语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)1

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)

Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.

3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.

4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and

checked against the observed facts.

5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.

6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic

concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.

7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the

sounds to convey meaning in communication.

8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.

9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called

morphology.

10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but

also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.

11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.

12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.

13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation,

but in context.

14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.

15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.

16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.

17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.

18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.

19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.

20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4718071260.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.

23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.

24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.

25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.

26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.

27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.

29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.

30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.

A. prescriptive

B. analytic

C. descriptive

D. linguistic 32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?

A. Arbitrariness

B. Displacement

C. Duality

D. Meaningfulness

33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.

A. primary

B. correct

C. secondary

D. stable

34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing

B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue

D. All of the above

35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. comparative

36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.

A. sociological…psychological

B. psychological…sociological

C. applied…pragmatic

D.semantic and linguistic

37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

A. parole

B. performance

C. langue

D. Language

38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.

A. sense

B. sounds

C. objects

D. ideas

39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,

A. displacement

B. duality

C. flexibility

D. cultural transmission

40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.

A. learning

B. teaching

C. books

D. both A and B

IV. Define the following terms:

41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 Parole

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.

62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.

63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?

64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?

65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?

66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?

67. How do you understand competence and performance ?

68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?

69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.

F 20.F

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledg e 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productiv e 30. scientific (or systematic)

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the state ment. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.D

IV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.

45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.

50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.

51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication

57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,

58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.

59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech co mmunity; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of la ngue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; par ole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if nec essary:

61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicati on. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between fo rm and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. T his also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with o bjects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is s ound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different fro m the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that languag

e makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.

62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrarines s As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elep hant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object i n different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not enti rely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Languag e is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, i

ncluding sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication sys tems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whic h consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lo wer or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual so unds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of stru cture or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacemen t Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, langua ge can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal call s are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetica lly transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call system s are genetically transmitted.

63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is

prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules a nd imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.

64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic

study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the descriptio n of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of langua ge is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.

65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the

written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derive

d from th

e spoken form o

f language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writin

g in

terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.

66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between l

angue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Lan gue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, an

d parol

e refers to the realization o

f langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rul

es which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions an

d th

e application o

f the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but p

arole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situ ation.

67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsk

y in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defi nes competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of senten ces and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, perfor mance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speake r’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of s ocial and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what li nguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too h aphazard.

68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distin

ction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Altho ugh Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, an

d Chomsky looks at languag

e from a psychological point o

f vies and to him, competence is a pro

perty of the mind of each individual.

69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitrary in na

ture, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections b etween forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onoma topoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, cra sh,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo”and “copy”in “phot ocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)

Chapter 2：Phonology

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and E

nglish.

2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distin

guish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.

3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.

4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.

5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.

6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of th

e amount o

f information conveyed.

7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sou

nds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.

8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important area

s: the throat, the mouth and the chest.

9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.

10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part

of the tongue that is raised the highest.

11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consona

nts can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.

12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue

in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, sem

i-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.

14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.

15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.

16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categ

ories.

17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one

sound for another results in a change of meaning.

18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment

which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contra st.

19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.

20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of

two or more phonemic segments.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.

22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speec

h sounds and how they differ.

23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_

______ sounds.

24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for var

ieties of articulation than any other.

25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms

of p____ of articulation.

26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speec

h sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s

________.

27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the se

gments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.

28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called

s ____ rules.

29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcri

ption while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ tra nscription.

30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word

in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.

31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular languag

e and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.

32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important caviti

es: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.

33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of t

he vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.

34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of str

ess: word stress and s_________ stress

III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best com plete the statement.

35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips

C. tongue

D. vocal cords

36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voicele

ss B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal

37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.

A. /z/

B. /d/

C. /k/

D./b/

38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature o

f a sequential phoneme, thus makin

g the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exa

ctly alike D. similar

39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they

can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.

A. in phonemic contrast

B. in complementary distribution

C. the allophones

D. minimal pair

40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voiced alv

eolar stop

C. voiceless velar fricative

D. voiceless labiodental fricative

41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining

the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle

42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemi

c segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are calle

d ________

____. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. sem antic features

43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a colle

ction of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C. allophone D. phoneme

44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environm

ents are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophone s

IV. Define the terms below:

45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabe

t 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54.

phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pair

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if ne cessary:

57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writin

g?

58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?

59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?

60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.

61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. T

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given:

21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequ ential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence

III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the ch oice that can best complete the statement:

35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.D

IV. Define the terms below:

45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover h ow speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctiv

e value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection o

f dis

tinctive phonetic features.

47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneti

c environments are calle

d th

e allophones o

f that phoneme.

48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted sys

tem of phonetic transcription.

49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather th

an the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.

50.

51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it

is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages

52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. I

t studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.

53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. I

t studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one per son to another.

54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaki

ng a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meanin

g.

55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.

If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phone mic contrast.

56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibratio

n of the vocal cords.

57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one s

ound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a mi nimal pair.

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if ne cessary:

58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?

1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2) In everyday communication, speech plays a

greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught l ater at school.

59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?

1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the

tongue in the mouth. 2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into f our groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3) According to t he shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels. 4) The Englis

h vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the s

ound.

60. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? They differ in

their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech soun ds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what ph onetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interest ed in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a l anguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communica tion.

61. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning. 1) The l

ocation of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternat ion of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same element s. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a pa rticular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black. 2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater

force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sente nce that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He i s driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or your s, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed. 3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spo ken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaki ng, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the ris ing tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.

62. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not? A basic way

to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in

a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第三章)

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which wor

ds are formed.

2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.

3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morphe

me the basic unit in the study of morphology.

4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are fre

e morphemes.

5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.

6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical

categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.

7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem,

which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meani

ng of it.

9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to f

orm a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable wor ds.

10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while t

he second element receives secondary stress.

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

12. The affix “-ish”in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.

13. B______ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to

be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d____ affixes.

15. D______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.

16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original

word and it may case change its part of speech.

17. C______ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat

e new words.

18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a

new word are called m____ rules.

19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d____ can be viewed as the addition of affixes

to stems to form new words.

20. A s____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to wh

ich a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement.

Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

21. The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______. A.

bound morpheme B. bound form C. inflectional morpheme D. free morpheme

22. The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indi

cates that the meaning of a compound ______.

A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components

B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes

C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.

D. None of the above.

23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of sp

eech of _______. A. the first element B. the second element C. either the first or the secon

d elementD. both th

e first and the second elements.

24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combine

d with other morphemes, either fre

e or bound, to form a word. A. Free morphemes B. Bound

morphemes C. Bound words D. Words

25. _____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words a

nd the rules by which words are formed. A. Syntax B.Grammar C. Morph ology D. Morpheme

26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______. A. lexica

l B. morphemic C. grammatical D. semantic

27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________. A. have to be used independe

ntlyB. can not be combined with other morphemes C. can either be free or bound D. have to be combined with other morphemes.

28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of sp

eech of the original word. A. Prefixes B. Suffixes C. Roots D. Affixes

29. _____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by th

e linguists. A. Words B. Morphemes C. Phonemes D. Sentences

30. “-s”in the word “books”is _______. A. a derivative affix B. a stem

C. an inflectional affix

D. a root

IV. Define the following terms:

31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology 33. derivational morphology

34. morpheme 35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme 37. root 38. affix 39. prefix 40. s

uffix 41. derivation 42. Compounding V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the mai n features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Morpheme 12. gram matical 13. Bound 14. derivative 15.Derivative 16. suffix 17. Compounding 18. morphological 19. d erivation 20. stem

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the state ment: 2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. B 30. C

IV. Define the following terms: 31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 32. inflectional morpholog y: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections 33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation. 34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful un it of language. 35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.

36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen -dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clea r, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. 38. Aff ix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatic al relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to creat e a word. 39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 40. Suffi x: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in m any cases change its part of speech. 41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formati on by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. 42. Compoundi ng: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to cre ate new words.

V. Anwser the following questions:

43. What are the main features of the English compounds? Orthographically a compound

can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactical ly, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.

44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples. Free morphemes: They are the in

dependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-”in th

e word “bookish”. Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but h

ave to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish”i n “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gen e-”in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional mo rphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s”in the wo rd “books”to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to cr eate a word such as “mis-”in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided i nto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ”in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less”in the word “friend less”.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

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I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

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Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

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第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

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英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer

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胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the

胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释

2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出 排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音 10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are

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英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat