外语教学法90分笔记

外语教学法复习笔记

第一章总论

The Nature of FLTM外语教学法的性质FLTM is a science which studies the processes and pattern of foreign language teaching ,aiming at revealing the nature and laws of foreign language teaching .that is to say ,it examines the practices and procedures in foreign language teaching; studies approaches ,methods and techniques; and also studies principles and belief that underlie them. In short ,FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes uses of theories of different subiects.

学科性质It includes a lot of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Therefore, we say that FLTM is an inter- disciplinary science and it makes use of many subjects.

语言研究的历史we are quite certain that ,according to the records available ,language study is at least more than 2500 years old.

The goal of foreign language teaching—is to help the learner master the target language in the shortest possible time. What do we mean by mastering the target language? —We mean that the learner is able to have successful communications with others in the target language.

Theories of Linguistics语言学理论

?Traditional linguistics: 传统语言学the traditional linguistics we mean the traditional study of language in ancient Greece. it has a tradition of more than 2000years. In the fifth century B.C. the ancient Greeks began to make a serious study of language in the realm of philosophy.

古希腊的两个著名论战：one was between the naturalists and the conventionalists on the relations between form and meaning.The naturalists argued that the forms of words reflected directly the nature of objects while the conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words.

The other was between the analogists and anomalists on the regularizes of language.— the analogists thought that language in general was regular and there were rules for people to follow while the anomalists thought that language was basically irregular and that was why there were so many exception and irregularities in the Greek language.

Natural of traditional linguistics传统语言学的特征：Trditional linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting point. They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language.

?American structuralism 美国结构主义It started at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It became popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s through the world. The two forerunners of structuralism— Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Franz Boas found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structures of those languages. Sapir found that al though Indians’ languages had no written forms, they were very systematic and were very efficient in communications within their communities. The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield. He accepted the theories and principles of behaviourism. He characterized language and language acquisition in terms of behaviourist terminology. He thought language was a habit of verbal behaviour which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire a language was to form a habit of verbal behaviour and learning a second language was learning a new habit. He thought that speech was primary and writing was secondary.

?Transformational generative linguistics 转换生成论

The transformational generative linguistics was first put forward by Noam Chomsky in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic Structures to spread his theory. His main points---Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device(LAD). This LAD is made up of general principles called universal grammar. Once the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. The child will use and test the principles again and again until his hypothesis agree with the actual grammar of the language. Chomsky has also made the distinction between the linguistic competence and linguistic performance. ?linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that at native speaker of that language processes. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. Chomsky believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker so as to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. In order to gain the goal, Chomsky argues that we should use a deductive, hypothesis-testing approach should be used.

?Functional Linguistics 功能语言学

It develops from the London School of linguistics and the precursor of it was Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski’s conclusion is that ―the meaning of any single word is to a very hign degree dependent on its context.‖ And an utterances has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation. It was Malinowski who created the phrase ―context of situation‖. J.R.Firth, a linguist, approached the context of situatio n from a different point of view. He accepted Malinowski’s view and he thought the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation. Firth’s main approach to the notion of function in context was by means of concept system. He believes any linguistic item has got two sets of context: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs. People refer to his theory as system-structure theory. Halliday developed Firth’s theory of systemic linguisti cs and made progress in the study of context. He thought linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The substance is the material of language which can be phonic or grahic. The form is the organization of the substance into meaningful events. The context is the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which the language operates,

and the relation of form to linguistic features otherthan those of the item under attention. He also said that language has formal meaning and contextual meaning.theformalmeaning of a linguistic item is its operation in the network of formal relations. The contextual meaning of an item refers to its relation to extra features, i.e. the context. Halliday thought a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the sysbolic or rhetorical channel. He called these three dimensions ―field‖,

―tenor‖,and ―mode‖. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text.

Theories of Psychology心理学理论

The first laboratory of experimental psychology was set up at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It announced the official birth of psychology. It was opened by Willhelm Wundt.第一个心理实验室建立

?Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学

It was founded by a group of German psychologists in the 1920s. Their research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the study of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perc eption experience. They found that people perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component pars. They used the word Gestalt, which means ― organized shape ” or “whole form‖ in English, to name their school of psychology They argued that an object was not the sum of the individual parts. For example, an article is not the sum of individual words that make up the article. So people’s mind should be understood in terms of a whole.

?Psychoanalysis心里分析It is theory of the mind put forward by Sigmund Freud. Freud found that many of his patients’ mental problems were caused by some disturbing events in their childhood. But the patients could not remember these disturbing events. The part of the mind which is out of the reach of consciousness was called by Freud the subconscious mind, Which was the most important concept in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind and he was the first to study unconscious mind. Freud believed the contents of the unconscious mind consist of buried memories and instinctive wishes and will influence the activities of the conscious mind. The basic approach of Freud was to analyse the irrational behaviour of the patients, including their dreams and slips of the tongue.

?Behaviourism 行为主义

In 1913, the American psychologist John B. Watson published an article ― Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it ‖. The article was regarded as a formal introduction to behaviourism. Watson did a lot of experiments with nonhuman ani mals and animal’s behaviours without any consideration of the animal’s mind. The goal of psychology set out in his articles was to understand the environmental conditions that would cause an animal to behave in a particular way. According to Watson, there was no fundamental difference between human behaviour and that of other animals. Watson’s ideas were accepted by many psychologists. The dominant position of behaviourism was maintained until the mid-1960s.

The leader of behaviourism was Skinner. He developed a new kind of apparatus for studying learning in animals and a new way of describing the learning process. Watson’s theory is called classic behaviourism while Skinner’s theory is called neo-behaviourism. The early behaviourists focused the attention on the topic of learning and they tried to characterize learning in terms of stimuli and response. Stimuli are observable events in the world that affect behaviour and responses are observable behavioural acts. Skinner argued that learning process could be divided into two kinds: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning a stimulus that did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response. By operant conditioning the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequences of the response. For example, we look up a word in a dictionary because we can find out the meaning of the word in it.

?Cognitive psychology认知理论

The term cognition means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. The most important factor that has made cognitive psychology the dominant approach is the development of the computer technology. The brain works in a similar way to process information. The brain receives information through senses, processes it and sends it out as behaviour actions.

The American linguist Noam Chomsky greatly influenced cognitive psychology. In his book Syntax Structure (1957) Chomsky argued that language should be viewed as a system of mental rules which are wired into the brain as a result of evolution. Cognitive psychologists maintain that all the relationship among stimuli, responses and consequences are learned and are integrated into the animal’s knowl edge.

There are two principal types of cognitive structures—schemas and concepts. Schemas refer to sets of rules that define particular categories of behaviour. Concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relation with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two process — assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process by which new item are added to a concept or schema. Accommodation refers to the process by which the existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information.

Theories of Second Language Acquisition二语获得论

?The habit formation theory It comes from the behaviourist psychology and was very popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to behaviourists, learning a second language means the formation of a set of linguistics habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. According to the habit-formation theory, the old habit—mother tongue of the learner will either facilitate or get in the way of the second language learning. Negative transfer means the learner transfers the ways of expression in the mother tongue to the target language. They will cause errors.

?The hypothesis of linguistic universals 语言共性说

It believed that there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all the natural languages in the world. The hypothesis of linguistic universals is born of the study of linguistic universals. Core grammar and peripheral grammar: Chomsky divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. According to him, human beings are born with a language acquisition device which consists of a set of general principles. The core grammar of a natural language agrees with the inborn set of general principles while the peripheral grammar can not be governed by the language acquisition device. The core grammar agrees with the inborn general principles and is much easier to learn.

?The acculturation theory 文化认同说

The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance play a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.

?The discourse theory 话语交际说

It was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. It was developed from Halliday’s theory of first language acquisition. The theory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourses.

?The monitor theory 监控理论It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have to ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules

of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language. ②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language. ③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition. ④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language

is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose — It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success — motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.

?The cognitive hypothesis 认知假说①Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a cognitive process because they think it involves internal presentations which offer regulation and guidance for performance. ②Notions — In the cognitive theory, automaticity and restructuring are the most important notions because learners have to select appropriate vocabulary, grammatical rules and conventions governing language use. ③Modes — Cognitive psychologists think the process of language communication is a kind of information processing. When processing information, people use two ways which are called automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and practice will help the learner to acquire the automatic processing capacity. ④Different stages — The cognitive theory holds that language learning at the beginning stage involves more of the process of automaticity while at the advanced stage it involves more of the process of restructuring.

A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching(外语教学的简要历史)

?The Reform Movement(1882-1906) Grammar-Translation Method — It was the first method used at the end of the 18th century. The principal aim was to help learners to acquire a reading knowledge of the target language. This method did not pay attention to the importance of speech. The primary of speech — In 1882, Victor published a pamphlet entitled Language Teaching Must Start A Fresh Which started the reform movement. The principles of the movement were the primacy of speech and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom.

?Modern language teaching and research (1906-1940) During this period, the teaching of English as a second /foreign language because a profession. There appeared a number of world-famous scholars and books. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching.

?Structural language teaching (1940-1970) In this period, structural language teaching was used as the main method and its theoretical basis was American structuralism and behaviourism. During the Second World War, American structuralists created a new method, called Audiolingugual Method, In the 1950s, a new method called Transformational Generative Linguistics was born. It criticized the Audilingual Method.

?Communicative language teaching (1970- ) At the end of 1950s, Chomsky’s transformational generative linguistics started a revolution. And then the end of 1960s, cognitive psychology came into being. They caused the

appearance of a new teaching method. ①Communicative language teaching This is probably the main trend dominating the language teaching profession today. ②New theories of second language acquisition Influenced by Chomsky’s hypothesis of language acquisition device(LAD) and the cognitive psy chology, many new theories of second language acquisition were introduced in the 1970s. ③New methods of language teaching Communicative language teaching is the main trend in this period. But there are some other methods which are also tried. ④New approach to language syllabus While some applied linguists were trying to find the best way to teach languages, some other applied linguists began to design the notional syllabus. ⑤Exploration of the human relations People have realized that relations between teachers and students, and relations among the students themselves are very important in language teaching. They try to find the better relations among them.

1-What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece? 古希腊两个著名论争的功能和结果？

One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The other controversy was between the analogiata and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The anomalists maintained there were no rules . Th eir debate roused people’s interest in language and led them to the detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar.

2 What are the main features of traditional linguistics?传统语言学的主要特征Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form of language was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly.

3-What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism? 这些人对美国结构主义发展的贡献

Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American India ns’ languages and found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structure of those languages. He had to describe those language as they were used. This started American structuralism. Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language. It soon became the bible of American structuralism.

4-What is the influence of behaviourism over American structuralism? 行为主义对美国结构主义的影响

In 1933, the American psychologist John Watson published an article entitled Psychology as Behaviourist Views It . This was the formal introduction behaviourism. Wa tson believed we had no direct way to observe the animal’s mind. We could only observe the animal’s behaviour and the external environmental conditions. Behaviourists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The other is called operant conditioning. Behaviourism helped the development of structuralism.

5-- What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first language acquisition process? 乔姆斯基对母语获得的解释Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles called universal grammar. When the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. Children’s language acquisitio n process completes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particular language.

6-What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance? 语言能力和语言应用

的不同

Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actural utterance produced by the native speakers.

7-How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods?在研究方法上转换生成语言学有什么不同？

Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker and try to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.

8--What is the main feature of functional linguistics?功能语言学的特征

Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and developed by Firth, believes ―the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context‖ It introduced the phrase ―context of situation‖. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. Its point of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions.

9--What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology? 格式塔心理学的主要理论

Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It claimed that people received objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means ―organized shape‖ or ―whole form ‖ in English.

10--What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis? 心里分析的主要理论The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is

only a very small part of the whole mind while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behavour of patients.

11--What are the principles of behaviourism? 行为主义的原则The principles of behaviourism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead of considering animal’s mental events because these things could not be seen. Behaviourism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses.

12--What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 经典性和操作性条件

反射的区别Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several times with a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequence of the response.

13-- What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology? 认知心理学发展的三个前提条件The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the American linguist Chomsky.

14--How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge? 认知心理学如何解释知识获

得The term cognitive means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relations with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes — assimilation and accommodation.

15--How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process?习惯养成论如何解释二语获得过程Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviorists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play n important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit.

16--how does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? 语言

共性说The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the core grammar of the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s mother tongue will help the learners to learn the target language.

17--How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition? 文化传递说Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge and behavior in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.

18--How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process? 话语情境说The discourse theory argues that there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of the second language acquisition –only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language.

19---What are the five hypothesis of the monitor theory? They are the acquisition –learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.

20--How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process? The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process- automaticity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves none of the process of restructuring.

21-What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement? The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the reform and movement. A lot of book were published. An applied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape.

22--What’s the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of Daniel Jones teaching? Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second

/foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of books from his research. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching and did his research on the English vocabulary. He published a lot of books on methods of language teaching and textbooks.

23 What are the reasons for the rise and fall of Audiolingual Method? Audiolingual Method comes from the theories and ideas of behaviourism and structurism. It was very popular in the 1950s. Towards the end of the 1950s, transformational generative linguistics started a war against it and finally brought it down from its dominant position.

24-What are the main trends of applied linguistic research in the present period? In the present period, applied linguists have began to study foreign language teaching from different perspectives. New ideas and new trends appear very quickly. The new trends include communicative language teaching, new approaches to language syllabus and exploration of human relations, in foreign language teaching.

第一章语法翻译法

1.教材the teaching material are arranged according to grammar system.

2.理论基础：theory of language is traditional linguistics.\theory of learning is Faculty Psychology.

3.核心focus: grammar is regarded as the core of language ,grammar is the main content in f l classroom.

4.语言技巧language skills: reading and writing are emphasized because literary language is considered superior to spoken language and is therefore the language students should study，little attention is paid to speaking and listening.

5.教学过程的方法teaching process techniques: reading.\ translation .\deductive teaching for grammar.\analysis and comparision \memorization \reading comprehension questions\ written work\

6. 主要实践技巧main the principal practice technique : translation from and into the target language

7.教学单位the sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning.

8.most important aspect of language :the written form of language is most important aspect of language.

9.本族语的应用the teacher use the native language of students as the main medium of instruction.

10.强调重点the teacher emphasizes accuracy rather than fluceny.

11.最终目的objectives: the ultimate purpose of G-T method is to enable the learners to read and translate the literature, the other object are to provide students with good mental exercises that helps to develop their minds and to gain a better understanding of the first language.

Background背景--The history of the Grammar-Translation Method is not fully and carefully documented.

?There is evidence that grammar analysis and translation began to be the basic procedures in foreign language teaching from the 16th century, when modern languages such as French, Italian and English gained in importance as a result of political changes in Europe. The modern languages provided one of the conditions for grammar analysis and th e application of grammatical rules in translation exercises in teaching Latin.

?The second impetus for the procedures of grammar analysis and translation in teaching Latin came from the social needs of European countries. The main purpose of learning Latin was to study the classical culture, which was worshipped in the Renaissance. Grammar analysis and translation proved to be effective means in study foreign culture through literary works.

?Some people believed that the mind of human beings could be trained by logical analysis of the classic language, extensive memorization of complicated rules and paradigms and translation between languages.

Only in the late 18th century did the regular combination of grammar rules with translation into the target language become the principal practice technique. Therefore, it is accepted by most experts of foreign language teaching that the Grammar-Translation Method originated from the 18th century. In the 19th century, more experts of foreign language teaching adopted the strategy of combining grammar rules with translation and the

Grammar-Translation Method became the principal method of teaching modern languages in schools.

Definition定义--It is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. At one time it was called classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek.

Main features主要特点-- ?Grammar is the core of language, and language materials are arranged according to the grammar system. ?The main teaching activities are analysis, explanation and translation. ?The major practice is translating from and into the target language. ?The teaching focus is reading writing. ?First language is the main medium of instruction. ?The sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning.

?Language accuracy is emphasized.

Objectives目的---The objectives of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation Method classroom are to enable the learners: ?to read and translate its literature; ?to understand the target language; ?to help develop their minds; ?to gain a better understanding of the first language. An ultimate purpose of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation classroom is to enable the learners to read and translate its literature. Students are required to memorize the grammatical rules in order to understand the target language. The other objectives of method are to provide students with good mental exercises that helps develop their minds, and to gain a better understanding of the first language.

Procedures过程---The main procedures for a typical lesson with the Grammar-Translation Method can be divided into three phases. The activities in each phase are described below: ?Phase One ①The teacher reads and explain the new words and expressions in the first language. ②The teacher teaches the new grammar with deductive method. ?Phase Two ①Students are asked to read a few sentences out aloud and translated them into the first language. ②The teacher analyses some difficult sentence and translates them into their native language first literally and then freely. ③Students read the studied part of the passage silently and ask the teacher questions they can not answer by themselves. ?Phase Three ①Students are asked to write the answers to the questions about the reading passage. ②Students are asked to do other written work that is meant to reinforce the new grammar items and vocabulary.

Techniques方法和技巧--- A Grammar-Translation teacher usually uses the following techniques to help realize the course objectives: ?Reading Reading passages are planned around the sequenced grammatical structures and vocabulary to be studied and are excepted from literary works or carefully written by a compiler, including particular grammar rules and vocabulary. ?Translation Translation can be employed in presenting a new grammatical item, understanding a new passage or as exercises at the end of a lesson. ?Deductive teaching of grammar Grammar rules are taught directly by the teacher, with exceptions to each rules noted. ?Analysis and

comparison Difficult sentences are analyzed in detail and compared with the first language sentences. ?Memorization Students are required to memorize bilingual word lists and grammatical rules. ?Reading comprehension questions Different questions are designed for students to answer to check the understanding of the reading passage. ?Written work Fill-in-the-blanks is one kind if written work. Using new words to make up sentences is another type of written work. Composition is frequently employed in traditional foreign language teaching.

Theory of language语言理论--?All languages originate from one language and are ruled by a common grammar The theory of language underlying in the Grammar-translation Method was derived from Comparative Historical Linguistics. Some linguists believed that all languages originated from one language and were ruled by a common grammar. ?The written form of the language is superior to the spoken form. The Grammar-Translation Method belongs to the school of traditional linguistics which believed that the written form of language is superior to the spoken form. The traditional linguists gave priority of the written form and took words as their starting point. When discussing the rules of language, they emphasized such matters as correctness, the purity of a language and literary excellence. ?The students’ first language is the reference system in the learning of the target language. In foreign language teaching, the target language is primarily interpreted as a system of rules to be observed in texts and sentences and to be related to the first language rules and meanings. The students’ first language is the reference system in the learning of the target language.

Theory of learning学习理论---?The mind of human beings has various faculities that can be trained separately.?Understanding and memorization of complicated grammatical rules of languages help to develop mentality. ?Latin grammar is the most logical and well-organized grammar. ?The language was a body of knowledge to be learned, with an emphasis on intellectual rigor.

Advantages-优点?It makes use of the first language. In Grammar-Translation Method, the first language is maintained as the reference system in the learning of the second language. ?It helps students develop reading comprehension and production of written language. Systematic study of grammatical rules plays an important role in fostering students’ ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. The focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writing are well trained. ?It is easy for teacher to use. The Grammar-Translation Method makes few demands on teacher although it often creates frustration for students. It is relatively easy to apply.

Disadvantages缺点---?Overemphasis on translation, dependence on first language. Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. ?Too much emphasis on reading and writing, neglect of listening and speaking. It put too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. ?Not meeting the communicative and practical needs of the students. Knowing a large number of grammatical rules can not ensure that students can use them appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. ?Rote-learning Memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to actively communicate in the target language.

1-How did the Grammar-Translation Method develop into its present form? Before the 16th century, Latin was the language of communication in the Western World. Then in the 16th century, modern languages such as French, Italian and English gained in importance as a result of political changes in Europe. With the development of modern languages, Latin gradually became displaced as a living language. The main purpose of learning Latin was to study the classical culture. Grammar analysis and translation proved to be effective means in study foreign culture through literary works. The mind of human beings could be trained by logical analysis of the classic language, extensive memorization of complicated rules and paradigms and translation between languages. Grammar analysis and translation became the basic procedures in the 18th century. Thus the Grammar-Translation Method became the principal method of teaching modern languages in schools.

2-What is the focus of a Grammar-Translation classroom? It is the teaching of the foreign language grammar. Grammar is the core of language, and teaching materials are arranged according to the grammatical system. The processing of learning grammar is considered an important means of training mental abilities.

3-What language skills are emphasized? Reading and writing are emphasized in a Grammar-Translation classroom because literary language is regarded as superior to spoken language. Therefore the language learners should study written language. The focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writing abilities are well trained.

4-What is the main technique used in a Grammar-Translation classroom? Translation is the main techniques used in a Grammar-translation classroom. General speaking, literary translation should be followed by free translation; and sentence translation followed by passage translation. A Grammar-Translation teacher also uses the following techniques: reading passages from literary works; teaching grammar using a deductive approach; analyzing and comparing difficult sentences with students’ first language; memorizing word lists with the first language translation; and memorizing grammar rules and paradigms; using questions to check students’ comprehension of the reading passage; using fill-in-the-blank exercises, making up sentences and writing composition.

5-What is the most important aspect of language according to the Grammar-Translation Method? According to the Grammar-Translation Method, grammar is the most important aspect of language, which is viewed as a system of rules. Systematic study of grammatical rules play an important role in fostering students’ ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. Understanding and mastering the morphology and syntax will develop students’ ability of analyzing and solving problems.

6-Are the techniques of Grammar-Translation acceptable to you? Why? I don’t think the techniques of Grammar-translation are acceptable to us. We can find some disadvantages in the Grammar-Translation Method. First, overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. Second, it put too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. Third, knowing a large number of grammatical rules can not ensure that students use them appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. Last, memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to actively communicate in the target language.

7-Which of the principles of the Grammar-Translation Method do you think are still applicable in modern language teaching? We can discover some valuable principles of the Grammar-Translation Method are still applicable in modern language teaching and learning, such as knowledge of grammar (language rules) facilitates learning. The term ―grammar‖ is so familiar to linguists, la nguage teachers and learners that it is sometimes difficult to stand back and look at it clearly. Some linguists have argued that grammar teaching is unnecessary, and emphasis should not be put on the teaching of grammar. On the other hand, other linguists have argued that grammar is an immensely pervasive phenomenon. It is an integral part of language, so that the more we can find out about how grammar is learned and used, the better placed we will be to teach it effectively. We learners consider that grammar is not only necessary, but also very important in language teaching and learning. The understanding of grammar helps us build up confidence in using the target language and encourages us to use the language accurately and appropriately. We think that grammar teaching and learning can be useful in learning the target language. But we also think that grammar teaching and learning should focus on developing the learners’ communicative ability more than presenting and explaining grammatical rules. Nevertheless, we feel that there is still room for improvement, especially the design of the exercises in the materials since we have not yet experienced the effect on listening and speaking in grammar teaching.

第三章直接法(berlitz method )

got its name form the assumption that meanings are to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of the translating into the students‖ mother language.

1.语言技巧Language skills: regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering the four skills

2.焦点:correct pronunciation is emphasized, pronunciation is paid attention to from the beginning of a course.

5.most important aspect of language : the spoken form of language in the target language, the sentence is considered more important than the word.

6.目的objectives:(1) developing the students’ ability to communication in the target language (2) learn to think in the target language (3) can use the target language to express themselves directly without referring the mother language (4) achieving automaticality of using the target language.

7.避免: the first language and translation exercises are completely avoided.\ an explicit grammar rule may never be given, grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities.

8.技巧oral communication skills are regarded as basic.

9.教学大纲the syllabus is arranged according to situation or topics.

10.教学单位the unit in a language is the sentence.

11.教学过程的技巧: direct association \questions and answer exercises \conversation practice \ error correction \ dictation \inductive teaching of grammar \ listening comprehension tasks \ grade composition( familiar

----narratives --- free.)

12.教学步骤:three phases: presentation by direct association \ oral practice in the target language \ consolidation with written work.

14.How should language rules be learned: inductive through listening and speaking activities. The teacher sets up a few carefully chosen illustrations of a rule and leads students to discover the relationship of the new elements to others previously learned and to formulate their observations into the rule governing those examples .fill –in

–blank exercises are often used to have students induce grammar rules they needs to fill in the blanks form examples in the text.

15.Why the first language is forbidden : the reason for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the direct method is to enable the students to think in the target language , so that they can use it to express themselves without referring to their mother tongue.

background-背景--The Direct Method got its name from the assumption that meanings are to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of translating into the students’ native language. It was developed in the late 19th century as a reaction against the Grammar-Translation Method and out of the need for better language learning in a new world of industry and international trade and travel.

In the mid and late 19th century, international exchanges increased very fast because of political and economical reasons. But the different languages used in different countries created a barrier in such exchanges. Increased opportunities for communication in spoken language among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages. Therefore, language teaching innovations in the 19th century were inevitable. The Direct Method emerges as a result of the innovations.

The new world in the late 19th century made the Direct Method not only a necessary but also a possibility. The rapid development of linguistics, psychology and education greatly stimulated the establishment of the Direct Method. The best known reformers in the mid-19th century was the Frenchman F. Gouin who applied his linguistic and psychological theories and developed an approach to teaching a foreign language on the basis of his observations of child first language learning . Another reform-minded language teacher was Berlitz who

established the first Berlitz school in the U.S.A. in 1878. He used a method which is known as Berlitz Method and it was one school of the Direct Method.

Definition ---is a method of foreign or second language teaching which insists that only the target language should be used in class and meaning should be communicated ―directly‖ by associating speech forms with actions, objects, mime, gestures and situations. It emphasizes the importance of spoken language. Therefore holds that reading and writing should be taught only after speaking .The Direct Method believes in the natural process of language learning and in the inductive teaching of grammar.

Main features--- a. Students learn to think in the target language. b. Meaning is presented by relating directly to the physical world. c. Target language is the language of instruction and communication in the classroom. d. Grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. e. Correct pronunciation is emphasized. f. The syllabus is arranged semantically according to situations or topics. g. Spoken language is preferred to written language. h. The basic unit of language is the sentence.

Objectives--- a. to foster the students’ ability to communicate in the target language; b. to enable the students to think in the target language ; c. to train the four skills; d. to achieve correct pronunciation.

The objectives of the Direct Method are to foster the students’ ability to communicate in the target language. The general goal of a language programme is to teach conversational skills. The reason for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the Direct Method is to enable the students to think in the target language. The teaching of all four basic language skills is not neglected, but reading and writing exercise should be based upon what the students practice orally first. Pronunciation is paid attention to from the beginning of a course. Vocabulary takes precedence over grammar.

Procedures---Classroom procedures in the Direct Method can be roughly divided into three phases: Presentation by direct association; oral practice in the target language and consolidation with written work.

Techniques--- In order to realize the goal of teaching ,a Direct Method teacher is usually found using the following techniques: a. Direct association. New language items are presented by associating meaning with the target language directly. b. Question and answer exercises. In order to have the newly-introduced language items fully understood by students, the teacher answers students’ questions and asks students to answer her questi ons in full sentences. c. Conversation practice. Students are encouraged to ask other questions using the same grammatical structures they have practiced. d. Error correction. Students are not allowed to make mistakes. Their mistakes are immediately corrected by the teacher or by students themselves. e. Dictation. Dictation is used as a means to reinforce and test what the students have learned. f. Inductive teaching of grammar. Grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. g. Listening comprehension tasks. Designing listening comprehension tasks is one of the ways to establish a favorable classroom climate in the Direct Method. h. Graded composition. Writing can be introduced as a means of consolidation and evaluation in the Direct Method. Written work should be graded in the following sequence: first, reproduction of familiar reading texts; second, reproduction of narratives orally presented by the teacher; third, free composition.

Theory of language--- The theory of language underlying the Direct Method was mainly derived from the following views by the innovators and reformers of the 19th century: a. Every language has its own structure. Every language has its own structure and cannot be forced into the straitjacket of Latin grammar. b. Spoken language comes before written language. Since the Spoken language comes into being before written language, speech patterns rather than grammar should be fundamental elements of language. c. Spoken language is a learnable system of sounds. Spoken language is a learnable system of sounds ,and sounds are best described by phonetic transcription. Training in phonetics will enable teachers and learners to pronounce the language accurately. d. Language and thought are closely linked. According to Gouin, verbal expression is intimately linked with thought about real events. Thoughts and corresponding utterances do not occur randomly or singly ; they came in sequences and ends-means series.

Theory of learning---a Foreign language learning is analogous to first language acquisition . The learning of a foreign language is analogous to first language acquisition, so a direct association between forms and meanings in the target language should be established. b. Language and the physical world are directly associated. Direct association of language with objects and persons of the immediate environment is emphasized in the Direct Method. c. Learners acquire rules of grammar inductively. Rather than teaching grammar deductively, teachers encourage learners to induce rules of grammar through active use of the target language in the classroom. d. Language meaning is taught by using learners’ sensory experience . The best method of teaching language meaning is the one using learners’ sensory experience, general ly visual perception

Advantages---The following advantages can be found in the Direct Method: a. Use of the target language in the classroom; forming the habit of thinking in the target language. The use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the classroom contributes greatly to forming the habit of thinking in the target language, which is necessary in efficient real communication. b. Emphasis on language practice; achieving autonomy in using the target language The emphasis on practice with new language items and on language skills, rather than on language knowledge is important in achieving autonomy of using the target language. c. Conforming to the objectives of modern language teaching The emphasis on spoken language conforms to the objectives of modern language teaching. Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language. d. Favorable atmosphere for learning Regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering for four skills. Using full sentences as teaching units makes foreign language learning more natural and efficient for students to understand a new text and acquire a language. Disadvantages---There are also aspects in the Direct Method which are not satisfactory: a. Overemphasizing the similarities between first language acquisition and second language learning . Overemphasizing on the similarities between naturalistic first language acquisition and classroom foreign language learning results in the exclusive use

of the target language. The absolute avoidance of the native tongue occasionally troubles the Direct Method in teaching the meaning of abstract concepts. b. Students’ lack of knowledge of the target language grammar. Without explicit grammar explanation, students lack necessary knowledge of the target language. As a result, they tend to produce utterance with a lot of grammatical mistakes in them. c. Very demanding for non-native teachers. The Direct Method places a high demand on the teacher. It requires native-speaker teachers or teachers who have native –speaker-like fluency in the target language.

习题-Could be used by all foreign language teachers at all levels? Why or Why not?--- No, we don’t think so. The Direct Method requires native teachers or teachers who have native-speaker-like fluency in the target language. In the Direct Method classroom, the teacher should present sections of a text or the whole text by direct association between the target language and meaning. The teacher should deal with specific language items which the students ask her to explain. The teacher should ask comprehension question about the text, making sure that students have a thorough understanding of the text. The teacher should ask students questions about everyday life, etc. In a word,

in the Direct Method classroom, teachers should have a high ability to use the target language organizing the classroom activities. The Direct Method places a High demand on the teachers.

---How should language rules be learned?---language rules are learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. The teacher sets up a few carefully chosen illustrations of a rule and leads the students to discover the relationship of the new elements to other previously learned and to formulate their observations into the rule governing those examples. In other words, students have to induce grammatical rules from examples in the text. A language could best learned by being used actively in the classroom.

--How und erstand the concept of “direct”?---The Direct Method assumes that meanings of the target language should be connected directly with the physical world: its actions, objects, persons, situations, etc. without translating or referring to the learners’ mother tongue. Only the target language should be used in the classroom in communicating meaning . Foreign language learning should follow the natural process of first language acquisition where a direct association between language forms and meanings is established.

--What areas of language are considered more important?---Oral practice in the target language is often used

in the Direct Method classroom. Speech patterns and structures, rather than grammar, are considered fundamental since the spoken language came into being before the written language. The sentence is regarded as a more useful unit of language instruction than the word. Between vocabulary and grammar, the former comes before the latter.

--What language skills are emphasized?---Listening and speaking skills are emphasized, though the teaching of all four skills is not neglected. Regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering the four skills. Designing listening comprehension tasks is one of the ways to establish a favorable classroom climate in the Direct method. It mainly uses such techniques as question-and answer, dictation and conversation practice. Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language. Reading and writing exercises should be based upon what the students have practiced orally first.

--What techniques are useful in modern language teaching?---Such teaching techniques as

question-and-answer, dictation and conversation practice are useful in modern language teaching. The Direct Method advocates the language should be learned through direct association of form and meaning. It mainly uses the teaching techniques above which are still widely used in foreign language teaching classroom today. The forms of dictation and compound dictation are also appeared in the College English Test.

--Why first language is forbidden?---The direct methodologists consider foreign language learning as similar to first language acquisition. The learner should try to establish a direct association between language forms and meanings in the target language. The first language is considered an interfering factor, rather than a reference. In order to develop the students’ ability to communicate in the target language, studen ts should be encouraged to think in the target language. The best method is not to make the learner learn the language rules, but to provide direct practice in listening and speaking through imitation and repetition. The best method of teaching meaning is to make students listen, look and say, i.e. using learners’ sensory experience, generally visual perception.

第四章口语法

1.理论基础theory of language is British structuralism .\ theory of learning isbehaviourist habit-formation theory.

2.语法:item of grammar are graded , grammar should be taught inductively , not directly ,an explicit explanation of grammar rules is discouraged.

3.强调的重点most important aspect of language : structure and accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar are regarded as crucial.. Listening and oral practice are emphasized

4.教学要求begin with the spoken language ,material is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. \ the target language is the language of the classroom, translation should be avoided.\ new language point are introduced and practiced situationaly.\

5.教学过程的方法employs situations for presenting new sentence patterns and drill-based manner of practicing them. the practice techniques generally consists of guided repetition and substitution activities, including choral repetition, individual imitation , dictation, drills and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks.

7.四项技能language skills：listening and practice are emphasized. Are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammartical basis is established. reading and writing

8.对待错误态度errors are to be avoided at all costs.

9.Objectives: to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. without referring their native language.

10.How does the teacher respond to the students’ error : the teacher indicates the students’ error and gets students to correct themselves so they will be encouraged to listen to each other carefully. where possible the teacher does not simply correct the mistake herself.

11.教师使用此法作用The goal of teacher to use the oral approach: it is to help students to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language (l-s-r-w) \ the teacher is the essential to the success of the approach ,in the presentation stage of a lesson ,he as a model, a skillful manipulator .in the practices, he lookout. The student simply to listen and repeat , to responses and to ask questions each other.

12.教具The approach also emphasize the function of the textbook(a guide ) and visual aids( wall chart \ flash cards \picture \realia)

background---The Oral Approach originated with the work of British linguists in the 1920s and 1930s. Two of the most important and influential figures of the approach were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. Both of them were familiar with the Direct Method, but they were dissatisfied with its practice, and they had recognized its limitation in their teaching experience of English. Therefore, what they attempted was to develop a methodology of language teaching that was theoretically well-grounded, intellectually ordered and practically workable. The result was the development of an approach to methodology that involved systematic principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection and organization of the content of a language course. Palmer spent many years in Japan working towards two complementary objectives in English language teaching. The first was the realization of the principles of the Oral Method in a concrete form. Another objectives was to develop principles of vocabulary control. According to Palmer and some other linguists of that time, vocabulary played one of the most important role in foreign language learning, and frequency counts showed that a core of 2000 words occurred frequently in daily use and writing text. Palmer and Hornby had also paid much attention to the important role of grammar in their writings. In their view, organization of grammatical content of a language course should be based on the principle of gradation. It was an obvious requirement of any course that it should proceed from easy to difficult without sharp breaks. Hornby and others analyzed the English language and classified its major grammatical structures into sentences patterns which could be used to have oral practices.

Oral Approach: Definition---The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching refers to an approach to language teaching developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s. It is a grammar-based method in which principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.

Main features--- a. Language teaching begins with the spoken language.

language materials is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. b. The target language is the language of the classroom. The target language is the language of instruction. Translation should be avoided. c. New language is introduced and practised in situations. New language points are introduced and practised situationally, i.e. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements. d. Common core words are covered. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered. e. Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones, and inductively. f. Reading and writing are introduced latter. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. Objectives---The objectives of the Oral approach are to help the students: a. to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. b. to obtain accuracy in pronunciation and grammar.

The objectives of the Oral approach are to help the learners to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs.

Procedures---The Oral Approach employs different classroom procedures according to the level of the class. The classroom procedures generally consists of: a. Listening practice b. Choral imitation c. Individual imitation d. Isolation e. Building up to a new model f. Elicitation g. Substitution drill h. Question-answer drilling i. Correction Techniques--- The practical techniques in the oral Approach generally consists of: a. new sentence patterns presented in situations. b. Drill-based practice c. Guided repetition and substitution activities d. Dictation, imitation and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks

Theory of language---a. Language is identified with speech. The British structuralism considered that language was identified with speech, and speech ability was approached through oral practice of structure. b. The basic elements in a language are rule-governed. The British linguists believed that the basic elements in a language were rule-governed, that is ,lower systems of word classes(nouns, adjectives, and so on) led to higher level systems of phrases and sentences. c. Emphasis is on the close relationship between the structure, context and situation. d. Primary importance is attached to meaning, context and situation. The British linguists emphasized the close relationship between the structure of a language and context and situation in which the language was used. Several language theoreticians, such as Firth, Halliday developed their views of language in which the priority importance was attached to meaning, context and setting.

Oral Approach: Theory of learning---a. Behaviorist habit-formation theory. The Oral Approach /Situational Language Teaching believes in a theory of learning that is based on a type of behaviorist Habit-formation theory. Foreign language learning is considered basically a process of habit formation. Habit-formation is Palmer’s core methodological principle. b. Language learning in real life differs from language learning in the classroom. Palmer specified the distinction between language learning in real life differs from language learning in the classroom. He made the point that the former was for the acquisition of spoken language, the latter was for the development of literacy. c. Classroom language teaching should follow naturalistic principles of language learning. Palmer viewed that classroom language teaching should follow naturalistic principles of language learning. Rather than focus on explanation of grammatical rules in classroom teaching, the teacher must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the target language in the classroom. d. Focus is on the habit of foreign language speech patterns. Palmer focused on his main interest in the crucial feature of spontaneity, namely, the habit of foreign language speech patterns.

Spontaneity could be achieved through using it in actual practice in real language situations and through repetition of the speech patterns, Learners should be provided with grammatically correct sentence patterns.

Advantages---a. The first attempt to establish theoretical principles. The Oral Approach/Situational language teaching has made the first attempt to establish theoretical principles to develop a methodological framework for teaching English as a foreign language in ELT history. These attempts mark the beginnings of the discipline of a applied linguistics. b. Making up some shortcomings of the Direct Method, emphasis on the function of situation. In language teaching practice, this approach has made up some shortcomings of the Direct Method. The teaching content is graded, and the students will not suffer from the difficulties of a flow of ungraded speech in the target language. In presenting the language structure, it emphasizes the function of situation which can help students to apply what they have learned to real-life practice.

Oral Approach: Disadvantages---a. Not concerned with appropriateness or rules for use in real discourse. b. The approach being largely a grammar-based one. This approach is not concerned with appropriateness or with rules for use in real discourse. The situations are vehicle through which the grammatical syllabus is conveyed. Therefore, this approach is still largely a grammar-based one.

Characteristics--- The main characteristics of the Oral Approach are as follows: a. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Language materials is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. b. The target language is the language of the classroom. Translation should be avoided. c. New language points are introduced and practised situationally. d.Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered. e. Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively. f. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.

--areas of language are emphasized?--- Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized by the Oral Approach. A knowledge of 2000 common core words is believed to assist foreign language learning. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs.

-characteristics make it so distinctive from the Direct Method?---The Oral Approach insists that new language points be taught situationally. It is this characteristic that gained the approach the name ―situational language teaching‖. The Direct Method holds that meanings and the target language should be associated directly without referring to students’ first language.

--How the teacher respond to students’ errors?--- Errors are to be avoided at all costs. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial. The teacher is ever on the lookout for grammatical and structural errors. She will indicate students’ error and correct it either by herself or get students to correct themselves.

-language skills are emphasized?--- All the four basic skills are considered important, however, oral proficiency is seen as basic. Before students read and write any words and grammar rules, the teacher should teach them orally first.

--Oral Approach and Audiolingual Method: ----Similarities and differences in terms of language theories?---In terms of language theories, there exist little differences between the Oral Approach and the Audiolingual Method. The two approaches have the following similarities: Both hold a structural view of language. Structural linguistics views language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. Both identify language with speech, and speech ability is approached though oral practice of structure. However, the Oral Approach was developed by British applied linguists, while the Audiolingual Method was developed by the American structuralists.

---Oral Approach and Audiolingual Method: Similarities and differences in terms of learning theories?--- In terms of learning theories, the two methods-the Oral Approach and the Audiolingual Method also have something in common: Both believe in a theory of learning that is based on a type of behaviourist habit-formation theory. Foreign language learning is considered basically a process of habit formation. However, there are also differences between them: While both methods emphasize the establishment of good speech habits through repetition of sentence patterns, the Oral Approach holds that new language points should be introduced and practised situationally, that is, in meaningful context, not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements. And the Oral Approach encouraged direct and spontaneous use of the target language in the classroom. The Audiolingual Method holds learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation. It overemphasizes language form, not language content, students are not expected to make spontaneous, personal contributions, etc.

-What are the principles for the selection of language content in language teaching?---The principles for selecting vocabulary is that an essential core vocabulary is covered. Learners should learn the most frequently used words, about 2000 common core words. The English vocabulary needed for teaching as a foreign language is chosen for the following criteria: a. They are the words most frequently used by people whose native language is English. b. They include all the structural words. c. They include words useful in explaining the meaning of other frequently used words. d. They include words that are useful because other words can be built from them. The items of grammar are graded following the principles that simple forms should be taught before complex ones. And grammar should be taught inductively and students learn to use a few patterns at a time. These patterns should be interesting and be presented in a carefully ordered sequence.

--What is the goal of teachers?--- The goal of teachers who use the Oral Approach is to help the students to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language through structures. Among the four skills(listening, speaking, reading and writing), oral skill is seen as basic. Before learners read and write new structures and new vocabulary, the teacher should teach them orally. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs.

第五章听说法

1、起源1950年代于美国，主要为军事目的。早期称为informant method 请本族语的人作为the informant, the linguist 语言模仿的源泉，并且监管学习的经验。

2、人物：charles Fries贡献最大，提出此法，又称为aural-oral method or structural approach,是把结构主义的语言学和行为主义的心理学相结合形成此法

3、教学步骤1. recognition 2.imination and repitition 3.pattern drills 4. follow-up activityies

4、基本特点1、区分四种技巧，强调先听说，后读写2、用对话来展示语言3、强调一定的实践技巧，mimicry ,memorization ,and pattern drills 3、不鼓励用母语。4、用语言实验室和教具

5、主要目的：1、使学生用目标语交流2、student achieve accurate pronunciation and correct grammar 3.在语境中能快速反应。4、the development of mastery in all four language skills https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a9392410.html,e it automatically without stop to think .

6.主要技巧：1.repetition drill 2.simple substitution drill 3.progressive drill 4.transformation drill

5.question-and-answer drill

6.expansion drill

7.clause combination drill

8.chain drill

9. backward build-up drill 10.mini-dialogue https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a9392410.html,pletion https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a9392410.html,e of minimal pairs

background---The Audiolingual Method was developed in the U.S. during the Second World War. At that time, the U.S. government found it a great necessity to set up a special language training programme to supply the war with language personnel. Therefore, the government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language programmes for military personnel. Thus the Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP) was established in 1942. The objectives of the army programme were for students to attain conversational proficiency

in a variety of foreign languages. The method used was known as the ―informant method‖, since it used a native speaker of the language, the informant, and a linguist. The informant served as a source of language for imitation, and the linguist supervised the learning experience. This intensive system adopted by the army achieved excellent results. Linguists and applied linguists during this period were becoming increasingly involved in the teaching of English as a foreign language. In 1941 the first English language Institute in the U.S. was established in the University of Michigan. The director of the institute was Charles Fries, who applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. The result is an approach which advocated aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed by speaking, reading and writing. The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from the increased attention to foreign language teaching in the U.S. towards the end of the 1950s. The need for a radical change and rethinking of foreign language teaching methodology made language teaching specialists set about developing a method that was applicable to conditions in U.S. college and university classroom. They drew on the earlier experience of the army programmes and the Aural-Oral or Structural Approach developed by Fries and his colleagues, adding insights taken from behaviorist psychology. This combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral procedures, and behaviourist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method, which was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in North American colleges and universities.

Main features--- By drawing on the structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology, the Audiolingual method formed its own distinctive characteristics. There are mainly five of them: a. Separation of language skills into listening, speaking, reading and writing, with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing; b. Use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language; c. Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization and pattern drills; d. Discouraging the use of the mother tongue in the classroom; e. Use of language lab.

Objectives---The general objectives of the Audiolingual Method is to enable the target language communicatively. Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing. In other words, the objectives of the Audiolingual Method are the development of mastery in all four language skills, beginning with listening and speaking, and using these as a basis for the teaching of reading and writing. Long-range objective or the ultimate goal is to develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers have, to use it automatically without stopping to think.

Procedures---In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed: a. Recognition; Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on the tape) containing the key structures that are the focus of the lesson and try to u nderstand the meaning of the dialogue with the help of the teacher’s gestures, mime, context or situation established in advance. b. Imitation and repetition: The students repeat each line of the dialogue, individually and in chorus. The students must imitate the right pronunciation, intonation and fluency. c. Patterns drill: Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basic for pattern drills of different kinds. d. Follow-up activities: The students now are allowed to look at their textbooks. They are usually asked to do some follow-up reading, writing or vocabulary activities. This will guide their use of the language. Techniques--- Dialogue and pattern practice form the basis of audiolingual classroom practice. Yhe use of them is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. The techniques used by the audiolingual Method are: a. Repetition drill: This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialogue. Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible. b. Substitution drill: The students repeat the line from the dialogue which the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. c. Question-and answer drill: The drill gives students practice with answering questions. d. Expansion drill: This drill helps students to produce longer sentences bit by bit, gradually achieving fluency. e. Clause combination drill: Students learn to combine

two simple sentences into a complex ones. f. Backward build-up drill: This drill is used when a long line of a dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following the teacher’ cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. g. Chain drill: A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the classroom as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of

each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, then turns to the student sitting next to him. h. Completion: Students hear an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeat the utterance in completed form. i. Use of minimal pairs: The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; students are first asked to find the difference between the two words and later to say the two words.

Theory of language--- The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1930s and 1940s. The view then came to be known as structural linguistics with Bloomfield and Fries as its representatives. Structural linguistics views language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. These elements are phonemes, morphemes, words, structures, and sentence types. The grammatical system consists of a list of grammatical elements and rules for their linear combination into words, phrases and sentences. According to a structural view, language has the following characteristics: a. Elements in a language are produced in a rule-governed(structural) way. b. Language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description. c. Language is structured like a pyramid, that is, linguistic levels are systems within systems. d. Language is speech, not writing. e. languages are different. The views of language above offered the foundation for thhe Audiolingual Method.

Theory of learning---a. Behaviourist psychology The learning theory of Audiolingualism is the behavioural psychology which is an empirically based approach to the study of human behaviour. Behaviourism tries to explain how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an individual (a response) without using concepts like ―mind ‖ or ―ideas‖ or any kind of mental behaviour. Behaviourist psychology states that people are conditioned to learn many forms of behaviour, including language, through the process of training or conditioning. b. The three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, a response and reinforcement. The occurrence of these behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future. Learning is thus described as the formation of association between stimuli and responses. c. The application of this theory to language learning. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learner, the behaviour as verbal behaviour, the stimulus as what is taught (languagr input), the response as the learner’s reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students. d. Language learning: a mechanical process of habit formation. According to this behaviourist psychology, learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language

stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation.

Advantages---a. The first method to have a theory: The andiolingual theory is probably the first language teaching theory that openly claims to be derived from linguistics and psychology. b. Making language teaching possible to large groups of learners: It attempts to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. With large classes, drills are of particular use in that they maximize student participation. c. Emphasizing sentence production, control over grammatical structures and development of oral ability: The Audiolingual Method stresses syntactical progression and uses pattern drills to help the students gain control over grammatical structures which is a much more interesting way of learning grammar than working through written exercises. What’s more, drilling can be positively beneficial in helping a student to develop his oral ability. d. developing simple techniques and making use of language lab: It leads to the development of simple techniques of varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of the language, and more scientifically selected and systematically arranged materials and structural patterns to go with. Moreover, the teaching techniques with tape recordings and language lab drills offer practice in speaking and listening which are considered of primary importance in language learning. e. Developing the separation of the language skills: The Audiolingual Method develops the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device, that is , listening, speaking, reading and writing. It lays emphasis on listening and speaking which did not gain so much importance from Grammar-Translation Method.

Definition---is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.

Disadvantages---a. Weak basis of its theory: The theoretical basis of the Audiolingual Method was found to be weak. The behaviourist theory could not possibly serve as a model of how humans learn language, since much of human language is not imitated behaviour but is created anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. b. Not developing language competence, lack of effectiveness, and boredom caused by endless pattern drill: Techniques such as pattern practice, drilling, memorization, etc. might lead to language like behaviour, but they are not resulting in competence. Teachers complain about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run, and students complain about the boredom caused by endless pattern drills. c. Learners having little control over their learning: Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus have little control over the content, pace or style of learning. They are not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes. d. Teacher’s domination of the class: The teacher’s role is central and active. It is the teacher who always dominates the class. The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learner’s performance. e. Teacher-oriented materials: Materials in the Audiolingual Method are primarily teacher-oriented. The teacher’s boo k contains the structured sequence of lessons to be followed, and the dialogues, drills and other practice activities.

-- conditions are needed if you want to apply the Audiolingual Method in your teaching?---The general objective of the Audiolingual Method is to enable the students to use the target language communicatively. They should be able to respond quicklyand accurately in speech situations. Therefore, teaching materials should be structurally-based, the chief means of presenting the language should be the use of dialogues. And it is better to

have tape recorders and other audiovisual equipment which often have central roles in an audiolingual classroom.

A language lab is considered essential in it. If these conditions are met, we could possibly apply the Audiolingual Method in our teaching.

--anything useful in your teaching situation? Why?---Yes, there are many useful things we can learn from the Audiolingual Method: a. It states language is a structured system and rule governed. If language learning is organized according to its structure, language learning would be easier, especially to adult learners. b. The Audiolingual Method considers language ability made up of four skills and these skills can be taught separately. Since the natural order of skill acquisition is listening, speaking, reading and writing, the Method gives the primary stress to the first two of the four skills. Speech is more basic to language than the written form, and listening and speaking are the basic form of verbal communication. In the classroom, the language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. C. Using patterning drills is the center of practice in Audiolingual Method. It can help students not only gain control over grammatical structures, but also develop their oral ability.

D. the Audiolingual Method also provides language teachers with many useful techniques. The simple drilling techniques provide varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of the language. The simple and direct approach is especially appropriate for young students and less gifted ones. Moreover, the teaching techniques with tape recordings and language lab drills offer practice in speaking and listening which are considered of primary importance in language learning.

---Are structure drills valuable pedagogical activities? Why?---Yes, structure drills are valuable pedagogical activities in language learning. With large classes, drills are of particular use in that they can maximize students’ participation. A one-word cue on the part of the teacher elicit a complete utterance from the students and an enormous number of such utterances can be produced within the space of two minutes. With judicious mixing of choral and individual drill, each student can have the chance to respond productively about five times a minute in classes of twenty students or fewer. However, drills should be used judiciously, if over used, students will get bored.

--Could you adapt any of techniques to your own teaching? Why?---Yes, we could adapt some kinds of techniques used by the Audiolingual Method, such as dialogues and pattern drills. The use of dialogues and pattern drills is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. They form the basis of audiolingual classroom practice. Dialogues are thought to provide meaningful context for the key structures and to illustrate situations in which those structures might be used. Certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialogue. Various kinds of pattern drills are used for different purposes. Some key structures from the dialogue are selected and used the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.

--Does it make sense to you that language learning results from habit formation? Why?---To a certain extent, language learning results from habit formation. The model of stimulus-response-reinforcement accounts for how a human being learns a language, the stimulus is what is taught(language input), the response is the learner’s reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcement is the praise of the teacher or fellow students. The habit is the result of stimulus, correct response and reward again and again. The more frequently this happens, the stronger the habit becomes. Language learning is a process of acquiring a set of language stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation.

--Is dialogue a useful way to introduce new material? Why?---Yes, dialogue is useful way to introduce new material. Dialogues can provide a natural context for the language forms as long as it is from real communication, not artificially expressed. Dialogues show the learner how language is used in real language interaction, and they can be good models of oral communication. Dialogues are also believed to reflect the cultural aspects of the target language. certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialogue. These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the line of the dialogue.

--Should dialogues be memorized through mimicry of t he teacher’s model? Why?---No, dialogues should not be memorized through mimicry of the teacher’s model. A dialogue is an individual case of language communication between two persons. It only tells the students that when the participants take a certain kind of social role, in a certain kind of situation, about a certain topic, conversation goes that way. Dialogues are thought to provide meaningful context for the key structures and to illustrate situations in which those structures might be used. Here, meaning is the center of a dialogue, and human communication varies. No dialogue is held in exactly the same way, in the same kind of situation and about same topic. Students do not have to memorize the teacher’s model. Students should try their best to develop their language competence, including communicative competence, discourse competence and strategic competence, etc, so that they can use the target language communicatively.

--Should the commission of errors be prevented as much as possible? Why?---It depends on the using of language situation and the purpose of language teaching. When the focus of teaching is on language form, and when the students are doing mechanical pattern drills in the classroom, the teacher should correct the students whenever errors are committed. But when the students are engaged in communication, and the focus is on getting meaning across, errors should not be tacked on the spot, because they would be too much concerned with language forms and would never develop oral ability. Unless communication is affected by the errors, students should not be corrected. In the same way, there might be more correction of errors in written than in oral communication.

---Should the major focus be on the structural pattern of the target language? Why?---It depends on the developmental language stages of the learners. The major forms could be on the structural pattern of the target language when your objective at the beginning stage is to get the students to master the structures of the language. It aslso depends on your view of language and your view of language teaching. If you hold that language is a system of structures without considering the other aspects of the language, the major focus should be on the structural patterns. And if you consider language teaching is to teach language as a body of knowledge, not to

develop students’ ability as a communication tool, then the focus should be on the structural pattern of the target language. Otherwise, the major focus could be on the other areas.

--Which of the principles of the Audiolingual Method are acceptable to you?---Among the five principles of the Audiolingual Method, we think ―Language is speech, not writting‖ and ―Language are different‖ are more acceptable to us . The former means that language is first speech and written form is only the recording of speech. Speech is more basic to language than the written form. In the classroom, the language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. The later means that the native language and the target language have separate linguistic system, so there is usually no exact equivalent between two languages. The habits of the students’ native language would interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language. They should be kept apart so that the students’ native language interfere as little as possible with the students’ learning of the foreign language.

第六章认知法1、主要反对听说法

2、起源于美国，又名the cognitive code method 理论基础是转换生成理论和认知心理学

3、人物：NoamChomsky ///piaget/J.B.Bruner//D.Ausubel

4、基本原理：强调学习是一个有意识的心理过程，强调学习要基于理解，四种技能同等重要

错误是不可避免的，正常的和必需的现象。

5、主要技巧：强调有意识的语法和语言规则的教学。听说是呈现大量材料。1、rule learning 2.meaningful practice 3.creativity

6.课堂练习方法1.discrimination 2.physical response 3.miscellaneous

7.教学步骤1、introduction of new materials 2.exercises 3.application activities.

background---As the Audiolingual Method was on the decline in the 1960s and many shortcomings were found in it, the Cognitive Approach developed as an alternative, in response to the criticisms leveled against audiolingualism. In the meantime the structural linguistics gave way to the generative linguistic that turned the attention from mechanistic conditioning to meaningful learning. One of the major proponents of the

generative-transformational school of linguistics is Noam Chomsky, the famous American linguists. The generative linguists are interested not only in describing language but also in explaining language. In other words, they attempt to find the what as well as the why in the study of language.

Advantages---?Stress on creativity and meaning The cognitive Approach lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system. Language is characterized by rule-governed creativity and language learning is a creative process. ?More active use of mental power Language learning is a process which involves active mental processes. In Cognitive Approach, the learner is seen as an active participant in the learning process, using various mental strategies in order to sort out the system of the language to be taught. ?Suitable for adult language learners ?Enjoyable and meaningful learning ?More effective learning by drawing on students’ experience Language is seen as an intellectual learning problem and it’s learning is a mental process. I n practice the Cognitive Approach involves more active use of the students’ mental power, which is especially suitable for adult language learners. The students are learning meaningfully, and learning this way is more enjoyable because foreign language learners are not merely a mechanical language learning device. They have thoughts, cultural background, feeling experience, and so on. Meaningful learning draws on the student’s experience, which will make learning more effective. ?Integrating all four skills ?Giving students’ opportunity to develop functional and performance skil l s The Cognitive Approach utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. This agrees more with the nature of real communication, in which people seldom use one skill. What’s more, by resorting to all the possible means of learning, language learning can be more effective than by drawing on one or two skills. It must give students opportunities to develop functional performance skills. ?Drawing on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and FLT theories. ?More scientific The greatest contribution of the Cognitive Approach is that it draws on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and studies foreign language teaching from the point of view of educational psychology, linguistic psychology and foreign language learning theories, hence makes itself more scientific.

Definition---is an approach to foreign language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active method processes and not simply the forming of habits. It lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system.

Disadvantages---?Difficult to select and prepare meaningful presentations ?Depending too much on analysis and understanding ?No complete and systematic practical activities and procedures ?Needing further research and development Aiming at meaningful learning, teachers find it difficult to select and prepare meaningful presentations. And students who are slow to comprehend do not work successfully with the method because learning depends a lot on analysis and understanding. Another weak point is there are not yet complete and systematic practical activities and procedures for classroom use. And the rationale behind the method is still at its developmental stage. The method as a system is still not very complete and needs further research and development.

Main features--- a. Knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. b. Rules are taught deductively. c. Competence comes before performance. It is believed the knowledge of language rules from the learner’s language foundation. By using the language rules as a base we can select the vocabulary to mean the things we want. The Cognitive Approach holds that knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. Language rules are taught deductively. Learners must learn the rules of the language before applying them. Competence comes before performance. The learning of grammar should be conducted in a functional way so that learners may apply what they have learnt to actual communicative situation. d. The learner is the center of classroom teaching. e. Language

practice is the main form of classroom teaching. The Cognitive Approach believes that learners play a decisive role in foreign language learning. To achieve the teaching objectives, the teachers must understand the psychology of the learner. Since the learner is the center of language teaching, language practice should be the main form of learning. Opportunities should be provided so that learners can develop the ability of using the language through active participation in language communication. f. Learning is based on understanding. The Cognitive Approach insists that learning is based on understanding. Language learning is a creative process. The students can only perform after they have understood the system of the language. We can’t imitate without activating a cognitive process. In a Cognitive Approach classroom, meaningful learning and meaningful practice are emphasized during the entire learning process. g. The Cognitive Approach utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. This agrees more with the nature of real communication, in which people seldom use one skill. In real life, communication is carried through all the possible channels: listening involves speaking, reading might involve writing. When a foreign language learner can resort to all the possible target language resources, learning will be more effective. h. Mistakes are unavoidable. The Cognitive Approach holds that mistakes are unavoidable in the creative use of language. Students’ mistakes are a necessary and natural phenomenon, and a feature of the language as he progresses in the second language. Semi grammatical sentences should be accepted as a normal stage towards native-like competence.

Objectives---a. to develop in the students the native-like competence b. to develop intuitive thinking in learners c. to develop strategies of language use d. to enable the students to learn from errors The goal of the Cognitive Approach is to develop the students the same type of abilities possessed by native speakers. The students should reach the point at which they can formulate their own replies to previously unmet language situations. It is important to encourage intuitive thinking in learners. Therefore, teachers need to seek a balance between, on the one hand, teaching aspects of the target language and skills in the language, and on the other hand, developing the learner’s ability to analyze the language, to make guesses as to how rules operate, to take risks in trying out the language, and to learn from their errors.

Procedures---?Introducing and explaining new material The first step in the classroom is to present all new sounds, vocabulary, and structures in a manner meaningful to each student. The purpose of this introductory part is to develop students’ comprehension of the language and pre pare the students for the next two procedures. ?Consolidating the understanding of the new material(i.e. Exercise) Exercises are designed to consolidate the understanding of the new material, to help the students learn to manipulate and to remember these forms, thus completing the understanding process, and building up language competence. Exercises can be done by the student on his own and checked on his own. ?Application Activities This is the performance stage. The teacher assigns reading or listening comprehension passages for the students to study, so that they may see the learned forms used in context. Such activities are more like guided practice in thinking in the language than mere repetitive drill. Techniques--- a. Rule learning: ①conscious teaching of grammar ②paraphrasing ③explanation b. Meaningful practice: ①cognitive exercises: ·discrimination of sounds, intonation, words, sentences, etc. ·physical responses ·definition ·multiple-choice exercises·true/false exercises ·reciting ②application

exercises: ·comprehension questions ·personalized question·describing

pictures ·interviewing ·demonstrating ·explaining ·sentence combination ·sentence expansion ·questions and answers ·retelling c. creativity: ①conversation ②discussion ③impromptu chain questions and answers ④relating a story ⑤oral composition ⑥making a speech ⑦rewritting ⑧composition ⑨role-play ⑩translation Theory of language---a. The creative property of language Language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. This is based on two concepts derived from Chomsky-language is rule-governed and creative. Every normal human being has, somewhere in his brain, a set of grammar rules with which he can use to create an infinite number of sentences. b. Language as rule-governed Language is an intricate rule-governed system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. The Cognitive Approach lays emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception and learning. Student should be allowed to create their own sentences based on an understanding of grammar rules. c. Linguistic competence and linguistic penformance Chomsky created two linguistic terms ―language competence(linguistic performance)‖. The former refers to knowledge of grammar rules, while the later refers to application of language. It is competence that a child gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the child to be creative as a language user. The learning of a language skill can be deliberate; it becomes automatic through use. Meaningful performance (practice) rather than drill is the only way to master a language. d. The innate hypothesis The innate hypothesis that human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and ideas which are in the minds at birth has been used to explain how children are able to learn a language. Chomsky and others claimed that every normal human being was born with a LAD(language acquisition device).

Theory of learning--- a. Chomsky’s ideas about language acquisition Chomsky believes that: children a re born with special language learning abilities; they do not have to be taught language or correct for their mistakes, but learn language by being exposed to it; and linguistic rules develop unconsciouly. This process of acquiring the rules of one’s mothe r tongue by being exposed to examples of the language, and by using the language for communication is called language acquisition. b. Theory of cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology deals with the study of the nature and learning of systems of knowledge, particularly those processes involved in thought, perception, comprehension, memory and learning. In recent years cognitive psychology has been related to language structure to the nature of human cognitive processes. In other words, learning must involve organization of material. Learning should be structured. Structure has given meaning to parts previously incomprehensible. Since meaning is understood not as a behavioural response, learning a language should be meaningful learning. c. Piaget’s theory o f cognitive development In the early 1960s,the famous Swiss psychologist Piaget established his

theory of cognitive development. Piaget considers that conceptual growth occurs because the child, while actively attempting to adapt to the environment, organizes actions into schemata through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. d. Schema theory The schema theory is an important element in Piaget’s theory. The expression was coined to describe" an active organization of past action.‖ It refers to th e mental framework of past experience, those things a person stores in his long-term memory. When a child is able to represent the world mentally, by means of memory, imagery or symbolic language, it is said to have internalized those experiences. This theory is one with is ―action-based‖, more concerned with the process of learning than what is learnt. e. Brunner and his discovery method The famous American psychologist Bunner emphasizes active restructuring of knowledge through experience with the environment. He holds that learners should organize knowledge for themselves by using discovery method, rather than having materials prepackaged by the teacher.Hebelieves learning is most effectively achieved when learner s are encouraged to engage in guided discovery. Te discovery method takes a broad view of the education of the whole person, and it is one of the central elements of this the need to learn how to learn. F. Ausubel’s theory The cognitive theory of learning as put forward by Ausubel emphasizes the r ole of expository or reception learning. At the heart ofAusubel’s theory are the concepts of ―meaningful verbal learning and advance organizers‖. To be meaningful, new materials must be related to existing knowledge. The teacher therefore has to find ways of associating the new materials with ideas or objects with which the learners are familiar. To help in this process, Ausubel recommends the use of advance organizers, by which he means some kinds of topical introduction to a lesson that orientates learners to the subject matte r and relates new learning to what learners already know. The main function of advance organizers is to act as a bridge between what learners already know and what they need to know. g. Kelly’s theory Kelly made a clear distinction be tween meaningful

an d meaningless learning activities. Language is not learned by the mere memorization. Rather, learners are involved in active process of making sense, of creating their own understanding of the world of language. In Kelly’s sense, a meani ngful activity is one that encourages this process of making sense, of fitting or mapping the new onto the old to create a new understanding. H. Diller’s four principles Diller formulates the four principles of cognitivism are as follows: ①A living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. This principle implies the teaching of a language as a consciously learnt system. ②The rules of grammar are psychologically real. The learning of a skill can be deliberate; it becomes automatic through use. ③Man is a specially equipped

to learn Language. Learning language is a human characteristic. Language learning can occur at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use. ④A living language is a language in which we can think. Language is bound up with meaning and thinking. Learning a language involves learning to think in that language. Meaningful practice rather than drill is the only way this can come about.

--How do you understand the four principles of cognitivism formulated by Diller?----Diller’s first principle that a living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity implies the teaching of a language as a consciously learnt system. The second principle is that the rules of grammar are psychologically real. The rules of a new language are best learnt in conjunction with demonstration and practice. From the two principles above we must insist that the learner is the center of language teaching. The third is that man is especially equipped to learn language and learning language is a human characteristic. From this principle we can draw a conclusion that language learning occurs at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use. We should take a broad view of education of the whole person (lifelong education). The last principle is that a living language is a language in which we can think and it is bound up with meaning and thinking. We should emphasize language understanding, meaningful learning and meaningful practice during the entire learning process.

--How useful are the techniques used by a cognitive teacher to your English teaching and learning experience?-----The rule learning, meaningful practice and creativity are the focus of English teaching and learning experience. Using these techniques is to help the learner to understand English as a system, and to master the meaningful material, then to achieve successful communication. These techniques used by a cognitive teacher can stimulate learners subjective activity and creativity, and raise their language competence and language performance. By using these techniques, the teacher can achieve the objectives of English teaching and learning experience: to develop in the students the native-like competence; to develop intuitive thinking in learners; to develop strategies of language use; to enable the students to learn from errors.

---What implications for FLT do you see in Chomsky’s work?---- Chomsky held that a language learner has, somewhere in his brain, a set of grammar rules with which he can use to make sentences. That is, language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. He claimed that every normal human being is born with a LAD (language acquisition device). The LAD included basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language. Chomsky’s idea that students s hould be allowed to create their own sentence based on an understanding of a rule is widely used in many classroom. Chomsky created two linguistic terms: language

competence(knowledge of grammar rules ) and language performance(application of language). It is competence that a learner gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the learned to be creative as a language user. Meaningful performance rather than drill is the only way to master a language.

--Why is the Cognitive Approach interpreted as the “modern version of Grammar-Translation Method”?----The Cognitive Approach interpreted as the ―modern version of Grammar-Translation Method‖ because it has rediscovered valuable features in Grammar-Translation Method. The Cognitive Approach comes from the Grammar-Translation Method but it is not a mechanical repetition of the latter, and has given up a

one-sided and radical approach in the Grammar-Translation Method. It has some main features; language is intricate rule-governed system; knowledge of language rules facilitates learning; learning is based on understanding; etc. It draws on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and studies foreign language teaching from the point of view of educational psychology, linguistic psychology and foreign language learning

theories, hence makes itself more scientific. The American psychologist Carrol interpreted the Cognitive Approach as a ―modified, up-to-date grammar translation theory‖

第七章自然法Natural Approach:

background--- The Natural Approach was proposed in 1977 by Tracy Terrell, a teacher of Spanish at the University of California. Later, Terrell joined force with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at the University of Southern California. Drawing on Krashen’s influential theor y of second Language Acquisition, they tried to provide a detailed theoretical rationale for the Natural Approach. In 1983, their joint effort came out in a book The Natural Approach :Language Acquisition in the classroom, which states the principles and practices of the Natural Approach. This new philosophy of language teaching was an attempt to develop a language teaching proposal that incorporated the ―naturalistic‖ principles in the studies of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach emphasizes the central role of comprehension and believes that:①Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language ②The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established ③Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills ④Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form⑤Teaching should minimize learns’ stress

Main features--- ?Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages. The Natural Approach considers input as the most important element of any language teaching programme. Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages, not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. ?Implications for classroom practice: ①whatever helps comprehension is important. ②Vocabulary is important. With more vocabulary there will be more comprehension and with more comprehension, there will be more acquisition. ③Students must understand the message. ④Classroom with interesting input may be a very good place for second language acquisition. ?Guidelines for classroom practice: ①The goal of the Natural Approach is communication skills.②Comprehension precedes production.③Production emerges.④Acquisition activities are essentia l.⑤Lower the affective filter. ?Characteristics of classroom teaching:①Class time is devoted primarily to providing input for acquisition.②The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom. Students may use either the first or second language. If they choose to respond in the second language, their errors should not be corrected in the process of communication.③Homework may include grammar work and errors should be corrected.④The goals are to enable students to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems. ?The role of learner: The language learners are considered as processors of comprehensible input. They can decide when to speak, What to speak about, and what linguistic expressions to use in speaking. Their roles change according to their stage of linguistic development. (6)The role of a teacher: The natural Approach teacher has three central roles. She is first the primary source of comprehensible input in the target language. Her second role is to create a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter for learning. Finally, the teacher must choose and use a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a variety of group sizes content, and contexts. (7)The role of testing: is to motivate students to prepare for tests by obtaining more comprehensible input and to motivate teachers to supply more comprehensible input.

Objectives---The Natural Approach is primarily designed to develop basic communication skills---both oral and written---and is designed to help beginners become intermediates. The students are expected to be able to function adequately in the target situation. They should be able to make the meaning clear. The goals of a Natural Approach class are divided according to basic personal communication skills and academic learning skills, with focus on the former. Communication goals are specified in terms of situations, functions and topics.

Procedures---?Pre-production stage: At this stage, the teacher provides comprehensible input, maintains focus

on the message and helps lower affective filters. This pre-production stage allows the students an opportunity to begin the acquisition process. ?production stage: The Natural Approach uses three stages as a basis for beginners; all involve personalization and the use of family topics and situations. The first stage is aimed primary at lowing the affective filter by putting the students into situations in which they can get to know each other personally. The students learn how to describe themselves, their family, and their friends in the targe language. The second stage consists of giving the students comprehensible input about experiences and allowing for opportunities to engage in conversations about their own experiences. The third stage consists of input and discussions, concerning opinions. Students discuss political issues, civil rights, family, and so forth, and gain the competence to express their own views.

Techniques--- ?Acquisition activities: ①Affective-humanistic activities attempt to involve students’ feelings, opinions, desires, reactions, ideas, and experiences. Open dialogues, interviews, reference ranking, personal charts, supplying personal information, description, etc. are often used to involve students in communicating information about themselves. ②Problem-solving activities a re those in which the students’ attention is focused on finding a correct answer to a question, a problem or a situation. ③Games are the third group of activities. The primary focus of any particular game is on words, discussion, action, contest, problem-solving, and guess. ④Content activities are the ones whose purpose is for the students to learn something new other than language. They include slide shows, panel, individual reports and presentations, ―show and tell‖ activities, music, films, film scripts, TV reports, news broadcasts, guest lectures, native speaker visitors reading and discussions about any sort of the target language and culture. ?Typical techniques: In the early stages of speech production, the Natural Approach uses random volunteered group responses, which place little demand on the individual student but allow early use of the target language. As for errors, if students’ response is wrong in meaning, the teacher will correct them immediately. But if the response is appropriate, but ill-formed or pronounced incorrectly, the teacher will first give a positive response, then use reformations and expansions, just as in real-life situations. The particularly good technique is

the one that consists of giving commands to students and having them actually act out what the teacher says. The Natural Approach also provides appropriate texts and reasons for reading.

Natural Approach: Theory of language---a. Communication as the primary function of language; and emphasis on meaning Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language and since their approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities, they identify the Natural Approach with the Communicative Approach. What Krashen and Terell emphasize in their approach is the primacy of meaning. b. Importance of vocabulary Krashen and Terrell stress the importance of vocabulary, suggesting that a language is essentially its lexicon. c. Not necessary to analyze grammatical structure; and rules automatically provided in the input. Krashen and Terrell hold that grammatical structure does not require explicit analysis or attention by the teacher, by the learner, or in language teaching materials. They assume that if we provide input over a wide variety of topics while pursuiting communicative goal, the necessary grammatical rules are automatically provede in the input.

Theory of learning---a. Krashen’s Monitor Model of second language development The Monitor Model is the center of Krashen’s second language learning theory. Krashen argue s that his account provides a general or

―overall theory‖ of second language acquisition with important implications for language teaching. b. Two distinct processes: acquisition and learning Krashen’s Monitor Model of second language development distingui shes two distinct processes in second and foreign language development and use. One is called ―acquisition‖, which refers to the subconscious process leading to the development of ―competence‖ and is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. The second process called ―learning‖, refers to the conscious study and knowledge of grammatical rules. In producing utterances, learners initially use their acquired system of rules. Learning and learned rules have only one function: to serve as a monitor or editor utterances initiated by the acquired system. c. The five hypothesis of Krashen’s Monitor Model ①The acquisition-learning hypothesis Krashen maintains that second language learners have at their disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a second language. One is acquisition. The other is learning. Acquisition comes about through meaningful interaction in a natural communication setting. This contrasts with the language learning situation in which students try not to make mistakes and their teacher corrects them once they are found. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition. ②The Monitor hypothesis The monitor hypothesis states that learning has only one function, and that is as a monitor. It uses conscious grammatical knowledge to determine the form of produced utterances. The monitor (knowledge of grammar rules) is thought to play a minor role in second language learning process. ③The natural order hypothesis The natural order hypothesis states that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order, some rules tending to come early and other late. The order does not appear to be determined solely by formal simplicity and there is evidence that it is independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes. ④The input hypothesis The input hypothesis assumes that human acquire language in only one way---by understanding messages, or by receiving ―comprehensible input‖ which refers to utterances that the learner understands based on the context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased. In language acquisition, we move from i, our current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1. This hypothesis involves four main issues: First, the input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to meaning. Second, people acquire language best by understanding input i+1. Comprehension is helped by the situation and the context, extra-linguistic information and knowledge of the world. Third, the ability to speak fluently can not be taught, it ―emerges‖ independently in time, after the acquirer has built up language competence by understanding input. Forth, enough comprehension input provides i+1 automatically. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Krashen argues that attitudinal factors also play an important role in acquiring a second language. Krashen sees the learner’s emotional state or attitude as an adjustable filter that freely passes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Krashen identifies three kinds of affective variables related to second language acquisition : motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. For Krashen, the affective filter is the principle source of individual differences in second language acquisition.

Definition--- The Natural Approach emphasizes natural communication rather than formal grammar study and is tolerance of learners’ errors. The core of the Natural Approach is language acquisition which is considered a subconscious process, dependent on two factors: the amount of comprehensible input the students get and the amount of input the students ―allow in‖.

Advantages-?The classroom consisting of acquisition activities can be an excellent environment for beginners. The Natural Approach is an attempt to simulate in the classroom an environment that will be similar to the context in which children acquire their first language, as they create utterances to express their own thoughts. ?Comprehensible and meaningful practice activities are emphasized. In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary and sufficient condition s for successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. It emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterance and sentences. Listening comprehension is also emphasized. ?The teacher creates speeches which enable students to interact using the target language. ?Students are not forced to respond in the target language immediately. ?Students interact in meaningful situation at their own level. The Natural Approach classroom contains a teacher whose main purpose is to create a net of speech which will enable students to begin interacting using the target language and to begin the language acquisition process. The teacher can provide a large amount of language input without forcing the students to respond in the target language immediately. In the classroom, students also have the advantage of being able to interact in meaningful situations with other students at or near their own level of competence. ?The teacher knows students’ needs and concentrates on appropriate and useful areas. Another important feature of the classroom is that the teacher is aware of the specific vocabulary needs of the students and can concentrate on appropriate and using domains. Thus the conclusion is that while the real

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