语言学期末考试试卷

1. 围绕SFL,TG Grammar, FSP, Saussure 四个知识点，结合课本367及368页相关问答题准备复习。

2．理解并一定识记以下相关概念和名词：

categorization ，interpersonal function，duality，semantics，recursiveness，language linguistics，image schema，competence，allophone，inflection，syntax

3. 会自己分析诸如课本368页22题，367页14题的题型。

4.其他参见老师最后一次课梳理的内容。

1.Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics?

Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form (signifier) and an idea (signified), and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.

2.What are the three important points of the Prague School?

First, it stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, it emphasized the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactorily analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition. Third, it looked on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.

3.What is the Prague School best known for?

The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme”as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. In classifying distinctive features, he proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; (2) relations between the opposing elements; and (3) their power of discrimination. These oppositions can be summarised as: a) bilateral opposition; b) multilateral opposition; c) proportional opposition; d) isolated opposition; e) privative opposition; f) gradual opposition; g) equippolent opposition; h) neutralisable opposition; and i) constant opposition.

4.What is the essence of Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)? FSP is a theory that refers to a linguistic analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. From a functional point of view, some Czechoslovak linguists believed that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer –it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the Theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the Rheme. It is believed that the movement from the Theme to the Rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself. Language may use different syntactic structures, but the order of ideas remains basically the same. Based on these observations, they created the notion of

Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) to describe how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer, and the new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. 5. What is the tradition of the London School? The London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance tocontexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes. 6. What is the difference between Malinowski and Firth on context of situation? Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation: situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, narrative situations, and phatic situations. Firth defined the context of situation as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment. Recognising that sentences can vary infinitely, Firth used the notion of “typical context of situation”, meaning that social situations determine the social roles participants are obliged to play; since the total number of typical contexts of situation they will encounter is finite, the total number of social roles is also finite. He put forward the idea that in analysing a typical context of situation, one has to take into consideration both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text. 7. What is important about Firth’s prosodic analysis? Prosodic analysis, or prosodic phonology, is Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics. Since any human utterance is a continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable, it cannot be cut into independent units. Phonological description only deals with paradigmatic relations, leaving syntagmatic relations out of consideration. Firth pointed out that in actual speech, it is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but phonematic units. There are fewer features in phonematic units than in phonemes, because some features are common to phonemes of a syllable or a phrase (even a sentence). When these features are considered in syntagmatic relations, they are all called prosodic units, which include features such as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.

8.What is the relation between Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar?

Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar are two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguistic theory. Systemic Grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. This network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve.Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind Functional Grammar is systemic.

.9What is special about Systemic-Functional linguistics?

Systemic-Functional linguistics aims to provide taxonomy for sentences, a means of descriptively classifying particular sentences. Although it may not seem as influential as Chomsky’s transformational-generative theory in some parts of the world, it is much more relevant to the needs of various groups of people who deal with language. Halliday believes

that language is what it is because it has to serve certain functions. In other words, social demand on language has helped to shape its structure. Systemic-Functional linguistics is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realise different semantic functions in social interaction; and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s approach that takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.

11.(1) she (Person: third person; Number: singular) (2) we (Person: first person; Number: plural) (3) always (Modality: frequency) (4) a perception process (Transitivity: mental process: internalized process) (5) an action process (Transitivity: material process)

12.Analyze the following Relational-process sentences according to their mode and type. (1) Linguistics is a difficult course. (Type: intensive; Mode: attributive) (2) This laptop is Professor Huang’s. (Type: possessive; Mode: identifying)

15.What are the special features of American structuralism? American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that developed in a very different style from that of Europe. While linguistics in Europe started more than two thousand years ago, linguistics in America started at the end of the nineteenth century. While traditional grammar plays a dominating role in Europe, it has little influence in America. While many European languages have their own historical traditions and cultures, English is the dominating language in America, where there is no such a tradition as in Europe. In addition, the pioneer scholars in America were faced with the urgent task of recording the rapidly perishing native American Indian languages because there was no written record of them. However, these languages were characterised by features of vast diversity and differences which are rarely found in other parts of the world. To record and describe these exotic languages, it is probably better not to have any presuppositions about the nature of language in general. This explains why there was not much development in linguistic theory during this period but a lot of discussion on descriptive procedures. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the alleged universality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech. Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognising and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.

16. How is behaviourist psychology related to linguistics? For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as “behaviourism”. Behaviourism is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviourism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adult’s use of language

is also a process of “stimulus-response”. When the behaviourist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield’s writings, the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a native speaker says in his language and to discard what he says about it. This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based on observation of unstudied utterances by speakers; it was unreliable if the analyst had resorted to asking speakers questions such as “Can you say …in youlanguage?”17. What is Harris’s most important contribution to linguistics? Harris’s Methods in Structural Linguistics (1951) makes the maturity of American descriptive linguistics, for he gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the “discovery procedure”approach characterised by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalisation. He formulated a set of strict descriptive procedures which took the logic of distributional relations as the basis of structural analysis. This method has greatly influenced American descriptive linguistics and Harris is therefore regarded as one of the most distinguished linguists in the post-Bloomfieldian era. 18. What is the theoretical importance of Tagmemics? Tagmemics is a special name for the technique of linguistic analysis developed by Pike, the most significant figure in continuing the structuralist tradition. For Pike, a language has its own hierarchical systems independent of meaning. Not only are there hierarchies in language, but that everything in the world is hierarchical, consisting of different layers in the system from small to big, from bottom to top, from simple to complex, from part to whole. The ultimate aim of tagmemics is to provide a theory which integrates lexical, grammatical, and phonological information. This theory is based on the assumption that there are various relations in language, and these relations can be analysed into different units. However, to believe that language is part of human behaviour, one needs to recognise that language cannot be strictly formalised. Since no representational system can account for all the relevant facts of language, tagmemics accepts various different modes of representation for different purposes, and does not insist that there is only one correct grammar or linguistic theory.

19. What are the main features of Stratificational Grammar? Lamb’s Stratificational Grammar consists of three levels: phoneme, morpheme, and morphophoneme. It sees the complex relationship in language as series of connected stratal systems on the assumption that while the system of relationships are not directly observable, it is generalizable. In this grammar, there is no direct relation between a concept and its sounds, and that there are various strata that make up a number of stratal systems. Among these, the four principal ones are the sememic, lexemic, morphemic, and the phonemic, from top to bottom.

20.How many stages of development has Chomsky’s TG Grammar undergone?

Chomsky’s TG Grammar has seen five stages of development. The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory. The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers. Although TG Grammar has involved putting forward, revising, and cancelling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models, its aims and purposes have been consistent, i.e. to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge on language.

21. What does Chomsky mean by Language Acquisition Device? Chomsky believes that language

is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge

25. What is special about TG Grammar?

The starting point of Chomsky’s TG Grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. Chomsky’s TG Grammar has the following features. First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure –a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.

语言学概论期末考试试卷2

语言学概论期末考试试卷2 一、填空题（每空1分，共15分） 1、人与人的口头交际过程是非常复杂的，从通信理论的角度可以将之理解为和的过程。 2、符号包含的两个方面是、。 3、到目前为止，语言学家的研究主要有三种不同的角度，分别是着眼于语言的、、。 4、共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度地、 地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定范围的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。 5、义素分析的要求一是，二是。 6、文字改革有三种不同的情况：一种是；一种是；还有一种是。 二、单项选择题（每小题1分，共10分） 1、下列国家中不是以单一民族，单一语言为基础建立起来的是（） A．瑞士B．法国C．西班牙D．英格兰 2、语言是一种（） A．形式和内容相统一的视觉符号系统B．音义结合的听觉符号系统C．用于交际的触觉符号系统D．集视觉、听觉、触觉为一体的符号系统 3、普通语言学从理论上讲是研究（） A．个别民族语言的特殊规律B．人类各种语言一般与个别的规律 C．几种民族语言的一般与个别的规律D．汉语普通话的发展规律 4、噪音是（） A．振幅固定而有规则的声波B．频率最低、振幅最大的音 C．具有周期性重复的复合波形的音D．不具备整数倍的不规则的音 5、把语法分成词法、句法两个部分，是（）提出来的。 A．结构语法学B．形式语法学C．现代语法学D．传统语法学 6、语义的基本特征是（） A．概括性B．民族性C．模糊性D．同语言形式的结合 7、词的（）是词义的基本的和核心的部分 A．通俗意义B．非通俗意义C．理性意义D．非理性意义 8、“我吃光了盘子里的菜”这句话中，“光”的语义指向是（） A．我B．吃C．盘子里的菜D．盘子 9、日文的假名是典型的（） A．辅音文字B．音节文字C．表意文字D．意音文字 10、四川人在公开场合讲普通话，在家里讲四川话，这是一种（）

语言学纲要期末复习重点整理

1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 （1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。 （2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 （1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 （2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。 （3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同

样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 （1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。 （2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。 （3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。 （4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 （1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 （2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末

语言学概论期末考试范围

语言学概论期末复习 1. diachronic linguistics Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 2. arbitrariness Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. 3. langue According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by. 4. competence Chomsky defines competence as the abstract ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person's competence. 5. morpheme The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme' is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. 6. Morphology Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 7. Semantic triangle According to Ogden and Richard's semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds. 8. Lingua franca Lingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. 9. componential analysis Componential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. 10. Cooperative Principle Cooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the

语言学纲要期末复习材料(叶蜚声 徐通锵编)-精华

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语言学概论考试B评分标准与答案

天津师范大学考试 2010—2011 学年第二学期期末考试 《语言学概论》试卷（ B 卷）答案及评分标准 一、填空题: （每空0.5 分，本大题共10 分）1．表意文字表音文字 2．发音时气流是否受阻 3．历史稳定性（稳固性）全民常用性（全民性）构词的能产性（能 产性） 4、增添删除（删减） 5．渐变性不平衡性 6．清浊，舌位高舌位低 7．时位调位重位8．舌位的高低、舌位的前后、唇形的圆展（圆与不圆） 二、名词解释。（每小题2 分，本大题共10 分）1．语音：2. 历史比较语言学： 3. 条件变体： 4. 性： 5. 方言词： 三、分析题: （本大题共30 分，每小题6 分） 1. 分析下列句法结构中歧义出现的原因并加以分化（6 分） A 爱慕的是小王：分化：别人爱慕的人是小王；小王爱慕的是别人。歧义出现的原因是 “小王”的施受关系不明。 B 王熙凤也不知道哪儿去了分化：别人也不知道王熙凤哪儿去了，王熙凤也不知道别 人哪儿去了。歧义出现的原因是“王熙凤”的施受关系不明。 C 修了一条乡村公路分化：把一条（坏了的）乡村公路修好了；修出（成）了一条乡村公路。 歧义出现的原因是“路”到底是表示结果还是表示受事关系不明。 D 这个灯笼挂了一天了 分化：这个灯笼已经挂上去了，挂上去的时间是一天。这个灯笼挂了一天了还没有挂上去。 歧义出现的原因是动词“挂”既有“持续”的语义特征，又有“完成” 的语义特

征。 2. 用严式国际音标给下列汉字注音（6 分）春眠不觉晓花落知多少答案略 3. 分析下列各词的结构类型，并指出各语素的性质：（6 分） 学员：附加式（派生词）；词根+后缀。烟头儿：附加式（派生词）；词根+词根+后缀。秋千：单纯词；双声词。 Returns：附加式；词干+词尾。blackboard :复合词；词根+词根。 抗菌素：复合词；前缀+词根+词根。 4. 下列语言属于不同的语系，试将它们进行分类（6 分）印欧语系：西班牙语、波兰语、印地语、德语、意大利语；阿尔泰语系：哈萨克语、满语、蒙古语； 南岛语系：高山语；南亚语系：佧瓦语；闪——含语系：阿拉伯语汉藏语系：苗语。评分标准：错一项扣一分。 5. 用语音术语描述下列辅音（6 分）（1）[v] 唇齿浊擦音。 （2）[L] 舌尖中浊边音。 （3）[ts] 舌尖前不送气清塞擦音。 （4）[p h] 双唇送气清塞音。 （5）[x] 舌面后（舌根）清擦音。 （6）[z] 舌尖前浊擦音。 四、简答题: （每小题10 分，本大题共30 分） 1. 请用具体的例子说明共时语言学和历时语言学的区别（10 分）共时语言学，又叫静态语言学。它以语言在历史发展过程中某一特定状态中的语言系统为研究对象,揭示语言的内部结构规律，分析各种语言单位,描写语言规则,而不考虑时间的因素。 （3 分） 历时语言学，又叫动态语言学,它研究语言的历史发展,描写和研究语言从一个时期到另一个时期的演变方式,研究这种演变在语言内部和外部的 原因。（3 分） 举例4 分，各举两个以上，分别得二分。仅各举一例，分别得一分。 2. 请简要回答洋泾浜与克里奥尔的区别（10 分） 洋泾浜是指某些与外族人接触较多的地区，因语言相互影响而形成的一种特殊的语言现象。（2 分） 克里奥尔又叫混合语,指各种语言频繁接触的地区出现的包含不同语言成分的混合的自然语言。（2 分） 二者不同的是：