GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
(Adopted at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People’s Congress, and promulgated by Order No. 37 of the president of the People’s Republic of China on April 12, 1986, and effecti ve as of January 1, 1987)
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I BASIC PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER II CITIZEN (NA TURAL PERSON)
SECTION 1 CAPACITY FOR CIVIL RIGHTS AND CAPACITY FOR CIVIL CONDUCT SECTION 2 GUARDIANSHIP
SECTION 3 DECLARATIONS OF MISSING PERSONS AND DEATH
SECTION 4 INDIVIDUAL BUSINESSES AND LEASEHOLDING FARM HOUSEHOLDS SECTION 5 INDIVIDUAL PARTNERSHIP
CHAPTER III LEGAL PERSONS
SECTION 1 GENERAL STIPULATIONS
SECTION 2 ENTERPRISE AS LEGAL PERSON
SECTION 3 OFFICIAL ORGAN, INSTITUTION AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AS LEGAL PERSONS
SECTION 4 ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION
CHAPTER IV CIVIL JURISTIC ACTS AND AGENCY
SECTION 1 CIVIL JURISTIC ACTS
SECTION 2 AGENCY
CHAPTER V CIVIL RIGHTS
SECTION 1 PROPERTY OWNERSHIP AND RELATED OWNERSHIP RIGHTS
SECTION 2 CREDITORS’ RIGHTS
SECTION 3 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
SECTION 4 PERSONAL RIGHTS
CHAPTER VI CIVIL LIABILITY
SECTION 1 GENERAL STIPULATIONS
SECTION 2 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT
SECTION 3 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR INFRINGEMENT OF RIGHTS
SECTION 4 METHODS OF BEARING CIVIL LIABILITY
CHAPTER VII LIMITATION OF ACTION
CHAPTER VIII APPLICATION OF LAW IN CIVIL RELATIONS WITH FOREIGNERS
CHAPTER IX SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS
CHAPTER I BASIC PRINCIPLES
Article 1. This Law is formulated in accordance with the Constitution and the actual situation in our country, drawing upon our practical experience in civil activities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons and correctly adjusting civil relations, so as to meet the needs of the developing socialist modernization.
Article 2. The Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China shall adjust property relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between citizens and legal persons.
Article 3. Parties to a civil activity shall have equal status.
Article 4. In civil activities, the principles of voluntariness, fairness, making compensation for equal value, honesty and credibility shall be observed.
Article 5. The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons shall be protected by law; no organization or individual may infringe upon them.
Article 6. Civil activities must be in compliance with the law; where there are no relevant provisions in the law, they shall be in compliance with state policies.
Article 7. Civil activities shall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm the public interest, undermine state economic plans or disrupt social economic order.
Article 8. The law of the People’s Republic of China shall apply to civil activities within the People’s Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by law.
The stipulations of this Law as regards citizens shall apply to foreigners and stateless persons within the People’s Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by law.
CHAPTER II CITIZEN (NA TURAL PERSON)
SECTION 1 CAPACITY FOR CIVIL RIGHTS AND CAPACITY FOR CIVIL CONDUCT Article 9. A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rights from birth to death and shall enjoy civil rights and assume civil obligations in accordance with the law.
Article 10. All citizens are equal as regards their capacity for civil rights.
Article 11. A citizen aged 18 or over shall be an adult. He shall have full capacity for civil conduct, may independently engage in civil activities and shall be called a person with full capacity for civil conduct.
A citizen who has reached the age of 16 but not the age 18 and whose main source of income is his own labour shall be regarded as a person with full capacity for civil conduct.
Article 12. A minor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his age and intellect; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.
A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad litem.
Article 13. A mentally ill person who is unable to recognize his own conduct shall be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad litem.
A mentally ill person who is unable to fully recognize his own conduct shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his mental health; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.
Article 14. The guardian of a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct shall be his agent ad litem.
Article 15. The domicile of a citizen shall be the place where his residence is registered; if his habitual residence is not the same as his domicile, his habitual residence shall be regarded as his domicile.
SECTION 2 GUARDIANSHIP
Article 16. The parents of a minor shall be his guardians.
If the parents of a minor are dead or lack the competence to be his guardian, a person from the following categories who has the competence to be a guardian shall act as his guardian:
(1) paternal or maternal grandparent;
(2) elder brother or sister; or
(3) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the units of the minor’s parents or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor’s residence.
In case of a dispute over guardianship, the units of the minor’s pare nts or the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among the minor’s near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people’s court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first two paragraphs of this Article is available to be the guardian, the units of the minor’s parents, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor’s residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 17. A person from the following categories shall act as guardian for a mentally ill person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct:
(1) spouse;
(2) parent;
(3) adult child;
(4) any other near relative;
(5) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence.
In case of a dispute over guardianship, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs, or the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence, shall appoint a guardian from among his near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people’s court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first paragraph of this Article is available to be the guardian, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 18. A guardian shall fulfil his duty of guardianship and protect the person, property and other lawful rights and interests of his wards. A guardian shall not handle the property of his ward unl ess it is in the ward’s interests.
A guardian’s rights to fulfil his guardianship in accordance with the law shall be protected by law. If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardian or infringes upon the lawful rights and interests of his ward, he shall be held responsible; if a guardian causes any property loss for his ward, he shall compensate for such loss. The people’s court may disqualify a guardian based on the application of a concerned party or unit.
Article 19. A person who shares interests with mental patient may apply to a people’s court for a declaration that the mental patient is a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct. With the recovery of the health of a person who has been declared by a people’s court to be without or with limited capacity for civil conduct, and upon his own application or that of an interested person, the people’s court may declare him to be a person with limited or full capacity for civil conduct.
SECTION 3 DECLARATIONS OF MISSING PERSONS AND DEATH
Article 20. If a citizen’s whereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interested person may apply to a people’s court for a declaration of the citizen as missing.
If a person’s whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of the time pe riod in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the final day of the war.
Article 21. A missing person’s property shall be placed in the custody of his spouse, parents, adult children or other closely connected relatives or friends. In case of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulated above are unavailable or are incapable of taking such custody, the property shall be placed in the custody of a person appointed by the people’s court.
Any taxes, debts and other unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shall defrayed by the custodian out of the missing person’s property.
Article 22. In the event that a person who has been declared missing reappears or his whereabouts is ascertained, the people’s court shall, upon his own application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his missing person status.
Article 23. Under any of the following circumstances, an interested person may apply to the people’s court for the declaration of a citizen’s death:
(1) if the citizen’s whereab outs have been unknown for four years; or
(2) if the citizen’s whereabouts have been unknown for two years after the date of an accident in which he was involved.
If a person’s whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the final day of the war.
Article 24. In the event that a person who has been declared as dead reappears or it is ascertained that he is alive, the people’s court shall, upon his own application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his death.
Any civil juristic acts performed by a person with capacity for civil conduct during the period in which he has been declared dead shall be valid.
Article 25. A person shall have the right to request the return of his property, if the declaration of his death has been revoked. Any citizen or organization that has obtained such property in accordance with the Inheritance Law shall return the original items or make appropriate compensation if the original items are no longer existent.
SECTION 4 INDIVIDUAL BUSINESSES AND LEASEHOLDING FARM HOUSEHOLDS Article 26. " Individual businesses " refers to businesses run by individual citizens who have been lawfully registered and approved to engage in industrial or commercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. An individual business may adopt a shop name.
Article 27. " Leaseholding farm households " refers to members of a rural collective economic organization who engage in commodity production under a contract and within the spheres permitted by law.
Article 28. The legitimate rights and interests of individual businesses and leaseholding farm households shall be protected by law.
Article 29. The debts of an individual business or a leaseholding farm household shall be secured with the individual’s property if the business is operated by an individual and with the family’s property if the business is operated by a family.
SECTION 5 INDIVIDUAL PARTNERSHIP
Article 30. " Individual partnership " refers to two or more citizens associated in a business and working together, with each providing funds, material objects, techniques and so on according to an agreement.
Article 31. Partners shall make a written agreement covering the funds each is to provide, the distribution of profits, the responsibility for debts, the entering into and withdrawal from partnership, the ending of partnership and other such matters.
Article 32. The property provided by the partners shall be under their unified management and use.
The property accumulated in a partnership operation shall belong to all the partners.
Article 33. An individual partnership may adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and registered in accordance with law and conduct business operations within the range as approved and registered.
Article 34. The operational activities of an individual partnership shall be decided jointly by the partners, who each shall have the right to carry out and supervise over those activities.
The partners may elect a responsible person. All partners shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of the responsible person and other personnel.
Article 35. A partnership’s debts shall be secured with the partners’ property in proportion to their respective contributions to the investment or according to the agreement made.
Partners shall undertake joint liability for their partnership’s debts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any partner who overpays his share of the partnership’s debts shall have the right to claim compensation from the other partners.
CHAPTER III LEGAL PERSONS
SECTION 1 GENERAL STIPULATIONS
Article 36. A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law.
A legal person’s capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct shall begin when the legal person is established and shall end when the legal person terminates.
Article 37. A legal person shall have the following qualifications:
(1) establishment in accordance with the law;
(2) possession of the necessary property or funds;
(3) possession of its own name, organization and premises; and
(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.
Article 38. In accordance with the law or the articles of association of the legal person, the responsible person who acts on behalf of the legal person in exercising its functions and powers shall be its legal representative.
Article 39. A legal person’s domicile shall be the place where its main administrative office is located.
Article 40. When a legal person terminates, it shall go into liquidation in accordance with the law and discontinue all other activities.
SECTION 2 ENTERPRISE AS LEGAL PERSON
Article 41. An enterprise under ownership by the whole people or under collective ownership shall be qualified as a legal person when it has sufficient funds as stipulated by the state; has articles of association, an organization and premises; has the ability to independently bear civil liability; and has been approved and registered by the competent authority.
A Chinese-foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital enterprise established within the People’s Republic of China shall be qualified as a legal person in China, if it has the qualifications of a legal person and has been approved and registered by the administrative agency for industry and commerce in accordance with the law.
Article 42. An enterprise as legal person shall conduct operations within the range approved and registered.
Article 43. An enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of its legal representatives and other personnel.
Article 44. If an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoes any other important change, it shall register the change with the registration authority and publicly announce it.
When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, its rights and obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by the new legal person that results from the change.
Article 45. An enterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of the following reasons:
(1) if it is dissolved by law;
(2) if it is disbanded;
(3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordance with the law; or
(4) for other reasons.
Article 46. When an enterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel its registration with the registration authority and publicly announce the termination.
Article 47. When an enterprise as legal person is disbanded, it shall establish a liquidation organization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise as legal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, the competent authority or a people’s court shall organize the organs and personnel concerned to establish a liquidation organization to liquidate the enterprise.
Article 48. An enterprise under ownership by the whole people, as legal person, shall bear civil liability with the property that the state authorizes it to manage. An enterprise under collective ownership, as legal person, shall bear civil liability with the property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability with the property it owns, except as stipulated otherwise by law.
Article 49. Under any of the following circumstances, an enterprise as legal person shall bear liability, its legal representative may additionally be given administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offence constitutes a crime, criminal responsibility shall be investigated in accordance with the law:
(1) conducting illegal operations beyond the range approved and registered by the registration authority;
(2) concealing facts from the registration and tax authorities and practising fraud;
(3) secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evade repayment of debts;
(4) disposing of property without authorization after the enterprise is dissolved, disbanded or declared bankrupt;
(5) failing to apply for registration and make a public announcement promptly when the enterprise undergoes a change or terminates, thus causing interested persons to suffer heavy losses;
(6) engaging in other activities prohibited by law, damaging the interests of the state or the public interest.
SECTION 3 OFFICIAL ORGAN, INSTITUTION AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AS LEGAL PERSONS
Article 50. An independently funded official organ shall be qualified as a legal person on the day it is established.
If according to law an institution or social organization having the qualifications of a legal person needs not go through the procedures for registering as a legal person, it shall be qualified as a legal person on the day it is established; if according to law it does need to go through the registration procedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and registered.
SECTION 4 ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION
Article 51. If a new economic entity is formed by the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in economic association and it independently bears civil liability and has the qualifications of a legal person, the new entity shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and registered by the competent authority.
Article 52. If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in economic association conduct joint operation but do not have the qualifications of a legal person, each party to the association shall, in proportion to its respective contribution to the investment or according to the agreement made, bear civil liability with the property each party owns or manages. If joint liability is specified by law or by agreement, the parties shall assume joint liability.
Article 53. If the contract for economic association of enterprises or of an enterprise and an institution specifies that each party shall conduct operations independently, it shall stipulate the rights and obligations of each party, and each party shall bear civil liability separately.
CHAPTER IV CIVIL JURISTIC ACTS AND AGENCY
SECTION 1 CIVIL JURISTIC ACTS
Article 54. A civil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen or legal person to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations.
Article 55. A civil juristic act shall meet the following requirements:
(1) the actor has relevant capacity for civil conduct;
(2) the intention expressed is genuine; and
(3) the act does not violate the law or the public interest.
Article 56. A civil juristic act may be in written, oral or other form. If the law stipulates that a particular form be adopted, such stipulation shall be observed.
Article 57. A civil juristic act shall be legally binding once it is instituted. The actor shall not alter or rescind his act except in accordance with the law or with the other party’s consent.
Article 58. Civil acts in the following categories shall be null and void:
(1) those performed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;
(2) those that according to law may not be independently performed by a person with limited capacity for civil conduct;
(3) those performed by a person against his true intentions as a result of cheating, coercion or exploitation of his unfavourable position by the other party;
(4) those that performed through malicious collusion are detrimental to the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;
(5) those that violate the law or the public interest;
(6) economic contracts that violate the state’s mandatory plans; and
(7) those that performed under the guise of legitimate acts conceal illegitimate purposes.
Civil acts that are null and void shall not be legally binding from the very beginning.
Article 59. A party shall have the right to request a people’s court or an arbitration agency to alter or rescind the following civil acts:
(1) those performed by an actor who seriously misunderstood the contents of the acts; and
(2) those that are obviously unfair.
Rescinded civil acts shall be null and void from the very beginning.
Article 60. If a part of a civil act is null and void, it shall not affect the validity of other parts, which shall remain valid.
Article 61. After a civil act has been determined to be null and void or has been rescinded, the party who acquired property as a result of the act shall return it to the party who suffered a loss. The erring party shall compensate the other party for the losses it suffered as a result of the act; if both sides are in error, they shall each bear their proper share of the responsibility.
If the two sides have conspired maliciously and performed a civil act that is detrimental to the interests of the state, a collective or a third party, the property that they thus obtained shall be recovered and turned over to the state or the collective, or returned to the third party.
Article 62. A civil juristic act may have conditions attached to it. Conditional civil juristic acts shall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.
SECTION 2 AGENCY
Article 63. Citizens and legal persons may perform civil juristic acts through agents
An agent shall perform civil juristic acts in the principal’s name within the scope of the power of agency. Th e principal shall bear civil liability for the agent’s acts of agency.
Civil juristic acts that should be performed by the principal himself, pursuant to legal provisions or the agreement between the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.
Article 64. Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutory agency and appointed agency.
An entrusted agent shall exercise the power of agency as entrusted by the principal; a statutory agent shall exercise the power of agency as prescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise the power of agency as designated by a people’s court or the appointing unit.
Article 65. A civil juristic act may be entrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If legal provisions require the entrustment to be written, it shall be effected in writing.
Where the entrustment of agency is in writing, the power of attorney shall clearly state the agent’s name, the entrusted tasks and the scope and duration of the power of agency, and it shall be signed or sealed by the principal.
If the power of attorney is not clear as to the authority conferred, the principal shall bear civil liability towards the third party, and the agent shall be held jointly liable.
Article 66. The principal shall bear civil liability for an act performed by an actor with no power of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency or after his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizes the act retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, the performer shall bear civil liability for it. If a principal is aware that a civil act is being executed in his name but fails to repudiate it, his consent shall be deemed to have been given.
An agent shall bear civil liability if he fails to perform his duties and thus causes damage to the principal.
If a n agent and a third party in collusion harm the principal’s interests, the agent and the third party shall be held jointly liable.
If a third party is aware that an actor has no power of agency or is overstepping his power of agency, or that his power of agency has expired, and yet joins him in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people, the third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.
Article 67. If an agent is aware that the matters entrusted are illegal but still carries them out, or if a principal is aware that his agent’s acts are illegal but fails to object to them, the principal and the agent shall be held jointly liable.
Article 68. If in the principal’s interests an entrusted agent needs to transfer the agency to another pers on, he shall first obtain the principal’s consent. If the principal’s consent is not obtained in advance, the matter shall be reported to him promptly after the transfer, and if the principal objects, the agent shall bear civil liability for the acts of the transferee; however, an entrusted agency transferred in emergency circumstances in order to safeguard the principal’s interests shall be excepted.
Article 69. An entrusted agency shall end under any of the following circumstances:
(1) when the period of agency expires or when the tasks entrusted are completed;
(2) when the principal rescinds the entrustment or the agent declines the entrustment;
(3) when the agent dies;
(4) when the principal loses his capacity for civil conduct; or
(5) when the principal or the agent ceases to be a legal person.
Article 70. A statutory or appointed agency shall end under any of the following circumstances:
(1) when the principal gains or recovers capacity for civil conduct;
(2) when the principal or the agent dies;
(3) when the agent loses capacity for civil conduct;
(4) when the people’s court or the unit that appointed the agent rescinds the appointment; or
(5) when the guardian relationship between the principal and the agent ends for other reasons.
CHAPTER V CIVIL RIGHTS
SECTION 1 PROPERTY OWNERSHIP AND RELATED PROPERTY RIGHTS
Article 71. " Property ownership " means the owner’s rights to lawfully possess, utilize, profit from and dispose of his property.
Article 72. Property ownership shall not be obtained in violation of the law.
Unless the law stipulates otherwise or the parties concerned have agreed on other arrangements, the ownership of property obtained by contract or by other lawful means shall be transferred simultaneously with the property itself.
Article 73. State property shall be owned by the whole people.
State property is sacred and inviolable, and no organization or individual shall be allowed to seize, encroach upon, privately divide, retain or destroy it.
Article 74. Property of collective organizations of the working masses shall be owned collectively by the working masses. This shall include:
(1) land, forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches and other areas that are stipulated by law to be under collective ownership;
(2) property of collective economic organizations;
(3) collectively owned buildings, reservoirs, farm irrigation facilities and educational, scientific, cultural, health, sports and other facilities; and
(4) other property that is collectively owned.
Collectively owned land shall be owned collectively by the village peasants in accordance with the law and shall be worked and managed by village agricultural production cooperatives, other collective agricultural economic organizations or villagers’ committees. Land already under the ownership of the township (town) peasants collective economic organizations may be collectively owned by the peasants’ of the township (town).
Collectively owned property shall be protected by law, and no organization or individual may seize, encroach upon, privately divide, destroy or illegally seal up, detain, freeze or confiscate it.
Article 75. A citizen’s personal property shall include his lawfully-earned income, housing, savings, articles for daily use, objects art, books, reference materials, trees, livestock, as well as means of production the law permits a citizen to possess and other lawful property.
A citizen’s lawful property shall be protected by law, and no organization or individual may appropriate, encroach upon, destroy or illegally seal up, detain, freeze or confiscate it.
Article 76. Citizens shall have the right of inheritance under the law.
Article 77. The lawful property of social organizations, including religious organizations, shall be protected by law.
Article 78. Property may be owned jointly by two or more citizens or legal persons.
There shall be two kinds of joint ownership, namely co-ownership by shares and common ownership. Each of the co-owners by shares shall enjoy the rights and assume the obligations respecting the joint property in proportion to his share. Each of the common owners shall enjoy the rights and assume the obligations respecting the joint property.
Each co-owner by shares shall have the right to withdraw his own share of the joint property or transfer its ownership. However, when he offers to sell his share, the other co-owners shall have a right of preemption if all other conditions are equal.
Article 79. If the owner of a buried or concealed object is unknown, the object shall belong to the state. The unit that receives the object shall commend or give a material reward to the unit or individual that turns in the object.
Lost-and-found objects, flotsam and stray animals shall be returned to their rightful owners, and any costs thus incurred shall be reimbursed by the owners.
Article 80. State-owned land may be used according to law by units under ownership by the whole people; it may be also lawfully assigned for use by units under collective ownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of the land, and the usufructuary shall be obligated to manage, protect and properly use the land.
The right of citizens and collectives to contract for management of land under collective ownership or of state owned land under collective use shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations of the two contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract signed in accordance with the law.
Land may not be sold, leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any other means.
Article 81. State-owned forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches, water
surfaces and other natural resources may be used according to law by units under ownership by the whole people; or they may be also lawfully assigned for use by units under collective ownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of those resources, and the usufructuary shall be obliged to manage, protect and properly use them.
State-owned mineral resources may be mined according to law by units under ownership by the whole people and units under collective ownership; citizens may also lawfully mine such resources. The state shall protect lawful mining rights.
The right of citizens and collectives to lawfully contract for the management of forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches and water surfaces that are owned by the collectives or owned by the state but used by collectives shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations of the two contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract in accordance with the law.
State-owned mineral resources and waters as well as forest land, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land and beaches owned by the state and those that are lawfully owned by collectives may not be sold, leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any other means.
Article 82. Enterprises under ownership by the whole people shall lawfully enjoy the rights of management over property that the state has authorized them to manage and operate, and the rights shall be protected by law.
Article 83. In the spirit of helping production, making things convenient for people’s life, enhancing unity and mutual assistance, and being fair and reasonable, neighbouring users of real estate shall maintain proper neighbourly relations over such matters as water supply, drainage, passageway, ventilation and lighting. Anyone who causes obstruction or damages to his neighbour, shall stop the infringement, eliminate the obstruction and compensate for the damages.
SECTION 2 CREDIT ORS’ RIGHTS
Article 84. A debt represents a special relationship of rights and obligations established between the parties concerned, either according to the agreed terms of a contract or legal provisions. The party entitled to the rights shall be the creditor, and the party assuming the obligations shall be the debtor.
The creditor shall have the right to demand that the debtor fulfil his obligations as specified by the contract or according to legal provisions.
Article 85. A contract shall be an agreement whereby the parties establish, change or terminate their civil relationship. Lawfully established contracts shall be protected by law.
Article 86. When there are two or more creditors to a deal, each creditor shall be entitled to rights in proportion to his proper share of the credit. When there are two or more debtors to a deal, each debtor shall assume obligations in proportion to his proper share of the debt.
Article 87. When there are two or more creditors or debtors to a deal, each of the joint creditors shall be entitled to demand that the debtor fulfil his obligations, in accordance with legal provisions or the agreement between the parties; each of the joint debtors shall be obliged to perform the entire debt, and the debtor who performs the entire debt shall be entitled to ask the other joint debtors to reimburse him for their shares of the debt.
Article 88. The parties to a contract shall fully fulfil their obligations pursuant to the terms of the contract.
If a contract contains ambiguous terms regarding quality, time limit for performance, place of performance, or price, and the intended meaning cannot be determined from the context of relevant terms in the contract, and if the parties cannot reach an agreement through consultation, the provisions below shall apply:
(1) If quality requirements are unclear, state quality standards shall apply; if there are no state quality standards, generally held standards shall apply.
(2) If the time limit for performance is unclear, the debtor may at his convenience fulfil his obligations towards the creditor; the creditor may also demand at any time that the debtor perform his obligations, but sufficient notice shall be given to the debtor.
(3) If the place of performance is unclear, and the payment is money, the performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the party receiving the payment; if the payment is other than money, the performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the party fulfilling the obligations.
(4) If the price agreed by the parties is unclear, the state-fixed price shall apply. If there is no state-fixed price, the price shall be based on market price or the price of a similar article or remuneration for a similar service.
If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to patent application, any party who has completed an invention-creation shall have the right to apply for a patent.
If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to the use of scientific and technological research achievements, the parties shall all have the right to use such achievements.
Article 89. In accordance with legal provisions the agreement between the parties on the performance of a debt may be guaranteed using the methods below:
(1) A guarantor may guarantee to the creditor that the debtor shall perform his debt. If the debtor
defaults, the guarantor shall perform the debt or bear joint liability according to agreement. After performing the debt, the guarantor shall have the right to claim repayment from the debtor.
(2) The debtor or a third party may offer a specific property as a pledge. If the debtor defaults, the creditor shall be entitled to keep the pledge to offset against the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceeds from the sale of the pledge pursuant to relevant legal provisions.
(3) Within the limits of relevant legal provisions, a party may leave a deposit with the other party. After the debtor has discharged his debt, the deposit shall either be retained as partial payment of the debt or returned. If the party who leaves the deposit defaults, he shall not be entitled to demand the return of the deposit; if the party who accepts the deposit defaults, he shall repay the deposit in double.
(4) If a party has possession of the other party’s property according to contract, and the other party violates the contract by failing to pay a required sum of money within the specified time limit, the possessor shall have a lien on the property and may keep the retained property to offset against the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceeds from the sale of the property pursuant to relevant legal provisions.
Article 90. Legitimate loan relationships shall be protected by law.
Article 91. If a party to a contract transfers all or part of his contractual rights or obligations to a third party, he shall obtain the other party’s consent and may not seek profits therefrom. Contracts which according to legal provisions are subject to state approval, such as transfers, must be approved by the authority that originally approved the contract, unless the law or the original contract stipulates otherwise.
Article 92. If profits are acquired improperly and without a lawful basis, resulting in another person’s loss, the illegal profits shall be returned to the person who suffered the loss.
Article 93. If a person acts as manager or provides services in order to protect another person’s interests when he is not legally or contractually obligated to do so, he shall be entitled to claim from the beneficiary the expenses necessary for such assistance.
SECTION 3 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
Article 94. Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy rights of authorship (copyrights) and shall be entitled to sign their names as authors, issue and publish their works and obtain remuneration in accordance with the law.
Article 95. The patent rights lawfully obtained by citizens and legal persons shall be protected
by law.
Article 96. The rights to exclusive use of trademarks obtained by legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall be protected by law.
Article 97. Citizens who make discoveries shall be entitled to the rights of discovery. A discoverer shall have the right to apply for and receive certificates of discovery, bonuses or other awards.
Citizens who make inventions or other achievements in scientific and technological researches shall have the right to apply for and receive certificates of honour, bonuses or other awards.
SECTION 4 PERSONAL RIGHTS
Article 98. Citizens shall enjoy the rights of life and health.
Article 99. Citizens shall enjoy the right of personal name and shall be entitled to determine, use or change their personal names in accordance with relevant provisions. Interference with, usurpation of and false representation of personal names shall be prohibited.
Legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall enjoy the right of name. Enterprises as legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall have the right to use and lawfully assign their own names.
Article 100. Citizens shall enjoy the right of portrait.
The use of a citizen’s portrait for profits without his consent shall be prohibite d.
Article 101. Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of reputation. The personality of citizens shall be protected by law, and the use of insults, libel or other means to damage the reputation of citizens or legal persons shall be prohibited.
Article 102. Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of honour. It shall prohibited to unlawfully divest citizens and legal persons of their honorary titles.
Article 103. Citizens shall enjoy the right of marriage by choice. Mercenary marriages, marriages upon arbitrary decision by any third party and any other acts of interference in the freedom of marriage shall be prohibited.
Article 104. Marriage, the family, old people, mothers and children shall be protected by law.
The lawful rights and interests of the handicapped shall be protected by law.
Article 105. Women shall enjoy equal civil rights with men.
CHAPTER VI CIVIL LIABILITY
SECTION 1 GENERAL STIPULATIONS
Article 106. Citizens and legal persons who breach a contract or fail to fulfil other obligations shall bear civil liability.
Citizens and legal persons who through their fault encroach upon state or collective property, or the property or person of other people shall bear civil liability.
Civil liability shall still be borne even in the absence of fault, if the law so stipulates.
Article 107. Civil liability shall not be borne for failure to perform a contract or damage to a third party if it is caused by force majeure, except as otherwise provided by law.
Article 108. Debts shall be cleared. If a debtor is unable to repay his debt immediately, he may repay by instalments with the consent of the creditor or a ruling by a people’s court. If a debtor is capable of repaying his debt but refuses to do so, repayment shall be compelled by the decision of a people’s court.
Article 109. If a person suffers damages from preventing or stopping the encroachment on state or collective property, or the property or person of a third party, the infringer shall bear responsibility for compensation, and the beneficiary may also give appropriate compensation.
Article 110. Citizens or legal persons who bear civil liability shall also be held for administrative responsibility if necessary. If the acts committed by citizens and legal persons constitute crimes, criminal responsibility of their legal representatives shall be investigated in accordance with the law.
SECTION 2 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT
Article 111. If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations or violates the terms of a contract while fulfilling the obligations, the other party shall have the right to demand fulfilment or the taking of remedial measures and claim compensation for its losses.
Article 112. The party that breaches a contract shall be liable for compensation equal to the losses consequently suffered by the other party.
The parties may specify in a contract that if one party breaches the contract it shall pay the other party a certain amount of breach of contract damages; they may also specify in the contract the method of assessing the compensation for any losses resulting from a breach of contract.
Article 113. If both parties breach the contract, each party shall bear its respective civil liability.
Article 114. If one part y is suffering losses due to the other party’s breach of contract, it shall take prompt measures to prevent the losses from increasing; if it does not promptly do so, it shall not have the right to claim compensation for the additional losses.
Article 115. A party’s right to claim compensation for losses shall not be affected by the alteration or termination of a contract.
Article 116. If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations on account of a higher authority, it shall first compensate for the losses of the other party or take other remedial measures as contractually agreed and then the higher authority shall be responsible for settling the losses it sustained.
SECTION 3 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR INFRINGEMENT OF RIGHTS
Article 117. Anyone who encroaches on the property of the state, a collective or another person shall return the property; failing that, he shall reimburse its estimated price.
Anyone who damages the property of the state, a collective or another person shall restore the property to its original condition or reimburse its estimated price. If the victim suffers other great losses therefrom, the infringer shall compensate for those losses as well.
Article 118. If the rights of authorship (copyrights), patent rights, rights to exclusive use of trademarks, rights of discovery, rights of invention or rights for scientific and technological research achievements of citizens or legal persons are infringed upon by such means as plagiarism, alteration or imitation, they shall have the right to demand that the infringement be stopped, its ill effects be eliminated and the damages be compensated for.
Article 119. Anyone who infringes upon a citizen’s person and causes him physical injury shall
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英语选修7 黑体字单词
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draft 草稿drag 拖拉扯 dry out 使浸水之物完全变干dry up 干涸 favour 喜爱恩惠fit in 相适合相融合 govern 统治hear from 接到……的信 help(…)out 帮之某人摆脱困境或危难 in all 一共in many ways 在很多方面 in need 在困境中in other words换句话说 junior 较年幼的资历较浅的地位较低的 keep it up 保持成绩优秀继续干下去 leave … alone不管别惹让……一个人呆着和……单独在一起make fun of 取消meet with 遇到会晤经历 neat 好的整齐的匀称的never mind 不必担心obey 服从occupy 占用占领占据 otherwise 否则不然用别的方法 out of breath 上气不接下气 out of the question 不可能的不值得讨论 participate 参加参与pause 暂停终止recommend 推荐建议reflect 思考 relevant 有关的resign 辞去 ring up 给…..打电话scare 恐吓使恐吓 (be)scare to death 吓死了 settle in （迁入新居，更换工作后）安顿下来
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奋斗了，才有出路 ——读《鲁宾逊漂游记》有感小说《鲁宾逊漂游记》一直深受人们的喜爱。读完这篇小说，使我对人生应该有自己的一个奋斗历程而受益匪浅。当一个人已经处于绝境的时候，还能够满怀信心的去面对和挑战生活，实在是一种可贵的精神。他使我认识到，人无论何时何地，不管遇到多大的困难，都不能被困难所吓倒，我们要勇敢的面对困难，克服困难，始终保持一种积极向上、乐观的心态去面对。在当今社会只有努力去奋斗，才会有自己的出路！ 其实现在的很多人都是那些遇到困难就退缩，不敢勇敢的去面对它。不仅如此，现在很多人都是独生子女，很多家长视子女为掌上明珠，不要说是冒险了，就连小小的家务活也不让孩子做，天天总是说：“我的小宝贝啊，你读好书就行了，其它的爸爸妈妈做就可以了。”读书固然重要，但生活中的小事也不能忽略。想一想，在荒无人烟的孤岛上，如果你连家务活都不会做，你能在那里生存吗？读完这部著作后，我不禁反问自己：“如果我像书中的鲁宾逊那样在大海遭到风暴，我能向他那样与风暴搏斗，最后逃离荒岛得救吗？恐怕我早已经被大海所淹没；如果我漂流到孤岛，能活几天？我又能干些什么？我会劈柴吗？会打猎做饭吗？我连洗洗自己的衣服还笨手笨脚的。”我们应该学习鲁宾逊这种不怕困难的精神，无论何时何地都有坚持地活下去，哪怕只有一线希望也要坚持到底，决不能放弃！我们要像鲁宾
逊那样有志气、有毅力、爱劳动，凭自己的双手创造财富，创造奇迹，取得最后的胜利。这样的例子在我们的生活中屡见不鲜。 《史记》的作者司马迁含冤入狱，可它依然在狱中完成《史记》一书，他之所以能完成此书，靠的也是他心中那顽强的毅力，永不放弃的不断努力的精神。著名作家爱迪生从小就生活在一个贫困的家庭中，可是他从小就表现出了科学方面的天赋。长大后爱迪生着力于电灯的发明与研究，他经过了九百多次的失败，可它依然没有放弃，不断努力，最后终于在第一千次实验中取得了成功。 鲁宾逊在岛上生活了二十八年，他面对了各种各样的困难和挫折，克服了许多常人无法想象的困难，自己动手，丰衣足食，以惊人的毅力，顽强的活了下来。他自从大船失事后，找了一些木材，在岛上盖了一间房屋，为防止野兽，还在房子周围打了木桩，来到荒岛，面对着的首要的就是吃的问题，船上的东西吃完以后，鲁宾逊开始打猎，有时可能会饿肚子，一是他决定播种，几年后他终于可以吃到自己的劳动成果，其实学习也是这样，也有这样一个循序渐进的过程，现在的社会，竞争无处不在，我们要懂得只有付出才会有收获，要勇于付出，在战胜困难的同时不断取得好成绩。要知道只有付出，才会有收获。鲁宾逊在失败后总结教训，终于成果；磨粮食没有石磨，他就用木头代替；没有筛子，就用围巾。鲁宾逊在荒岛上解决了自己的生存难题，面对人生挫折，鲁宾逊的所作所为充分显示了他坚毅的性格和顽强的精神。同样我们在学习上也可以做一些创新，养成一种创新精神，把鲁宾逊在荒岛，不畏艰险，不怕失败挫折，艰苦奋斗的精
高中英语选修课：英语文学欣赏 Sister Carrie 学生版讲义资料
Chapter III WEE QUESTION OF FORTUNE--FOUR-FIFTY A WEEK Once across the river and into the wholesale district, she glanced about her for some likely door at which to apply. As she contemplated the wide windows and imposing signs, she became conscious of being gazed upon and understood for what she was--a wage-seeker. She had never done this thing before, and lacked courage. To avoid a certain indefinable shame she felt at being caught spying about for a position, she quickened her steps and assumed an air of indifference supposedly common to one upon an errand. In this way she passed many manufacturing and wholesale houses without once glancing in. At last, after several blocks of walking, she felt that this would not do, and began to look about again, though without relaxing her pace. A little way on she saw a great door which, for some reason, attracted her attention. It was ornamented by a small brass sign, and seemed to be the entrance to a vast hive of six or seven floors. "Perhaps," she thought, "They may want some one," and crossed over to enter. When she came within a score of feet of the desired goal, she saw through the window a young man in a grey checked suit. That he had anything to do with the concern, she could not tell, but because he happened to be looking in her direction her weakening heart misgave her and she hurried by, too overcome with shame to enter. Over the way stood a great six- story structure, labelled Storm and King, which she viewed with rising hope. It was a wholesale dry goods concern and employed women. She could see them moving about now and then upon the upper floors. This place she decided to enter, no matter what. She crossed over and walked directly toward the entrance. As she did so, two men came out and paused in the door. A telegraph messenger in blue dashed past her and up the few steps that led to the entrance and disappeared. Several pedestrians out of the hurrying throng which filled the sidewalks passed about her as she paused, hesitating. She looked helplessly around, and then, seeing herself observed, retreated. It was too difficult a task. She could not go past them. So severe a defeat told sadly upon her nerves. Her feet carried her mechanically forward, every foot of her progress being a satisfactory portion of a flight which she gladly made. Block after block passed by. Upon streetlamps at the various corners she read names such as Madison, Monroe, La Salle, Clark, Dearborn, State, and still she went, her feet beginning to tire upon the broad stone flagging. She was pleased in part that the streets were bright and clean. The morning sun, shining down with steadily increasing warmth, made the shady side of the streets pleasantly cool. She looked at the blue sky overhead with more realisation of its charm than had ever come to her before. Her cowardice began to trouble her in a way. She turned back, resolving to hunt up Storm and King and enter. On the way, she encountered a great wholesale shoe company, through the broad plate windows of which she saw an enclosed executive
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析 引导语：曹操(155—220)，字孟德，小名阿瞒，《短歌行 二首》 是曹操以乐府古题创作的两首诗， 第一首诗表达了作者求贤若渴的心 态，第二首诗主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心迹。 短歌行 其二 曹操 周西伯昌，怀此圣德。 三分天下，而有其二。 修奉贡献，臣节不隆。 崇侯谗之，是以拘系。 后见赦原，赐之斧钺，得使征伐。 为仲尼所称，达及德行， 犹奉事殷，论叙其美。 齐桓之功，为霸之首。 九合诸侯，一匡天下。 一匡天下，不以兵车。 正而不谲，其德传称。 孔子所叹，并称夷吾，民受其恩。 赐与庙胙，命无下拜。 小白不敢尔，天威在颜咫尺。 晋文亦霸，躬奉天王。 受赐圭瓒，钜鬯彤弓， 卢弓矢千，虎贲三百人。 威服诸侯，师之所尊。 八方闻之，名亚齐桓。 翻译 姬昌受封为西伯，具有神智和美德。殷朝土地为三份，他有其中两分。 整治贡品来进奉，不失臣子的职责。只因为崇侯进谗言，而受冤拘禁。 后因为送礼而赦免， 受赐斧钺征伐的权利。 他被孔丘称赞， 品德高尚地位显。 始终臣服殷朝帝王，美名后世流传遍。齐桓公拥周建立功业，存亡继绝为霸 首。
聚合诸侯捍卫中原，匡正天下功业千秋。号令诸侯以匡周室，主要靠的不是 武力。 行为磊落不欺诈，美德流传于身后。孔子赞美齐桓公，也称赞管仲。 百姓深受恩惠，天子赐肉与桓公，命其无拜来接受。桓公称小白不敢，天子 威严就在咫尺前。 晋文公继承来称霸，亲身尊奉周天王。周天子赏赐丰厚，仪式隆重。 接受玉器和美酒，弓矢武士三百名。晋文公声望镇诸侯，从其风者受尊重。 威名八方全传遍，名声仅次于齐桓公。佯称周王巡狩，招其天子到河阳，因 此大众议论纷纷。 赏析 《短歌行》 (“周西伯昌”)主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心 迹，当他翦灭群凶之际，功高震主之时，正所谓“君子终日乾乾，夕惕若 厉”者，但东吴孙权却瞅准时机竟上表大说天命而称臣，意在促曹操代汉 而使其失去“挟天子以令诸侯”之号召， 故曹操机敏地认识到“ 是儿欲据吾著炉上郁!”故曹操运筹谋略而赋此《短歌行 ·周西伯 昌》。 西伯姬昌在纣朝三分天下有其二的大好形势下， 犹能奉事殷纣， 故孔子盛称 “周之德， 其可谓至德也已矣。 ”但纣王亲信崇侯虎仍不免在纣王前 还要谗毁文王，并拘系于羑里。曹操举此史实，意在表明自己正在克心效法先圣 西伯姬昌，并肯定他的所作所为，谨慎惕惧，向来无愧于献帝之所赏。 并大谈西伯姬昌、齐桓公、晋文公皆曾受命“专使征伐”。而当 今天下时势与当年的西伯、齐桓、晋文之际颇相类似，天子如命他“专使 征伐”以讨不臣，乃英明之举。但他亦效西伯之德，重齐桓之功，戒晋文 之诈。然故作谦恭之辞耳，又谁知岂无更讨封赏之意乎 ?不然建安十八年(公元 213 年)五月献帝下诏曰《册魏公九锡文》，其文曰“朕闻先王并建明德， 胙之以土，分之以民，崇其宠章，备其礼物，所以藩卫王室、左右厥世也。其在 周成，管、蔡不静，惩难念功，乃使邵康公赐齐太公履，东至于海，西至于河， 南至于穆陵，北至于无棣，五侯九伯，实得征之。 世祚太师，以表东海。爰及襄王，亦有楚人不供王职，又命晋文登为侯伯， 锡以二辂、虎贲、斧钺、禾巨 鬯、弓矢，大启南阳，世作盟主。故周室之不坏， 系二国是赖。”又“今以冀州之河东、河内、魏郡、赵国、中山、常 山，巨鹿、安平、甘陵、平原凡十郡，封君为魏公。锡君玄土，苴以白茅，爰契 尔龟。”又“加君九锡，其敬听朕命。” 观汉献帝下诏《册魏公九锡文》全篇，尽叙其功，以为其功高于伊、周，而 其奖却低于齐、晋，故赐爵赐土，又加九锡，奖励空前。但曹操被奖愈高，心内 愈忧。故曹操在曾早在五十六岁写的《让县自明本志令》中谓“或者人见 孤强盛， 又性不信天命之事， 恐私心相评， 言有不逊之志， 妄相忖度， 每用耿耿。
2008年浙师大《外国文学名著鉴赏》期末考试答案
（一）文学常识 一、古希腊罗马 1．（1）宙斯(罗马神话称为朱庇特)，希腊神话中最高的天神，掌管雷电云雨，是人和神的主宰。 （2）阿波罗，希腊神话中宙斯的儿子，主管光明、青春、音乐、诗歌等，常以手持弓箭的少年形象出现。 （3）雅典那，希腊神话中的智慧女神，雅典城邦的保护神。 （4）潘多拉，希腊神话中的第一个女人，貌美性诈。私自打开了宙斯送她的一只盒子，里面装的疾病、疯狂、罪恶、嫉妒等祸患，一齐飞出，只有希望留在盒底，人间因此充满灾难。“潘多拉的盒子”成为“祸灾的来源”的同义语。 （5）普罗米修斯，希腊神话中造福人间的神。盗取天火带到人间，并传授给人类多种手艺，触怒宙斯，被锁在高加索山崖，受神鹰啄食，是一个反抗强暴、不惜为人类牺牲一切的英雄。 （6）斯芬克司，希腊神话中的狮身女怪。常叫过路行人猜谜，猜不出即将行人杀害；后因谜底被俄底浦斯道破，即自杀。后常喻“谜”一样的人物。与埃及狮身人面像同名。 2．荷马，古希腊盲诗人。主要作品有《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被称为荷马史诗。《伊利亚特》叙述十年特洛伊战争。《奥德赛》写特洛伊战争结束后，希腊英雄奥德赛历险回乡的故事。马克思称赞它“显示出永久的魅力”。 3．埃斯库罗斯，古希腊悲剧之父，代表作《被缚的普罗米修斯》。6．阿里斯托芬，古希腊“喜剧之父”代表作《阿卡奈人》。 4．索福克勒斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《俄狄浦斯王》。5．欧里庇得斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《美狄亚》。 二、中世纪文学 但丁，意大利人，伟大诗人，文艺复兴的先驱。恩格斯称他是“中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。主要作品有叙事长诗《神曲》，由地狱、炼狱、天堂三部分组成。《神曲》以幻想形式，写但丁迷路，被人导引神游三界。在地狱中见到贪官污吏等受着惩罚，在净界中见到贪色贪财等较轻罪人，在天堂里见到殉道者等高贵的灵魂。 三、文艺复兴时期 1．薄迦丘意大利人短篇小说家，著有《十日谈》拉伯雷，法国人，著《巨人传》塞万提斯，西班牙人,著《堂?吉诃德》。 2．莎士比亚，16-17世纪文艺复兴时期英国伟大的剧作家和诗人，主要作品有四大悲剧——《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》《麦克白》、《李尔王》，另有悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等，喜剧有《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》等，历史剧有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》等。马克思称之为“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”。 四、17世纪古典主义 9．笛福，17-18世纪英国著名小说家，被誉为“英国和欧洲小说之父”，主要作品《鲁滨逊漂流记》，是英国第一部现实主义长篇小说。10．弥尔顿，17世纪英国诗人，代表作：长诗《失乐园》，《失乐园》，表现了资产阶级清教徒的革命理想和英雄气概。 25．拉伯雷，16世纪法国作家，代表作：长篇小说《巨人传》。 26．莫里哀，法国17世纪古典主义文学最重要的作家，法国古典主义喜剧的创建者，主要作品为《伪君子》《悭吝人》（主人公叫阿巴公）等喜剧。 五、18世纪启蒙运动 1）歌德，德国文学最高成就的代表者。主要作品有书信体小说《少年维特之烦恼》，诗剧《浮士德》。 11．斯威夫特，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《格列佛游记》，以荒诞的情节讽刺了英国现实。 12．亨利·菲尔丁，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《汤姆·琼斯》。 六、19世纪浪漫主义 （1拜伦， 19世纪初期英国伟大的浪漫主义诗人，代表作为诗体小说《唐璜》通过青年贵族唐璜的种种经历，抨击欧洲反动的封建势力。《恰尔德。哈洛尔游记》 （2雨果，伟大作家，欧洲19世纪浪漫主义文学最卓越的代表。主要作品有长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》、《悲惨世界》、《笑面人》、《九三年》等。《悲惨世界》写的是失业短工冉阿让因偷吃一片面包被抓进监狱，后改名换姓，当上企业主和市长，但终不能摆脱迫害的故事。《巴黎圣母院》 弃儿伽西莫多，在一个偶然的场合被副主教克洛德.孚罗洛收养为义子，长大后有让他当上了巴黎圣母院的敲钟人。他虽然十分丑陋而且有多种残疾，心灵却异常高尚纯洁。 长年流浪街头的波希米亚姑娘拉.爱斯梅拉达，能歌善舞，天真貌美而心地淳厚。青年贫诗人尔比埃尔.甘果瓦偶然同她相遇，并在一个更偶然的场合成了她名义上的丈夫。很有名望的副教主本来一向专心于"圣职"，忽然有一天欣赏到波希米亚姑娘的歌舞，忧千方百计要把她据为己有，对她进行了种种威胁甚至陷害，同时还为此不惜玩弄卑鄙手段，去欺骗利用他的义子伽西莫多和学生甘果瓦。眼看无论如何也实现不了占有爱斯梅拉达的罪恶企图，最后竟亲手把那可爱的少女送上了绞刑架。 另一方面，伽西莫多私下也爱慕着波希米亚姑娘。她遭到陷害，被伽西莫多巧计救出，在圣母院一间密室里避难，敲钟人用十分纯朴和真诚的感情去安慰她，保护她。当她再次处于危急中时，敲钟人为了援助她，表现出非凡的英勇和机智。而当他无意中发现自己的"义父"和"恩人"远望着高挂在绞刑架上的波希米亚姑娘而发出恶魔般的狞笑时，伽西莫多立即对那个伪善者下了最后的判决，亲手把克洛德.孚罗洛从高耸入云的钟塔上推下，使他摔的粉身碎骨。 （3司汤达，批判现实主义作家。代表作《红与黑》，写的是不满封建制度的平民青年于连，千方百计向上爬，最终被送上断头台的故事。“红”是将军服色，指“入军界”的道路；“黑”是主教服色，指当神父、主教的道路。 14．雪莱，19世纪积极浪漫主义诗人，欧洲文学史上最早歌颂空想社会主义的诗人之一，主要作品为诗剧《解放了的普罗米修斯》，抒情诗《西风颂》等。 15．托马斯·哈代，19世纪英国作家，代表作：长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》。 16．萨克雷，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《名利场》 17．盖斯凯尔夫人，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《玛丽·巴顿》。 18．夏洛蒂?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，代表作：长篇小说《简?爱》19艾米丽?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，夏洛蒂?勃朗特之妹，代表作：长篇小说《呼啸山庄》。 20．狄更斯，19世纪英国批判现实主义文学的重要代表，主要作品为长篇小说《大卫?科波菲尔》、《艰难时世》《双城记》《雾都孤儿》。21．柯南道尔，19世纪英国著名侦探小说家，代表作品侦探小说集《福尔摩斯探案》是世界上最著名的侦探小说。 七、19世纪现实主义 1、巴尔扎克，19世纪上半叶法国和欧洲批判现实主义文学的杰出代表。主要作品有《人间喜剧》，包括《高老头》、《欧也妮·葛朗台》、《贝姨》、《邦斯舅舅》等。《人间喜剧》是世界文学中规模最宏伟的创作之一，也是人类思维劳动最辉煌的成果之一。马克思称其“提供了一部法国社会特别是巴黎上流社会的卓越的现实主义历史”。
英文文献及中文翻译撰写格式
关于毕业设计说明书（论文）英文文献及中文翻译撰写格式 为提高我校毕业生毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）的撰写质量，做到毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）在内容和格式上的统一和规范，特规定如下: 一、装订顺序 论文（设计说明书）英文文献及中文翻译内容一般应由3个部分组成，严格按以下顺序装订。 1、封面 2、中文翻译 3、英文文献（原文） 二、书写格式要求 1、毕业设计（论文）英文文献及中文翻译分毕业设计说明书英文文献及中文翻译和毕业论文英文文献及中文翻译两种，所有出现相关字样之处请根据具体情况选择“毕业设计说明书” 或“毕业论文”字样。 2、毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）英文文献及中文翻译中的中文翻译用Word 软件编辑，英文文献用原文，一律打印在A4幅面白纸上，单面打印。 3、毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）英文文献及中文翻译的上边距:30mm；下边距:25mm；左边距:3Omm；右边距:2Omm；行间距1.5倍行距。 4、中文翻译页眉的文字为“中北大学2019届毕业设计说明书” 或“中北大学××××届毕业论文”，用小四号黑体字，页眉线的上边距为25mm；页脚的下边距为18mm。 5、中文翻译正文用小四号宋体，每章的大标题用小三号黑体，加粗，留出上下间距为：段前0.5行，段后0.5行；二级标题用小四号黑体，加粗；其余小标题用小四号黑体，不加粗。 6、文中的图、表、附注、公式一律采用阿拉伯数字分章编号。如图1.2，表2.3，附注3.2或式4.3。 7、图表应认真设计和绘制,不得徒手勾画。表格与插图中的文字一律用5号宋体。
每一插图和表格应有明确简短的图表名，图名置于图之下，表名置于表之上，图表号与图表名之间空一格。插图和表格应安排在正文中第一次提及该图表的文字的下方。当插图或表格不能安排在该页时，应安排在该页的下一页。 图表居中放置，表尽量采用三线表。每个表应尽量放在一页内，如有困难，要加“续表X.X”字样，并有标题栏。 图、表中若有附注时，附注各项的序号一律用阿拉伯数字加圆括号顺序排，如:注①。附注写在图、表的下方。 文中公式的编号用圆括号括起写在右边行末顶格，其间不加虚线。 8、文中所用的物理量和单位及符号一律采用国家标准，可参见国家标准《量和单位》(GB3100~3102-93)。 9、文中章节编号可参照《中华人民共和国国家标准文献著录总则》。
_嘉莉妹妹_中自然主义赏析
目的。笔者曾进行了这方面的一个实验；对乐理、视唱程度相当的Ａ、Ｂ两个班，在讲小调式时，Ａ班此时视唱只唱小调式作品，边唱边分析；Ｂ班只在乐理课上选一些典型作品作简单分析，而视唱课对小调作品概不介绍，结果发现Ａ班大部分同学对小调式的特点掌握清晰、分析作品透彻，而Ｂ班多数同学对小调式作品的分析仍感糊涂。 （二）乐理和视唱由同一老师任教，选用乐理与视唱进度相当、联系密切的教材。 两门课由同一老师任教，这样就使老师对两门课的进度有更好的把握，从而做到在教学内容上的衔接，使乐理教学与视唱教学融为一体。现在有些院校已开始了这方面的尝试，如河南的黄河科技学院，商丘师院等。据笔者了解，由同一个老师任教班级学生的乐理视唱学习效果明显好于非同一教师任教的班级。 教材的选择对教学影响极大，原来的视唱教材极少有乐理内容，而乐理教材中的谱例也不多。目前新的教材已改变了这种状况，现在视唱教材中有了很好的理论知识讲授，如许敬行、孙虹编著，高教出版社出版的《视唱练习》。乐理教材有了更多的谱例，如贾方爵编著、 西南师大出版社出版的《基本乐理》。选用此种联系密切的教材， 教师在教学的过程中更易做到理论联系实际，学生在自学时也更易理解。 （三）加强乐理、视唱教学与其他科目的横向联系 音乐中的许多课程，如欣赏、民族民间音乐、合唱、音乐史等的学习对学生综合专业素质的提高有很大帮助，对它们的学习与对乐理和视唱的学习又能达到互相促进的目的。在乐理学教学中，学生最易迷惑的就是调式调性的判断，而进行调式判断时首先要靠听觉分辨作品的五声性和西方性。但如何能够分辨其是五声性作品还是西方调式体系作品，靠的是学生对音乐的基本鉴赏力。这就要求学生平时在欣赏课上要认真去听、去辨别，而欣赏老师也应该对不同体裁的音乐作品进行详细的讲解，并引导学生去辨别。经过这样长期的训练，学生对于不同地域、不同风格的音乐作品都有了了解和掌握，辨别调式的问题自然迎刃而解。同样，民族民间课程的学习对于学生了解和掌握各民族的音乐风格、特点起重要作用。经过同学们对民歌、戏曲等曲型片断的实际训练，在视唱这些有特点的作品时，其音乐风格的把握就会更好一些，因律制原因产生的音准问题也会大大减少，学生对民族风格的视唱会唱得更有味，把握得更准确。在这方面，如果乐理和视唱课需要，可会同其他科目的教师对教学进度、教学内容作一些适当的调整，使之与乐理、视唱教学相适应。如有必要，也可请这方面的专家，就某一问题进行一次讲座，以加深同学们对某些问题的理解。教师亦可有目的地向学生介绍一些此方面的书籍，让学生去阅读；介绍一些音响资料，让学生有目的地听，从而拓宽学生的知识面，进而更好地学习和掌握乐理和视唱。 总之，视唱与乐理相结合并密切联系相关科目的教学方法，不仅可以使学生增加对音乐理论的感性认识，加强视唱时的理论指导，更增加了视唱课的趣味性，使乐理不再枯燥，视唱课不再单调。 当然，加强乐理、视唱与其他科目教学的联系并不是说这些课程什么地方都可以互融。有些乐理知识如音律很难让学生唱出来。但这并不能否认加强视唱、乐理与其他学科教学联系的必要性。 作者简介：刘建坤，商丘师范学院音乐系教师。 一、美国自然主义的产生 内战之后，美国处于一段相对和平的时期，资本主义经济蓬勃发展。然而，在经济发展的背后，人们却普遍产生了一种悲观情绪，传统的理想主义被抛弃，宇宙的在规律性和机械性中蕴涵的漠然性使其变成了人类的敌人，至少已经不是人类慈祥的朋友。斯蒂芬?克莱恩（Ｓｔｅｐｈｅｎ Ｃｒａｎｅ（１８７１－１９００））的一首小诗Ｇｏｄ ｉｓ ｃｏｌｄ［１］ 便生动地反映了这种状况： 一个人对宇宙说：／“阁下，我存在的！”／“不过，”传来宇宙的回答，／“你的存在虽是事实，却／并没有使我产生义务感。” 对这一思潮起决定性作用的是达尔文的进化论（Ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｏｆ Ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ）。达尔文认为：影响生物进化的因素有三种，即：自然选择、性的选择及个体有生之期获得特性的遗传。进化论的诞生，是对传统神学及理想主义神学的全盘否定，它取消了上帝设计师和创造者的地位，进而强调人类产生过程的机械性，以及人类进化过程的因果循环性。受其影响，悲观、忧郁的新自然哲学应运而生。新自然哲学指出，自然是一座对人类遭遇无动于衷的庞大机器，人类在自然中必然要为生存而相互竞争，而且，部分人的毁灭是人类进步中不可避免的现象。 悲观的新自然哲学在文学中的反映就是产生悲观宿命的自然主义文学。英国哲学家赫伯特?斯宾塞（ＨｅｒｂｅｒｔＳｐｅｎｃｅｒ）的“社会达尔文主义” （Ｓｏｃｉａｌ Ｄａｒｗｉｎｉｓｍ）以及美国内战后的社会状况，对自然主义在美国的产生和发展起了极大的作用。当时的主要作家往往把人置于庞大的自然和社会背景中，从而显示其渺小、脆弱以及无可奈何。 ＂生存＂是人类活动的最高目标，道德规范对于实际生活已经毫无意义。 在美国自然主义文学中，最为突出的代表是西奥多?德莱塞。 二、德莱塞在美国文学史上的地位 西奥多?德莱塞 ［Ｔｈｅｏｄｏｒｅ Ｄｒｅｉｓｅｒ （１８７１－１９４５）］是美国现代小说的先驱和代表作家，被认为是同海明威、福《嘉莉妹妹》是美国自然主义文学大师西奥多?德莱塞的处女作和成名作。自然主义在书中 主要表现为作者对失败者的深刻同情。 《嘉莉妹妹》中 自然主义赏析 文／姚晓鸣 编辑：冯彬彬 69 美与时代 ２００３．１１下
外国名著赏析论文
题目：浅析从简爱到女性的尊严和爱 学院工商学院 专业新闻学3 学号 姓名闫万里 学科外国文学名着赏析 [摘要] 十九世纪中期，英国伟大的女性存在主义先驱，着名作家夏洛蒂勃朗特创作出了她的代表作--《简爱》，当时轰动了整个文坛,它是一部具有浓厚浪漫主义色彩的现实主义小说，被认为是作者"诗意的生平"的写照。它在问世后的一百多年里，它始终保持着历史不败的艺术感染力。直到现在它的影响还继续存在。在作品的序幕、发展、高潮和结尾中，女主人公的叛逆、自由、平等、自尊、纯洁的个性都是各个重点章节的主旨，而这些主旨则在女主人公的爱情观中被展露的淋漓尽致，它们如同乌云上方的星汉，灼灼闪耀着光芒，照亮着后来的女性者们追求爱情的道路。? [关键词] 自尊个性独特新女性主义自由独立平等 《简爱》是一部带有自转色彩的长篇小说，它阐释了这样一个主题：人的价值=尊严+爱。从小就成长在一个充满暴力的环境中的简爱，经历了同龄人没有的遭遇。她要面对的是舅妈的毫无人性的虐待，表兄的凶暴专横和表姐的傲慢冷漠，尽管她尽力想“竭力赢得别人的好感”，但是事实告诉她这都是白费力气的，因此她发出了“不公平啊！--不公平！”的近乎绝望的呼喊。不公平的生长环境，使得简爱从小就向往平等、自由和爱，这些愿望在她后来的成长过程中表现无疑，
譬如在她的爱情观中的种种体现。? 1.桑菲尔德府? 谭波儿小姐因为出嫁，离开了洛伍德学校，同时也离开了简爱，这使简爱感觉到了“一种稳定的感觉，一切使我觉得洛伍德学校有点像我家的联想，全都随着她消失了”，她意识到：真正的世界是广阔的，一个充满希望和忧虑、激动和兴奋的变化纷呈的天地，正等待着敢于闯入、甘冒风险寻求人生真谛的人们。意识形态的转变促使着简爱走向更广阔的社会，接受社会的挑战，尽管她才只有十八岁。于是，简爱来到了桑菲尔德府，当了一名在当时地位不高的家庭教师。?桑菲尔德府使简爱感受到“这儿有想象中的完美无缺的家庭安乐气氛”，事实证明了她的预感的正确性，。从和简爱相见、相识到相爱的过程当中，简爱的那种叛逆精神、自强自尊的品质深深地征服了罗切斯特，而罗切斯特的优雅风度和渊博知识同样也征服了简爱。最初开始，简爱一直以为罗切斯特会娶高贵漂亮的英格拉姆为妻，她在和罗切斯特谈到婚姻时，曾经义正言辞的对罗切斯特说：“你以为因为我穷，低微，不美，矮小，就没有灵魂了吗？你想错了！我跟你一样有灵魂—也同样有一颗心！我现在不是凭着肉体凡胎跟你说话，而是我的心灵在和你的心灵说话，就好像我们都已经离开人世，两人平等地站在上帝面前—因为我们本来就是平等的。”这充分表现出简爱的叛逆，她这种维护妇女独立人格、主张婚姻独立自主以及男女平等的主张可以看成是他对整个人类社会自由平等的向往追求，罗切斯特正是爱上了她这样的独特个性，同时他也同样重复道：我们本来就是平等的。罗切斯特自始自终爱的是简爱的心灵—有着意志的力量，美德和纯洁的心灵，正是基于如此，简爱才真正的爱着罗切斯特。因为爱情是来不得半点虚假的，一方为另一方付出了真情的爱，假如得到对方的是虚情假意，那么这份爱