语教学的影响

对传统教学法的反思--自然教学法及其启示

现代外语教育学

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Reasons for Studying Foreign Language Teaching Methodology

1.2 The Nature of Foreign Language Teaching Methodology

1.3 Disciplines Contributing to Foreign Language Teaching（FLT）

1.4 Factors Influencing Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

1.5 Summary

1.6 Questions and Tasks

CHAPTER 2 ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

2.1 Views of Language and Foreign Language Teaching

2.2 Foreign Language Teaching Syllabus

2.3 Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

2.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

2.5 Summary

2.6 Questions and Tasks

CHAPTER 3 ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

3.1 Behaviorism versus Mentalism

3.2 The Monitor Model of Second Language Development

3.3 From Theory to Practice

3.4 Language Learning Strategies

3.5 Factors Contributing to Foreign Language Learning

3.6 Summary

3.7 Questions and Tasks

CHAPTER 4 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF PRONUNCIATION CHAPTER 5 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF VOCABULARY CHAPTER 6 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 7 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF DISCOURSE CHAPTER 8 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF LISTENING

CHAPTER 9 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF READING

CHAPTER 10 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SPEAKING

CHAPTER 11 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF WRITING

CHAPTER 12 CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT CHAPTER 13 USING TECHNOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION CHAPTER 14 ASSESSING AND EV ALUATING TEACH-ING AND LEARNING CHAPTER 15 ERROR ANAL YSIS AND REMEDIAL WORK

CHAPTER 16 ASURVEY OF FLT APPROACHES

CHAPTER 17 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN CHINA

CHAPTER 18 TEACHERS?PROFESSIONAL DEVEL-OPMENT POSTSCRIPT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Some of our major approaches to teaching and learning are outlined below: Constructivist Teaching

Differentiated Instruction

Inclusive Education

Developmental Learning

Cooperative Learning

Multiple Intelligences

Learning Styles

Integrated Curriculum

Action Learning

Thinking Skills

Constructivist Teaching

Constructivism is an approach to teaching based on research about how people learn, where each individual …constructs? knowledge instead of receiving it from others. Constructivist classrooms engage children actively in the learning process. Children experience learning by doing (through exploration, discovery, and invention) during which children are encouraged to think and explain their reasoning.

Differentiated Instruction

We believe that children are more successful in their learning if they are taught in ways that are responsive to their readiness levels, providing for a range of student differences in the same classroom, by using different learning materials, assigning different tasks, and using other practices, such as cooperative learning.

We believe in having flexible grouping strategies and may group children according to their needs, such as:

heterogeneous groups when students are working on open-ended problem-solving tasks or inquiry activities

homogeneous groups when students are working on skills development, or reviewing material that they have already learned

students being allowed to work independently at least occasionally according to their preferences

students having opportunities to select their own groups based on common interests.

Inclusive Education

We accept every student and regard them as full and valued members of the class and school community. The special needs of each individual are addressed and catered for within the context of the general classroom.

We cater for children with giftedness by providing choice, and open-ended activities that allow them to work at their optimum level. We also provide programmes that are rich in the arts and outdoor education and we provide optional music (choir, orchestra, and guitar) and kapa haka groups.

For children with specific learning or social needs, we may call on the assistance of outside agencies. We usually develop an IEP (Individual Education Programme) with the child?s caregivers, agencies, and staff involved in the child?s education. These IEPs are regularly reviewed and adapted to the child?s needs.

All children are involved twice yearly in Three Way Conferences, where students, teachers,

and parents set their own goals to improve the student?s learning. Parents are welc ome to meet with teachers at any time to discuss their child?s progress.

Children with remedial needs are catered for through individual instruction or by grouping them according to specific needs. These children may work with the teacher in the class or with a teacher aide, either working alongside the child in their classroom or within a group outside the classroom environment.

Developmental Learning

Our aim at Worser Bay School is to encourage children to become independent learners who are responsible for their own learning. From their start at school, it is important to provide times where children have some choice over their own learning. This is also a time of transition from the children?s more unstructured time at early childhood centres to the more structured school day.

At Worser Bay School we have a weekly time for our Junior children to explore activities of their own interest. This involves the teachers or parents setting up various activity-based stations that the children may choose to work at. These activities may range from cooking, art and craft, sewing, computers, construction, woodwork, water play, ball skills, or outdoor activities. Children are encouraged to try various different activities.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is about children learning together in groups, which are structured so that group members have to cooperate to succeed. This reliance on other group members in order to succeed is called positive independence.

There are several ways to bring this about:

Positive independence between group members-Students clearly understand that their success depends on the success of the group.

Face to face interaction-Children learn from each other, so must be involved in interaction. Individual accountability-All members need to be clear about their own task/role and appreciate that they need to successfully learn the material/contribute their share.

Use of collaborative skills-Students use collaborative skills effectively (communicate, share and cooperate).

Group processing-Students are helped to evaluate how effectively their group worked. Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner of Harvard University defines intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings” (Gardner, 1983). His pluralistic view of intelligence suggests that all people possess at least eight different intelligences that operate in varying degrees depending upon each person?s individual profile of

intelligences. There is debate at present as to there being further intelligences. The eight intelligences identified by Gardner are described below.

Each teacher is challenged to provide worthwhile activities that acknowledge individual differences in children and develop all students? skills in all eight intelligences.

Linguistic Intelligence-refers to an individual?s capacity to use language effectively as a vehicle of expression and communication. (Examples: poets & writers.)

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence-refers to an individual?s capacity to think logically, use numbers effectively, solve problems scientifically, and discern relationships and patterns between concepts and things. (Example: mathematicians and scientists.)

Spatial Intelligence-refers to the capacity to think visually and orient oneself spatially. In addition, spatially intelligent people are able to graphically represent their visual and spatial ideas. (Examples: artists, decorators, architects, surveyors, inventors, and guides.)

Musical Intelligence-refers to the capacity to appreciate a variety of musical forms in addition to using music as a vehicle of expression. Musically intelligent people are sensitive to rhythm, melody, and pitch. (Examples: singers, musicians, and composers.)

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence-refers to the capacity of using one?s own body skillfully as a means of expression or to work skillfully to create or manipulate objects. (Examples: dancers, actors, athletes, sculptors, surgeons, mechanics, and craftspeople.)

Interpersonal Intelligence-refers to the capacity to appropriately and effectively respond to other people and understand their feelings. (Examples: salespeople, social directors, travel agents.) Intrapersonal Intelligence-refers to the capacity to accurately know one?s self, including knowledge of one?s own strengths, motivations, goals, and feel ings. (Examples: entrepreneurs, therapists, etc.)

Natural Intelligence-refers to the ability to recognise and classify plants, minerals and animals, including rocks and grass and all variety of flora and fauna.

Learning Styles

Teachers at Worser Bay aim to develop programmes and environments that cater for each child?s preferred learning style. Some of these processing styles can be described as being biologically or genetically determined.

Analytical learners-prefer information presented to them sequentially. They often prefer a learning environment that is quiet, brightly lit, and has a more formal arrangement of seating. Global learners-require a general understanding of a concept first, and then can concentrate on detail. They work well with …distractors? like music, snacks and drinks, dim light, and informal seating.

Auditory learners-follow verbal directions easily, recall facts and details, and remember what is said. They can participate attentively in listening activities for extended periods of time.

Visual learners-attracted by images, pictures and illustrations. They are able to remember what they see or read because of their good visual memory.

Tactile learners-participate actively for extended periods of time. They enjoy learning and learn well by manipulating and touching, such activities as tracing, writing, drawing and small-motor skill activities.

Kinesthetic learners-can remember what they experience or feel, such as field trips, through

role playing, or other forms of whole body movement.

We also need to take into account some of the conditioned or learned preferences that children have, such as:

Social groupings-whether the learner prefers working alone, in a pair, with peers, in a team or wants to work with a teacher or parent.

Attitudes-whether the learner is internally or externally motivated to learn; has high, fluctuating or low persistence; conforms or is non-conforming; is self-directed or needs directions or guidance; and needs routines or changes and variety.

Integrated Curriculum

An integrated curriculum requires a shift from teacher-dominated to child-centred learning, where teachers and students are lifelong learners and teachers use strategies to encourage children to solve problems through thinking, gathering information, analysis, and synthesis. It is designed to fuse multiple intelligences, learning styles, thinking skills, action learning, and other learning strategies, in a meaningful and practical way.

At Worser Bay School, an integrated curriculum focuses on students and teachers identifying problems, issues or concerns and then working together to develop investigations through an inquiry process. The topics used lend themselves to a worthwhile exploration of meaningful content that relates to and extends stu dents? life experiences and understanding of the world. Topics could arise from such …rich? concepts as social justice, diversity, ecological sustainability, survival, conflict, cooperation and so on.

Action Learning

Action Learning (AL) identifies and teaches the skills students need for information literacy – to define what they need to know, find, analyse, use, and produce their own information from a variety of sources. AL is built on a six-stage resource-based learning model. The six stages of AL are:

deciding

finding

using

recording

presenting

evaluating

Thinking Skills

Teachers use various critical thinking tools in developing children?s critical thinking including:

Six Thinking Hats (De Bono)

Overall, thinking becomes clearer when the different parts that go into it are brought into the open.

The six “thinking hats” are different ways of looking at an issue that has to be decided.

the white hat presents the facts

the red hat says how one feels about the issue

the black hat looks at the negative effects of the decision

the yellow hat looks at the positive effects of the decision

the green hat thinks of alternatives

the blue hat clarifies which kind of thinking is going on.

CoRT Thinking (De Bono)

The CoRT Thinking Programme was developed by De Bono to provide a comprehensive programme of lessons for educational use in schools. We use a variety of tools from his programme when appropriate. His programme also takes into account the values that people have. Here are the main tools we might use:

PMI (Plus, Minus and Interesting) – this tool is an attention-directing method of forcing a thinker to explore a situation before reaching a judgement.

CAF (Consider All Factors) – another attention-directing tool designed to increase the breadth of perception. What are the factors that have to be considered in this matter?

APC (Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices) –another attention-directing tool which, rather than looking …forward? with thinking, looks at …parallel? possibilities.

AGO (Aims, Goals, Objectives) –another attention-directing, perception-broadening tool. This tool is more concerned with the over-all purpose or objective of the thinking than a moment-to-moment focus.

FIP (First Important Priorities) –what are the priorities here? Not everything is of equal importance. Some things are much more important than others. Some values are much more important than others.

C&S (Consequences and Sequel) – if thinking is going to result in action of any sort (decisions, choices, plans, initiatives etc.), then that action is going to take place in the future. So there is a need to look at the consequences of that action.

OPV (Other People?s Views) –another attention-directing tool designed to broaden perception. The key questions here are:

Who is affected by this thinking (action)?

What are the views (thinking) of those affected?

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