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文化人类学

文化人类学
文化人类学

Multiple Choice Quiz

( C ) 1. Anthropology has strong links to all of the following academic fields except:

A)history. B)zoology(动物学). C)economics. D)physics.

E)sociology.

( C ) 2. Which of the following is not one of the subdisciplines of anthropology?

A)cultural anthropology B)biological anthropology

C)developmental anthropology D)linguistic anthropology

E)archaeological anthropology

( D ) 3. Children learn cultural traditions by growing up in a particular society through a process called:

A) adaptation. B)invention. C)investment. D)enculturation. E)development. ( E ) 4. Educational anthropologists work in

A)classrooms. B)homes. C)neighborhoods. D)after-school programs.

E)All the above.

( D ) * 5. Cultural resource management is the application of the data, theory, and methods of which subdiscipline?

A)cultural anthropology B)biological anthropology C)linguistic anthropology

D)archaeological anthropology E)physical anthropology

( E ) 6. According to the text, the "real culture" is:

A)the one best suited to a given environment.

B)what people say they should do and what they say they do.

C)contested.

D)symbolic.

E)what people actually do.

( C ) 7. What is the difference between ethnicity and race?

A)Race is a biological reality, while ethnicity is a cultural construction.

B)Ethnicity is the politically correct term for race.

C) A race is an ethnic group that is assumed to have a biological basis.

D)The terms are synonymous.

E)An ethnicity is a racial group that is assumed to have a biological basis.

( D ) 8. What are the two kinds of status discussed in the textbook?

A)achieved and stunted

B)ascribed and circumscribed

C)achieved and circumscribed

D)achieved and ascribed

E)ascribed and stunted

( A ) 9. Which of the following is an ascribed status?

A)cousin

B)athlete

C)friend

D)college student

E)singer

( B ) 10. Languages that have descended from the same language are called:

A)historical linguistics.

B)daughter languages.

C)protolanguages.

D)linguistic subgroups.

E)proto-Indo-European.

( A ) 11. What is the basic social unit of foragers?

A)the tribe

B)the clan

C)lineage

D)the band

E)the totem

( E ) 12. Which of the following factors of production does horticulture make intensive use of?

A)land

B)labor

C)capital

D)machinery

E)Horticulture does not make intensive use of any of the above factors of

production.

( B ) 13. With which kind of reciprocity is something given and nothing is expected in return?

A)negative reciprocity

B)generalized reciprocity

C)reciprocity

D)balanced reciprocity

E)market reciprocity

( C ) * 14. Which of the following social features is unique to state organization?

A)Kinship(亲属关系)

B)Prestige(威望)

C)differential access to resources

D)stratification

E)nuclear family

( C ) * 15. All of the following are typical features of most states except:

A)judges.

B)big men.

C)full-time religious practitioners.

D)permanent military.

E)taxation.

( A ) 16. What is the term for the permanent social unit whose members claim a common ancestry?

A)descent group

B)ambilineal group

C)extended family

D)nuclear family

E)family of procreation

( A ) 17. Which of the following statements about dowry(嫁妆)is not true?

A)Dowry exists in more cultures than bridewealth(聘礼)does.

B)Dowry is the exchange of gifts from the bride and her kin to the groom and

his kin.

C)Dowry tends to be practiced in societies with low female status.

D) A woman's dowry is supposed to compensate the groom's kin for the added

burden of being responsible for the bride.

E)In India, women are sometimes murdered when the groom's family considers

the dowry insufficient.

( D ) * 18. Which of the following is not true about religion?

A)It is a cultural universal.

B)It helps maintain social control.

C)It consists of beliefs and behaviors concerned with supernatural beings,

powers, and forces.

D)It exists in a separate domain from recreation.

E)It can promote social change.

( A ) 19. Which of the following is the intense community spirit that is developed from experiencing a rite of passage together?

A)communitas

B)incorporation

C)separation

D)liminality

E)mana

( B ) * 20. According to Anthony F. C. Wallace, which of the following religious types is practiced by priests and ministers?

A)monotheistic

B)Olympian

C)Communal

D)Shamanic

E)Totemistic

True or False.

( T )1. Anthropology is both a science and a humanity.

( T ) 2. Anthropology retains connections to many other different academic fields.

( F ) 3. Culture is always adaptive.

( F ) 4.The term nation used to be synonymous with ethnic group.

( T ) 5. With transhumance, the entire group – women, men, and children – moves with the animals throughout the year.

( F )* 6. Clans typically have more members and cover a larger area than lineages do. ( T ) 7. Polygyny is the kind of plural marriage in which a man has more than one wife. ( F ) 8.Gender is a biological reality.

Incorrect. Gender, like race and kinship, is a cultural construction.

( F ) 9.Gender stratification refers to the oversimplified but strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females.

Incorrect. Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of socially valued resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom between men and women.

( T ) 11. A matriarchy is a society ruled by women.

( F ) 12. Folk art refers to the art, music, and lore of older people.

名词解释

1、cultural anthropology文化人类学

The study of human society and culture; describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences.

2、Culture 文化

Distinctly human; transmitted through learning; traditions and customs that govern behavior and beliefs.

3、ethnography民族志

Field work in a particular culture.

4、ethnology民族学

Cross-cultural comparison; the comparative study of ethnographic data, of society, and of culture.

5、advocacy view 辩护观

of applied anthropology; the belief that precisely because anthropologists are experts on human problems and social change, and because they study, understand, and respect cultural values, they should make policy affecting people.

6、anthropology and education教育人类学

Anthropological research in classrooms, homes, and neighborhoods, viewing students as total cultural creatures whose enculturation and attitudes toward education belong to a larger context that includes family, peers, and society.

7、applied anthropology应用人类学

The application of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve contemporary social problems.

8、acculturation涵化

The exchange of cultural features that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact; the cultural patterns of either or both groups may be changed, but the groups remain distinct.

9、core values核心价值观念

Key, basic, or central values that integrate a culture and help distinguish it from others.

10、cultural relativism文化相对主义

The position that the values and standards of cultures differ and deserve respect. Extreme relativism argues that cultures should be judged solely by their own standards.

11、diffusion传播

Borrowing of cultural traits between societies, either directly or through intermediaries.

12、enculturation种族中心主义

The social process by which culture is learned and transmitted across the generations.

13、achieved status 获致地位

Social status that comes through talents, choices, actions, and accomplishments, rather than ascription.

14、ascribed status 先赋地位

Social status (e.g., race or gender) that people have little or no choice about occupying.

15、assimilation 同化

The process of change that a minority group may experience when it moves to a country where another culture dominates; the minority is incorporated into the dominant culture to the point that it no longer exists as a separate cultural unit.

16、Multiculturalism 多元文化主义

The view of cultural diversity in a country as something good and desirable; a multicultural society socializes individuals not only into the dominant (national) culture but also into an ethnic culture.

17、call systems

Systems of communication among nonhuman primates, composed of a limited number of sounds that vary in intensity and duration. Tied to environmental stimuli.

18、cultural transmission

A basic feature of language; transmission through learning.

19、daughter languages

Languages developing out of the same parent language; for example, French and Spanish are daughter languages of Latin.

20、potlatch夸富宴

Competitive feast among Indians on the North Pacific Coast of North America.

21、Reciprocity 互惠

One of the three principles of exchange; governs exchange between social equals; major exchange mode in band and tribal societies.

22、redistribution再分配

Major exchange mode of chiefdoms, many archaic states, and some states with managed economies.

23、horticulture园艺农业

Nonindustrial system of plant cultivation in which plots lie fallow for varying lengths of time.

24、big man要人

Regional figure found among tribal horticulturalists and pastoralists. The big man occupies no office but creates his reputation through entrepreneurship创业and generosity慷慨to others. Neither his wealth nor his position passes to his heirs.

25、Chiefdom 酋邦

Form of sociopolitical organization intermediate between the tribe and the state; kin-based with differential access to resources and a permanent political structure.

26、Stratification 分层

Characteristic of a system with socioeconomic strata社会阶层—groups that contrast in

regard to social status and access to strategic resources. Each stratum社会阶层includes people of both sexes and all ages.

27、extended family 扩展性家户

Expanded household including three or more generations.

28、family of orientation 核心家庭

Nuclear family in which one is born and grows up.

29、family of procreation 生育家庭

Nuclear family established when one marries and has children.

30、polyandry 一妻多夫制

Variety of plural marriage in which a woman has more than one husband.

31、Polygyny 一夫多妻制

Variety of plural marriage in which a man has more than one wife.

32、progeny price 聘礼(bridewealth)

A gift from the husband and his kin to the wife and her kin before, at, or after marriage; legitimizes children born to the woman as members of the husband’s descent group.

33、Sororate 娶姨制

Custom by which a widower marries the sister of the deceased wife

34、liminality阈限

The critically important marginal or in-between phase of a rite of passage.

35、magic魔法

Use of supernatural techniques to accomplish specific aims.

36、mana超自然的力量

Sacred impersonal force in Melanesian美拉尼西亚and Polynesian波利尼西亚religions. 37、monotheism一神论,一神教

Worship of an eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent supreme being.

38、Olympian religions奥林匹亚宗教

In Wallace's typology, develop with state organization; have full-time religious specialists—professional priesthoods.

39、polytheism多神论

Belief in several deities who control aspects of nature.

40、religion宗教

Belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces.

41、revitalization movements复兴运动

Movements that occur in times of change, in which religious leaders emerge and undertake to alter or revitalize a society

42、rites of passage通过仪式(过渡仪式、成人仪式)

Culturally defined activities associated with the transition from one place or stage of life to another.

43、ritual仪式

Behavior that is formal, stylized, repetitive, and stereotyped, performed earnestly as a social act; rituals are held at set times and places and have liturgical orders.

44、shaman萨满

A part-time religious practitioner who mediates between ordinary people and supernatural beings and forces.

45、aesthetics美学

Appreciation of the qualities perceived in works of art; the mind and emotions in relation to a sense of beauty.

46、art艺术

An object or event that evokes an aesthetic reaction—a sense of beauty, appreciation, harmony, and/or pleasure; the quality, production, expression, or realm of what is beautiful or of more than ordinary significance; the class of objects subject to aesthetic criteria.

47、arts艺术(特指视学艺术、文学、音乐及戏剧)

The arts include the visual arts, literature (written and oral), music, and theater arts.

48、catharsis(发泄)

Intense emotional release.

49、ethnomusicology(民族音乐学)

The comparative study of the musics of the world and of music as an aspect of culture and society.

Essay Quiz

1.*How is a disease different from an illness? Why is this distinction important?

Disease refers to a scientifically identified health threat caused by a bacterium, virus, fungus, parasite, or other pathogen. Illness is a condition of poor health perceived or felt by and individual. Different ethnic groups and cultures recognize different illness, symptoms, and causes and have developed different health care system and treatment strategies.

2.*How does cultural diffusion take place between rural and urban communities?

In any nation, urban and rural represents different social systems. However, migrants bring rural social forms, practices, and beliefs to town. Inevitably, the experiences and social units of rural areas affect adaptation to city life.

3.*What is the difference between real culture and ideal culture?

The ideal culture consists of what people say they should do and what they say they do. Real culture refers to their actual behavior as observed by the anthropologist.

4.*What is polyandry? In what contexts is it usually found?

Variety of plural marriage in which a woman has more than one husband. In some areas, polyandry seems to be a cultural adaptation to mobility associated with customary male travel for trade, commerce, and military operations. Polyandry ensures there will be at least one man at home to accomplish male activities within a gender-based division of labor. Fraternal polyandry is also an effective strategy when resources are scarce.

5.*What is the relationship between art and religion?

Much art has been done in association with religion. Many of the high points of Western art and music had religious inspiration, or were done in the service of religion. In any society, art is produced for its aesthetic value as well as for religion purposes.

6.How is anthropology different from the other social sciences?

What distinguishes anthropology from the other social sciences is that it is holistic and comparative. It is holistic because anthropologists are interested in the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; in biology, society, language, and culture. In contrast to other social sciences, for example, it studies how economics, religion, history, psychology, political science, and sociology all interact and are expressed in culture. It is comparative because it studies all human cultures, past and present, not just Western cultures or those with written histories.

7.Aren't health-care systems unique to Western societies?

No, health-care systems are a cultural universal. All societies have a set of beliefs, customs, and specialists concerned with ensuring health and preventing and curing illness. In Western societies, health-care systems are centered on hospitals, doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals. However, just because a society lacks a Western-trained physician doesn't mean that it lacks a way of dealing with illness. In the textbook, Kottak argues that the world's oldest profession, after forager, is that of curer. All societies have someone, part- or full-time, who is responsible for treating illness in the community. In all societies, curers pass through a culturally defined process of selection and training. How they are selected and trained varies between cultures.

8.Isn't Western medicine better than non-Western medicine?

Answering questions like this is always difficult because when comparing things you need to be very explicit about what you are comparing. In many ways, Western medicine is better than non-Western medicine; however, it is not better in every way. Modern medications, surgical procedures, and treatments are safer and more effective than those of traditional societies. However, it is important to point out some of the problems of Western medicine. For example, some of the questionable features of Western medicine include an overprescription of tranquilizers and drugs, lots of unnecessary surgery, and the impersonality and inequality of the patient-doctor relationship. More importantly, traditional medicine does not distinguish between biological and psychological causation. Traditional curers focus on how poor health is due to the combination of physical, emotional, and social causes. As a result, traditional curers often succeed with health problems that Western medicine classifies as psychosomatic—not a disease, therefore not an illness—and dismisses as not requiring treatment. Non-Western medicine shows us that patients can be treated effectively as whole beings, using a combination of methods that prove beneficial.

9.What about culture is universal?

Human culture is necessarily constrained by the biological capabilities of Homo sapiens, which means that all cultures deal with biological universals such as prolonged infant dependency, year-round sexuality, and a complex brain that allows us to use symbols and language. In addition, there are social universals such as exogamy and the incest taboo, which states that some people are too closely related to be married.

10.Do animals have culture?

Animals do not have culture in the way that anthropologists typically define it: a shared and symbolic set of customs and traditions that govern the beliefs and behaviors of the people exposed to them. This is not to say that animals do not learn. Animals do learn through experience, such as to avoid fire because it hurts, or through demonstration, such as how to hunt. But these are not symbolic learning.

11.Do some people have culture while others do not?

As anthropologists define it, all people have culture, since culture is the sum of human beliefs. This contrasts with the definition of "culture" that is restricted to elite social exercises such as art, music, or theater.

12.What is the difference between an ethnic group and a race?

An ethnic group of people share certain beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms as well as a common language, religion, history, geography, and kinship. A race is an ethnic group that is assumed to have a biological basis. In the U.S., most people use these terms interchangeably, which blurs the important distinction: that a race is believed or assumed to have a biological basis, while an ethnicity does not. For example, we do not think that Italians tend to be good cooks because they have a gene for good cooking. However, statements like "white men can't jump" imply that white males lack some gene for jumping. The difference is due to fact that "Italian" is an ethnic group, while "white" is a racial term, and the qualities that characterize whites are assumed to have a biological basis.

13.What are the different ways that ethnic diversity can be expressed?

Ethnic diversity is generally either embraced and celebrated, or it is discouraged. Multicultural societies view ethnic diversity as desirable and as something to be encouraged. Assimilationist societies tend to view ethnic diversity as disruptive and as something that needs to be controlled. In certain instances, assimilation is de facto(事实上)in that it is practiced, but not legally sanctioned(国际制裁). In other instances, assimilation is de jure(法律), legally sanctioned or forced upon the minority groups. Examples of this include cultural colonialism, forcing other ethnic groups to participate in a different culture, and ethnocide, the attempt to destroy certain ethnic practices. The most extreme example of this is genocide, which is the deliberate elimination of a group through mass murder. It is important to understand that while multiculturalism is generally peaceful, it is not perfect. In the U.S., ethnic identities are often the target of prejudice and discrimination and, in certain instances, violence.

14.Do animals have language?

Animals have systems of communication, but they are not the same as human language. Primates use a form of communication called a call system, which is much more limited than human language. There are only a limited number of calls, and their meanings are fixed and are stimuli-dependant. For example, most animals have a call for "danger," but to be used and understood it must be made in the presence of some form of hazard. There is no way to create new calls, such as "danger from a predator" vs. "danger from a falling item." There is also no

way to communicate about things that are not present, such as things over the horizon or things in the past. But human language obviously has these capacities, and for this reason we can learn from each other and discuss each other’s experience. This is all possible because human language is not hard-wired genetically; it is learned. It is important to note that experiments involving non-human primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas show that they do possess rudimentary capacities for language. Several have been taught American Sign Language and are able to use a few hundred signs in fairly complex ways.

15.Doesn't the word "economy" refer to things that are related to money?

The word "economy" refers to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Since Western society is capitalist and industrialized, we use "economy" to refer to things that are related to money. However, most nonindustrial societies don't use the capitalist mode of production, but they still produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. As a result, most of this chapter is devoted to these kinds of societies -- foragers, horticulturalists, agriculturalists, and pastoralists -- and the key components of their economies. It is important to realize that industrialized capitalism is a very recent development in human society. From the time that Homo sapiens first appeared around 300,000 years ago, until 10,000 years ago when the first farming communities emerged, all humans were foragers. Industrialized capitalism has been around for less than 150 years.

16.Aren't the best economies those that are the most productive and the most efficient?

In capitalist systems, where high productivity and high efficiency increase profit margins, the answer to this question is yes. However, it is important to understand that maximizing profit margins is not the driving principle behind most traditional nonindustrial economies. As a result, productivity and efficiency alone should not be used to determine what makes one kind of economy better than another. What about sustainability? Environmental diversity? The quality of public health? It is important to understand that each of the five basic economies has its advantages and disadvantages. For instance, foraging is a very efficient and sustainable economy that incorporates a wide range of species into the diet. However, it is not very productive. In contrast, agriculture is very productive, but this productivity is based on only a few staple crops. This restriction of the diet is less healthy than the foraging diet. With the development of agriculture, people began to live in large, densely populated settlements that create a wide range of public health issues, such as how to contain infectious diseases, plan for waste disposal, and provide adequate drinking water. The industrialized economy of the Western world is extremely productive, but it is not very sustainable. Industrialization has a hugely negative impact on the environment, including the problems of acid rain, global warming, and deforestation.

17.What is all of this talk about bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states? Anthropologists interested in social and political organization have developed four broad categories that attempt to describe the strategies used for every human culture, living or deceased. These categories are based on the observation that despite all of the variation present, certain combinations of strategies appear to co-occur. For example, most mobile

foragers organize their social and political lives around the nuclear family and the small groups that are created when a few nuclear families come together in what is called a band. These band-organized societies don't permit people to accumulate wealth, they prize generosity, and they generally recognize that all members of the band have access to all of the strategic resources of the band. Groups that are organized this way work because all of the members understand their relationship to each other.

Sometimes, it becomes necessary for societies to be able to effectively deal with conflicts between people who are not related or who are more distantly related. Tribally organized societies have offices that permit this. As one might expect, tribal organization is used by societies that have more people than bands, or by societies that are less mobile.

18.How long have states been around?

Most people in the world today live in a state-organized society. States are recognizable because their governments use population controls, such as a census and citizenship, and impose taxation to support a permanent military and police and to support a system of laws and judges. In addition members of a state have differential access to resources. As typical as states might seem to most people today, they have only existed for about 5,500 years and they have only been widespread for the last few centuries.

19.Why do anthropologists focus so much energy on studying kinship?

Although the study of kinship may seem somewhat trivial琐碎的to some Americans, if you are interested in studying the culture of people all over the world it is an important first step to recognize that everyone is necessarily related to someone. How people of different cultures choose to classify the people they are related to have a great deal of influence on the interactions that shape a person’s life and can be very informative to the anthropologist. In addition, in nonindustrial societies, much of the human interaction between people occurs between people who consider themselves to be related, so kinship takes on a more important role.

20.Don’t sex and gender mean the same thing?

While sex and gender are related, they are not the same thing. Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females. Gender refers to the activities, behavior, values, and ideas that a culture assigns to these differences. These activities, behavior, values, and ideas do not have any intrinsic basis in the biological differences. For instance, in the U.S. there is the expression "boys don't cry." Boys have the same biological capacity to cry as girls, it is just that American culture values boys who are tough and don't cry. While there are only two sexes, male and female, there can be more than two genders. For example, the Chukchee of Siberia recognize four genders: (1) a gendered male who is sexed male; (2) a gendered female who is sexed female; (3) a gendered female who is sexed male; and (4) a gendered male who is sexed female. Religious specialists generally assume the last two genders. Since sex is biologically determined, it is fixed. In contrast, as a cultural construction, gender varies from culture to culture and over time within a culture. Looking again at American culture, the role of women has changed dramatically over the last 50 years. While the U.S. still lacks gender equality, women's roles are no longer restricted to the domestic sphere.

21.What functions does religion serve?

Anthropologists have long studied religion, and have realized that religion can serve many functions in society. First, it can provide comfort and psychological security.It accomplishes this by providing explanations for events that may be out of people's control; sometimes religion offers to exert control over these forces or events. Second, religion can also increase anxiety by forcing people to participate in rituals that are formal, invariant, and earnest acts. However, by forcing many people to participate in these events together, sometimes during a rite of passage, these rituals can promote a shared sense of community and fellowship.Third, religion can establish and maintain social control through a series of moral and ethical beliefs along with real and imagined rewards and punishments. Finally, religion can have ecological functions by cementing adaptive environmental practices into group beliefs.

22.How are multiple genders and religion associated?

Shamans and other religious specialists often set themselves off symbolically from other people by assuming a different or ambiguous sex or gender role. Transvestism异装癖or the rejection of traditional sex roles is one way to achieve this differentiation. Among many tribes of North America, men who reject the male role of hunter, raider, or warrior play special ritual roles.

23.How does art relate to social organization?

In general, as social organization becomes more complex, specialization increases, and the arts become more formalized. With increased specialization, artists spend more and more time devoted to producing and performing their art. With this specialization, the places where art is displayed and performed tend to become more permanent and specialized as well. As the arts become more formalized, so does the process of training to be an artist. Aspiring artists no longer learn their art from a parent as they study their chosen art in formal schools and apprenticeships. In traditional, nonindustrial societies, artists are part-time specialists who display or perform their work in generalized public spaces like the middle of the village. In industrialized nation-states, most artists are full-time professionals who display or perform their art in permanently dedicated buildings like museums, concert hall, and theaters. In both Western and non-Western societies, artists often form unions or guilds(行会).

24.What is ethnic art?

This is a funny term that is somewhat synonymous with folk art. It is a funny term because it falsely implies that not all art has an ethnic association. Since everybody has some kind of identification with a cultural group based on shared beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms, all art is created within a particular cultural and ethnic context. However, the term is generally used to refer to indigenous(本土的)or non-Western art. The expansion of the modern world system has increased the visibility of non-Western artistic traditions around the world. This increased visibility comes at a cost, as it has led to the "commodification"商品化of ethnic art. Western consumers of these arts tend to view these cultural traditions only in terms of colorful customs, music, dancing, adornments, clothing, jewelry, and objects.

Consumers often fail to recognize how these traditions are integrated within a complex cultural system.

Discussion Topics

1. Do you feel you have multiple cultural identities? If so, how do you handle them?

2. How does multiculturalism differ from assimilation? Which process do you favor for your country?

3. Based on your own experience and observations, list five ways in which men and women differ in their use of language. Now classify these differences as kinesic, phonological, grammatical, lexical—or other.

4. To what sorts of family or families do you belong? Have you belonged to other kinds of families? When you were growing up, how did you feel about your family compared with those of your friends?

5.What characteristics of men and women do you see as most directly linked to biological differences between the sexes? What kinds of characteristics are most influenced by culture?

人类学入门书目

个初步的人类学书目(入门部分·一) 转引自人类学学习交流网站 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4714012783.html,/www/bbs/ 编者按:以下是中国的(中文的)人类学、民族学专业的基本入门读物。其他专业的学生或者社会上对人类学民族学感兴趣的朋友,想轮廓性地了解人类学民族学(基本理论、学科框架、研究方法、概要历史),以下是一些最基本的读物或参考书目。这些书目以中国大陆作者所著和来源于中国材料方面的出版物为主,略选少量外国的及港台的。(加 * 号的为推荐) 概论部分: 庄孔韶主编:《人类学通论》*。太原:山西教育出版社,2002 林耀华主编《民族学通论》(修订本)*。北京:中央民族大学出版社,1997。杨堃著《民族学概论》。北京:民族出版社,1984 梁钊韬等编著《中国民族学概论》。昆明:云南人民出版社,1985 (美)基辛(Keesing,M.R.) 著;北晨译《当代文化人类学概要》,杭州:浙江人民出版社, 1986 (美)哈维兰著;王铭铭等译《当代人类学》,上海:上海人民出版社,1987 (美)墨非(Murbhy,Robert F.) 著,王卓君、吕辿基译 《文化与社会人类学引论》*。北京:商务印书馆,1991 ------------------------------------------------------- 理论与方法: 夏建中编著《文化人类学理论学派》*。北京:中国人民大学出版社,1997 黄淑娉、龚佩华著《文化人类学理论方法研究》。广州:广东高等教育出版社,1998。 宋蜀华、白振声主编,《民族学理论与方法》*。北京:中央民族大学出版社,1998 庄锡昌,孙志民编著《文化人类学的理论构架》。杭州:浙江人民出版社,1988。 (日)绫部恒雄编;中国社会科学院日本研究所社会文化室译 《文化人类学的十五种理论》*。北京:国际文化出版公司,1988。 (英)拉德克利夫-布朗(A.R.Radcliffe-Brown) 著;夏建中译 《社会人类学方法》。济南:山东人民出版社,1988;北京:华夏出版社,2002 ------------------------------------------------------- 田野调查概论: 汪宁生著《文化人类学调查》*。北京:文物出版社, 2002 ------------------------------------------------------- 学科史: 王建民等著《中国民族学史》(上、下卷)*。昆明:云南教育出版社,1997、1998。 林耀华、庄孔韶著“中国的民族学:回顾与展望”。长春:《社会科学战线》1984年第六期。 (美)顾定国(Gregory Eliyu Guldin)著,胡鸿保、周燕译 《中国人类学逸史:从马林诺斯基到莫斯科到毛泽东》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。 ------------------------------------------------------- 散论(或文集):

文化人类学

文化人类学 专业: 姓名: 学号:

人类学是所有科学中最具解放性的。它不仅纠正种族和文化优越性的谬论,而且致力于研究任何地方、任何时代的所有民族。它对人的本质的阐明超过哲人的所有反思或实验科学家的所有研究。 ——美国哲学家格拉斯·德·拉古纳文化人类学是从文化的角度研究人类种种行为的学科,它研究人类文化的起源、发展、变迁的过程、世界上各民族各地区文化的差异,试图探索人类文化的性质及演变规律。广义的文化人类学包括考古学、语言学和民族学,狭义的文化人类学即指民族学。民族学是在民族志基础上进行文化比较研究的学科。文化人类学家所做的最具成就的工作是对人类的婚姻家庭、亲属关系、宗教巫术、原始艺术等方面的研究。在英国学术界倾向于将这部分内容称为社会人类学,有时又统称为社会文化人类学。人类学主要分为:体质人类学考古学语言学文化人类学或民族学。 文化人类学主要研究内容是文化和人,其主要的代表理论为:古典进化论、传播论、功能主义、历史主义、文化与人格、结构功能主义、结构主义、新进化论等等。 19世纪末20世纪初,一些西方学者怀着对种族主义、文化殖民主义的厌恶和对落后国家文化的理解与尊重,建立了“文化相对主义(cultural relativism)”,其中以美国人类学之父弗朗兹·博厄斯为个中翘楚。文化相对主义理论的核心人物是梅尔赫尔斯科维茨,他认为“文化相对主义的核心是尊重差别并要求相互尊重的一种社会训练,它强调多种生活方式的价值,这种强调以寻求理解与和谐共处为目的,而不去批判甚至摧毁那些与自己原有文化不相吻合的东西。”简单点说就是承认并尊重不同的文化,并在平等的基础上交流。博厄斯认为,19世纪要发现文化进化规律的企图和把文化发展的阶段模式化的企图,都是建立在不充分的经验、证据之上的;而每一种文化都有自己长期形成的独特历史,其形态并无高低之分,“蒙昧时代”、“野蛮时代”和“文明时代”这些术语只是反映出某些人的“种族中心论”观点,这些人以为他们的生活方式比其他人更正确。他还认为,任何一个民族或者部落都有自己的逻辑、社会思想、世界观和道德观,人们不应该用自己的一套标准来衡量其他民族的文化——衡量文化没有普遍绝对的评判标准。继博厄斯之后,许多文化人类学家都从文化和个性发展的角度阐发了文化相对主义观点。例如,露丝在《文化模式》一书中指出,各种文化同样都是有效的,现代文化和原始文化都是同样的实现人类潜力的方法,不能认为现代文化比原始文化更为先进高级,不同的文化并无优劣高低之分。而行为的是非标准也是相对的,被一种文化当作异常或病态的行为在另一特定文化体系内却具有特定价值。 对于文化相对主义的“本性”,赫斯科维奇曾有一段精辟的描述:“文化相对主义的核心是尊重差别并要求相互尊重的一种社会训练。它强调多种生活方式的价值,这种强调以寻求理解与和谐共处为目的,而不去评判甚至摧毁那些不与自己原有文化相吻合的东西。” 尽管文化相对主义突破了西方中心论的模式,肯定了异质文化的多元存在,有利于比较文学在向比较文化学拓展时,正确对待不同民族的文化。但其观点中也潜藏着一个悖论:如果所有的文化系统都满足于自身的价值标准,必然推导出自己是世界上唯一最优秀的文化,于是会固守自己的文化方式,盲目排斥甚至压制其它文化,结果导致文化孤立主义。而且,文化相对主义无视基本的事实,看不到历史上所有文化的发展都是同纵横交错的各方面因素的作用,包括异已文化

教育人类学讲义整理

《教育人类学引论》 第一节课 一、人类学对教育学有什么贡献? 1.对研究方法的忽视:叙事研究的方法对你的论文有什么独特的贡献: ①方法和你的选题有什么对接?②你的选题有该法(理论)与不用又有什么不同? ③你的论题最适合用何种方法、何种理论? 2.人类学对教育学的贡献: (1)打破我族中心主义,获得一种宽阔的文化视野和人类意识,进而强化研究者和实践者的自我意识; 可以有民族情怀,但是不能有民族中心主义;视野和眼光的全球性——从西方看中国、从周边看中国;中国无哲学,但是有思想,中国的语言文字不适合表达哲学,在这方面印度就好于中国,表达哲学的文字需要严谨、逻辑、严密;孟子:见幼童落井而起恻隐之心,但是有人便反驳:见幼童落井,汝之子,汝友之子,汝仇家之子,救孰?冯友兰,中国哲学浑然天成。 (2)打破坐在摇椅上玄想人类的历史; 人种志研究、民族志研究、田野研究、将先前的由业余学者或其他人的研究进行实证化。 (3)引发问题意识,提供对问题的解答; 人的本质与教育的关系(陆有铨说没有什么本质,反对本质主义,人不可能两次踏进同一个课堂);人类进化与教育的关系;人的体质与教育的关系;文化与教育的关系 (4)改变提问方式,提供分析和解决问题的途径; 成尚荣:尊重与倾听;①从旁观者转为具有主体色彩的我②将教育问题由“人的教育”转为“人的认识”问题,只有在充分认识人的本质的情况下,教育才能真正展开和充分实现,会读人、能读人;③教育问题存在的理论基础,使教育人生活的表层进入到人的存在深层,使教育和人类存在、世界存在、宇宙存在联系起来。 (5)提供了表达思想的语言方式,重心下移,开放、互动生成,学生立场;习惯用一种学科、一个人物、一个理论来阐述你的问题。 《孩子的宇宙、最后20年、作为文化批评的人类学——一个人文学科实验时代》

人类学史复习提纲

人类学史复习提纲 一、名词解释 1、人类学-是自然史的分支,是研究人类和人类种族的学问"。更简明地说,人类学可以称为"人的科学"。它包括两大部分:第一部分研究自然人,第二部分研究人与人的关系,换句话来说,是研究社会人的科学。 人类学可以划分为广义的和狭义的。广义人类学的观点一般以英、美两国和其他英语国家的学者为代表,他们认为人类学就是研究人类的科学,其研究领域应包括人类的体质、心理、文化、社会、语言、民族、民俗等方方面面,内容十分庞杂。在他们那里,传统上习惯于将人类学划分为两大部分,即研究人类自身体质特征的体质人类学和研究人类社会文化特征的文化人类学。狭义人类学是在欧洲大陆的一些国家,如德国、法国和俄国,人类学一词传统上却仅指体质人类学,日本的一些人类学研究机构也仅限于研究人类的体质。持这种观点的学者,他们从狭义的角度来理解"人类学"这一概念,认为人类学是专门研究人类体质的学问,同时也包括对人类的近亲---灵长类动物的研究。 2、亚里士多德--亚里士多德生于公元前384年,死于公元前322年。他不仅是用"人类学"这个名词的第一个权威,而且在上古时期,对于人的研究在亚里斯多德那里达到了顶点。他奠定了动物学的基础,创立了"生物阶梯"的思想。按照他的这一思想,一系列生物体的地位逐渐升高,呈阶梯状排列。亚里斯多德是绝对没有进化论思想的,但是他提出的生物以阶梯形式排列的原则对于后来18世纪进化论学说的发展却起到了巨大的作用。亚里斯多德在确定人类在自然界中的地位的问题上做出了重要的贡献,在他的著作中存在着许多涉及人与动物之间形态特征差异方面的论点。但是在对人手作用的评价上,他认为人之所以有手是由于智慧所致,从而明显地表现出其唯心主义的世界观。 3、"地方性的知识"-这是美国著名人类学家格尔兹提出的一个概念。他写了一本叫做《地方性知识》的书。这种"地方性知识",以区别于其它知识形态,特别是实证论者假定的"普遍性"知识形态。在格尔兹看来,知识的性质是地方性的、多元的,因为人们生活所凭借的符号系统是特定的、地方化的、分殊性的,借助这些符号系统的作用,意义结构才得以形成、沟通、设定、共享、修正和再生。这个系统的作用,是甄别日常行为的意义和类别,地方性知识力图维持这些特定的意义系统,并根据它去组织行动。 4、体质人类学-是从生物学的角度来研究人类的体质变化的一门科学,包括研究过去和现代人体的一切发展和变异 5、赫胥黎-达尔文主义学派的代表人物。其是一位杰出的英国博物学家,他在动物学、比较解剖学、生理学和生物学的许多领域都具有很深的造诣。他通过大量的研究,证实了达尔文关于类人猿接近于人类的正确判断,并且重点探讨了人类在动物界中的位置问题,在实践中发展了达尔文主义。赫胥黎在人类起源认识史上首次提出了"人猿同祖论"的观点,向宗教神学提出勇敢的挑战。 6、新达尔文主义学派-以德国生物学家魏斯曼、奥地利遗传学家孟德尔和美国遗传学家摩尔根等人为代表的学派。该学派的学者提出了种质选择论,强调对遗传变异的选择作用,因而是对达尔文选择原理的一个重要的说明。达尔文主张生物的渐变进化,而新达尔文主义者在广泛的实验中发现了自然界中的另一种进化方式---骤变进化。这一概念的引入,对达尔文进化论是一个重要的补充。另外,该学派还创立了基因论,在一定程度上提示了生物遗传变异的机制,使进化论研究有可能深入到细胞实验的层次。但是,由于新达尔文主义是在个体水平上研究生物进化的,而实际上进化是群体范畴的问题,因此,该学派在解释生物进化时,在总体上不可避免地带有一定的局限性。

文化人类学入门

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文化人类学复习要点

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(完整版)文化人类学理论试题1

民族学2005级文化人类学理论考试试卷 学号:姓名:成绩: 一、填空题(共10分,2分/题) 1、。在民族学的早期专著中,《原始婚姻》一书尽管作出地结论并不可靠,但是在当时地时代影响很大。该书的作者是。 2、在同一阶段内文化为适应生境而提高其适应度的进化,结果创造出千姿百态的异种文化,这种进化属于进化。 3、苗族血缘认定、通婚界限的界定、财产继承、祖灵归属都以苗族父子连名制命名法为基础,请问以上相关文化因子结成的功能关系属于关系。 4、借鉴索绪尔的结构语言学中“语言”、“音位”、“言语”概念,提出文化也是一种语言,它也可分为两层:表露在外具体社会文化现象相当于言语;现象背后潜藏的无意识结构相当于语言。 5、自然条件对文化的影响力在透过社会时,要经过该社会的 三重加工。在经过此三重加工时,因不同民族自身的特点不同,就会出现不同的文化。这就是相同的地表条件,不同的民族会有不同的文化的根本原因。 二、名词解释(共20分,每题5分) 1、鲍亚士学派 2、原始文化 3、文化 4、索绪尔 三、简答题(共30分,10分/题;4道题中任选3题) 1、摩尔根认为人类的家庭是如何发展进化的? 2、怀特如何描述民族文化的发展与进化? 3、为何往往落后民族反而超前,成了后起之秀? 4、民族与种族有哪些区别? 四、论述题(共40分,从两个题中任选一个完成) 1、结构功能主义其基本理论是什么?你认为这一理论有何利敝得失? 2、为什么说地理决定论是错误的?

民族学2005级文化人类学理论考试试卷 学号:姓名:成绩: 一、填空题(共10分,2分/题) 1、。在民族学的早期专著中,《原始婚姻》一书尽管作出地结论并不可靠,但是 2、在同一阶段内文化为适应生境而提高其适应度的进化,结果创造出千姿百态 3、苗族血缘认定、通婚界限的界定、财产继承、祖灵归属都以苗族父子连名制 4借鉴索绪尔的结构语言学中“语言”、“音位”、“言语”概念,提出文化也是一种语言,它也可分为两层:表露在外具体社会文化现象相当于言语;现象背后潜藏的无意识结构相当于语言。 5 不同的文化。这就是相同的地表条件,不同的民族会有不同的文化的根本原因。 二、名词解释(共20分,每题5分) 1、鲍亚士学派(补) 鲍亚士学派的理论基点为文化独立论,即文化是一个独立完整,不依赖地理、经济、社会而存在的自然实体。正因为文化是具体的,不同民族的文化之间 无法简单评论,所以必须一个一个地去进行深入、细致的研究。该学派还提 出了文化平行发展论和“辐合论”。文化平行发展理论提出各民族文化不相连贯,只是相对独立的演进;“辐合论”说明表面相似的文化现象,其来源 可以截然不同。因此该学派重资料,轻推导,力图使资料搜集严密完整化, 使文化的内涵丰富化和多元化 该学派对民族学发展做出的贡献是多方面的,最显著的有文化相对主义、 文化区域论、文化模式和综合决定论。文化相对主义立足于文化具体观的系统认识,是反种族和民族歧视的利器,动摇了欧洲中心论民族学体系。文化区域论反对文化中心的形而上学推理。文化模式是文化分类研究的一种有益尝试,表明了民族分类研究的可能性,是当代文化谱系和族际关系研究的出发点。

人文社会科学基础试题及答案精选版

人文社会科学基础试题 及答案 集团文件版本号:(M928-T898-M248-WU2669-I2896-DQ586-M1988)

《人文社会科学基础》试题及答案 2005年04月11日 小学教育专业人文社会科学基础(A) 试题 一、填空题(每小题1分,共计10分) 1.人文社会科学的发展在20世纪上半叶以分化发展为主导倾向,在20世纪下半叶逐步走向了整体联动。 2.人文社会科学的时代性主要表现在:研究对象的时代性、研究主体的时代性和人文社会科学理论的时代背景因素。 3.现代西方哲学中的人本主义思潮1900年由哲学家胡塞尔创立的“现象学”而掀开新的一页,引发了后来的存在主义哲学。 4,19世纪中叶,德国历史学家兰克受实证主义哲学思想影响,倡导以纯“客观主义”态度和“科学方法”研究历史,被尊为“近代史之父”。 5.20世纪对纯客观主义的史学传统发动猛攻的首推意大利历史哲学家克罗齐。他提出:一切真正的历史都是当代史。 6.中国第一部系统的汉语语法着作是马建忠借鉴拉丁语法通析汉语语法结构于1989年出版的《马氏文通》。 7.美国和英国人类学奠基人摩尔根和泰勒在各自的着作《古代社会》和《原始文化》中,以空前丰富、翔实的资料,阐述人类的历史变迁分为蒙昧、野蛮、文明三个时期,被称为——早期人类学的进化论派。 8.现代西方新自然法学派的代表人物罗尔斯于1971年出版的哎《正义论》一书,被称为第二次世界大战之后伦理学、政治学、法学领域中最主要的理论着作。 9。赫尔巴特于1806年出版了《普通教育学》,较多的教育史学者将此作为独立的教育学体系初步形成的标志。

10·教育法学是法学与教育学合作产生的交叉学科。 二、名词解释(每小题3分,共计15分) 1.人文科学、名词解释(每小题3分,共计15分) 人文科学通常被说成是“人文学”,是指关于人的本身的学说或者理论体系,是对人的存在、本质、价值和发展问题以及人的自然属性、社会属性、精神属性进行研究的学问。 2.全球问题全球问题指的是与整个世界全体人类密切相关的重大问题,譬如人口增长、资源危机,环境污染、裁减军备等等问题,它们是当代人文社会科学研究的热点。 3.实证主义思潮在马克思主义哲学体系产生的同时,一些哲学家强调哲学应当以实证自然科学为基础,以描述经验事实为限,以取得实际效用为目标,要求排除抽象的思辨,追求实证知识的可靠性、确切性。由此开创了与非理性主义相对应的实证主义思潮。 4.经济自由主义经济自由主义是与国家干预主义并列的现代西方经济学中的两大经济思潮之一。它发端于17世纪中叶到19世纪的古典政治经济学,认为在经济生活中占统治地位的是市场经济这只“看不见的手”;要增加一个国家的财富,最好的经济政策就是给私人经济活动以完全的自由。 5.语言学语言学是一门研究人类语言的内部结构、功能和发展,揭示语言本质及其存在和发展规律的学科 三、单项选择题(在下列每小题的4个选项中只有1个是正确的,请选出并将题号填入括弧之中。每小题1分,共计20分) 1.科学是内在的整体,它被分解为单独的部份主要是由于( A ) A.人类认识能力的局限 B.事物的本质 C.社会的需要 D.科学自身的需要 2.我国把马克思主义列为人文社会科学体系中的( A ) A.综合性的主干学科 B。边缘学科

文化人类学理论流派

文化人类学理论流派大纲 第一节古典进化论 古典进化论学派是文化人类学史上的第一个理论学派,其成熟标志是泰勒的《原始社会》与摩尔根的《古代社会》的问世。进化论学派运用比较的方法探索人类社会文化的起源和发展历程,认为人类社会文化和生物进化一样,也是由简单到复杂、由低级阶段向高级阶段逐步发展的。全世界所有的文化都要经历这种循序进化的过程,造成这种普遍性的最终原因在于人类心理具有一致性。 一、产生背景 1、人类学知识的增长和研究组织的成立 2、殖民贸易的促进 19世纪中叶,资本主义生产方式得到蓬勃发展,殖民贸易和殖民地统治达到空前的程度。除殖民贸易和殖民统治官员的需要这一主要社会经济因素之外,殖民当局的官员和传教士将他们在当地所见所闻报导给国内,也引起人们的极大兴趣。因此,学者研究的方向也为之一变,转向比较语言学、比较宗教学、民族文化风俗的人类学研究。 3、进化论思想的催生 进化论学派产生的思想根源是19世纪进化理论的提出。达尔文首次详细阐述了生物进化的机制,并给予了科学的论证。《物种起源》一书概括了达尔文的主要思想,即物种不是永远远不变的,而是不断变化的;在变化过程中,生物的自然选择机制与高度的变异性起着重要作用;自然选择就是把有利的变异保存下来,把不利的变异淘汰掉,从而使自己能适应不同的环境并生存下来。 第一个系统地借鉴生物进化理论阐述社会进化理论的是英国哲学家斯宾塞。他第一次使用进化这个词是在1850年;1857年斯宾塞描述了整个宇宙的进化过程;1862年,斯宾塞给出了进化的明确定义:“进化是通过不断的分化与整合,从不确定、不连贯、同质向确定、连贯、异质的的变化。”斯宾塞进化理论的最大缺陷是将生物进化与社会进化视为本质相同的事物。 4、古典进化论的基本观点 所有研究社会与文化的进化论各有特点,但在以下三个问题上基本持相同看法,这就是:第一,用人类本质的一致性观念来说明文化发展的单一性。第二,各族文化都循同一路线向前进化,目前各个社会发展的不同程度,实际上代表这条路线的各个阶段,各阶段在程序上是固定的,但在时间上并不一致,有快慢的差别。第三,整个世界是依自然法则运行的。 二、泰勒的文化人类学理论 1、生平与著述 泰勒(Edward Burnett Tylor,1832—1917),英国文化人类学奠基人,古典进化论的代表人物。自学成才,1871年出版《原始文化》而驰名世界。泰勒是第一个从科学意义 上给文化下定义的人:“文化或文明,就其广泛民族学意义来讲,是一复合体,包括知识、 信仰、道德、法律、习俗以及作为一个社会成员的人所习得的一切能力与习惯”。 2、泰勒的进化论观点 泰勒认为:一方面,自然科学已经证明整个自然界是不断发展、逐步进化的,而作为自然界一部分的人类社会当然也是不断发展、逐步进化的;另一方面自然界的发展与进化是有其固有规律的,这些规律可以通过科学的研究方法加以说明。 泰勒提出了两大原则:第一,“在文明中有如此广泛的共同性,使得在很大程度上能够拿一些相同的原因来解释相同的现象。”泰勒进一步指出:世界各地文化的一致性,主要是两个因素决定的,一个是人的本性的普遍相似性;另一个是生活环境的普遍相似性。第二,“文化的各种不同阶段,可以认为是发展或进化的不同阶段,而其中的每一阶段都是前一阶段的产物,并对将来的历史进程起着相当大的作用。” 泰勒还划分了文化进化的三个主要阶段,即原始末开化或狩猎采集阶段、野蛮的以动物驯化和种植植物为特征的阶段和文明开化的、以书写艺术为开端的阶段。

对文化人类学的看法

认识社会学之根本——文化人类学 文化人类学(cultural anthropology)是人类学的一个分支学科。它研究人类各民族创造的文化,以揭示人类文化的本质。使用考古学、人种志、人种学、民俗学、语言学的方法、概念、资料,对全世界不同民族作出描述和分析。这是文化人类学最根本的定义,也是我在学习文化人类学以前对于文化人类学的全部理解。简单来说,在我看来文化人类学就是人类学的一个分支,或者说再大一点也可以算作社会学的一个分支。但是该怎么样理解这门学科、如何去剖析这门学科与社会学内在的联系、学习这门学科能够对我们的社会学学习提供怎样的帮助、以及我们该如何学些这门学科,这些问题我都没有真正思考过。 在上过文化人类学的课程,以及阅读过课程教材和少量的相关书籍以后,我对文化人类学的认识更加深入了。对于文化人类学这门学科,有课属于自己的认识,文化人类学是从“人的文化、文化的人”这个角度来探讨人及其文化发展的脉络、规律,研究人类在文明发展过程中人与自然、人与社会、人与人、群体与群体、人与自我之间的互动关系等课题的综合性学科,是一个研究范围极其广泛的学科,用徐杰舜先生的说法,文化人类学就是一个"千手观音",也正因为如此,现在文化人类学的分支学科,越来越多,呈现出一派生机盎然的景象,是当今世界的一门显学.既然文化人类学是从"人的文化、文化的人"这个特殊角度来研究文化和人的学科,所以,我认为,弄清楚到底什么是文化、什么是人,对于学习文化人类学的人以及文化人类学工作者来说,无疑都是很重要的,也是相当基础的问题。在文化人类学领域有考古学家、语言学家和民族学家。考古学家通常从过去的文化出发研究物质对象,试图以此解释人类行为;语言学家研究语言,文化借助语言得以维持并代代相传;民族学家研究已观察到、体验到的文化,与他们想要了解其文化的那些人进行讨论。这决定了文化人类学这门学科是一门涵盖了丰富的知识内涵的综合性学科,与我之前认为的文化人类学就是照本宣科的讲授、枯燥无味的学习有着明显的差异,这也奠定了我现在对于文化人类学学习的全新态度。 所有文化历时而变迁,有时因为他们应付的环境已经变化了,有时由于外人的入侵,或者因为文化内部的价值已经改变了。虽然文化必须变革以调适于新的环境,但是变革中未预见到的后果对社会来说有时是灾难性的。人类是社会成立之根本,而文化亦是名族得以延续传承的之保障,将二者合而为一的文化人类学也是一门了解人类社会起源和发展历程的一个基础性的学科,这样的课程的学习,更加倾向于拓展个人的视野,让其能够从更加宽广的视角去看待社会学、学习社会学、研究社会学。社会学本身就是一种多元化的学科,这种学科的学习对于学习者本身的知识积淀,以及其自身思考问题的宽度有很大的关系。这也进一步肯定了文化人类学的学习对于学习社会学的我们而言是十分有必要的。 撇开其与社会学的联系不谈,这门学科的研究给社会带来的巨大好处也是值得肯定的。文化为生活所必需的物品和服务的生产及分配提供保证。它通过其成员的繁衍,为生物的延续提供保证。它使新成员濡化,这样他们才能成为有用的成人。它维持其成员之间的秩序,

文化人类学讲义第二部分

第十章亲族、继嗣制度 第一节什么叫亲族 一、亲族的本质 亲族,在一定意义上又称亲属,是由血缘关系发展成的血亲(血族)及其配偶和由姻缘关系发展成的姻亲(姻族)及其配偶的总和。 亲族的本质是生物性和社会性结合的产物。生物性是亲族关系建立的起点,如父子、母子、兄弟姐妹等。 亲族还受社会因素的制约,比如亲族也包括通过收养和过继等形成的亲族关系。亲族还包括“干亲”、“把亲”。 案例:六亲 二、区分亲族关系的基本原则 美国人类学家克罗伯,区分七组关系的八个原则或者是范畴。 1.行辈原则 2.同辈长幼(年龄)原则 3.直系旁系有别原则 4.被称亲属性别原则 5.称谓人性别原则 6.中介亲属性别原则 7.血亲姻亲区别原则 8.亲属存殁原则 第二节亲族类型和亲等 一、亲属的类型 (一)血亲 1.直系血亲(包括自然直系血亲、拟制直系血亲) 2.旁系血亲(包括自然旁系血亲、拟制旁系血亲) (二)姻亲 姻亲是因婚姻而形成的亲属。其下分为直系姻亲和旁系姻亲两类。 (三)配偶 配偶是一种特殊的亲族类型。配偶基于婚姻而形成,也基于婚姻而存在。 二、亲等 衡量亲属关系亲疏远近的尺度被称为亲等。一般而言,亲等多则关系疏远。从世界范围看,亲等制主要分为两类,即等级亲等制和世代亲等制。 等级亲等制是一种按照世代的远近,参考地位尊卑、男女性别、恩情薄厚等来确定亲等等级的制度。如我国古代的丧服制。 世代亲等制是一种以一世代为一亲等的计算制度。分为罗马法与寺院法。 第三节亲属称谓 一、什么是亲属称谓 亲属称谓,是用来标明亲属关系的一套称呼术语或名称。 亲属称谓的作用和价值:

1.亲属称谓是一种完全确定的、反映亲属间权利和义务的称呼,通过称呼可以确定和确定和维护整个社会的秩序。 2.亲属称谓可以加强非亲属群体间的的团结与合作; 3.亲属关系的使用还可以将不具亲属关系的成员整合进亲属关系的网络之中; 4.亲属称谓能帮助人们理解婚姻家庭形态的演化。 二、亲属称谓制度的分类 亲属称谓制度,又称亲属名称制度,简称亲属制度。它是反映人们的亲属关系以及代表这些亲属关系称谓的一种社会规范。 主要有以下几种分类: (一)夏威夷式 (二)爱斯基摩式 (三)易洛魁式 (四)克罗式 (五)奥马哈式 (六)苏丹式 第四节我国的宗族制度 一、宗族的含义和特征 宗族是一种通常聚居一地,身份关系明确且具有一定经济联系的父系血缘亲属组织。宗族是宗和族的合称,实际上,宗和族具有不同的含义。 族一般指有血缘联系的一群人的集合,这里专指男系同姓同祖成员的集合,由众多的同姓同祖家庭组成,族人包括各个家庭的家长、妻子和子女等。而宗是指族人的主干和统帅,《白虎通·通论》说:“宗,尊也,为先祖主也,为族人尊也。”宗比族的范围要小得多。 在我国古代社会,尤其是商周宗法制度下,宗在族中的地位很高。宗的首脑称宗子,由嫡长子继承,拥有主持祭祀、统管宗内财产、教导族人、掌管婚丧大事、会聚族人等权力,称为宗子权。宗又分大小,小宗尊大宗为宗。如周代,周王自称天子,王位由嫡长子继承,称为天下的正宗、大宗,是同姓贵族的最高家长,也是政治上的共主。天子的其他儿子有的被分封为诸侯,他们对于天子来说为小宗,在本国为大宗,其职位由嫡长子继承。诸侯的庶子有的被分封为卿大夫。大夫对诸侯来说是小宗,在本家又为大宗,其爵位也由他的嫡长子继承。大夫的其他儿子封为士,土对大夫来说是小宗,但在本家是大宗,其爵位仍由其嫡长子继承。这样,天子、诸侯、大夫、士共同组成了井然有序的政治体系。 在春秋战国时期,随着宗法组织的衰落,宗在族内的地位日益下降。族虽仍由众多家庭构成,但已不像宗法制度下那么严密,逐渐成为一个较松散的族人自治联合体。实际上,我国的宗族制度在整个封建社会经历了一系列的历史演变。这种演变同各地特殊的经济和地理环境等因素相联系,并由此造成宗族的不同类型和不同特征。 一般来说,我国的宗族具有以下几个主要特征。 (一)聚族而居 在我国封建社会里,基于儒家“宗族称孝焉,乡党称悌焉”的训条,为了增强宗族的协作,维护政治的、经济的和社会的秩序,多数宗族都采取聚族而居的形式。以族的单位聚居在一起的人称“族人”或“乡党”。 (二)身份关系明确 同一宗族的成员间身份关系通过许多方式划分后,泾渭分明。 其一,是宗族成员有族长和族人之别。宗子是宗族的领袖,有时又称族正、宗长、宗

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