功能语法讲义

Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar

M. A. K. Halliday (1925–), based on Firth‘s theories in the London School, has developed his Systemic-Functional Grammar (SFG).

1. Biography of Halliday:

1947

From 1947 to 1949

From 1949 to 1950

1955

1955 onwards

1975

1988

2. Brief introduction of SFG:

Systemic-Functional Grammar has two inseparable components: systemic grammar and functional grammar.

1) Systemic grammar:

It aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network.

Language is a system network.

This system network is thought as meaning potential.

This system network consists of subsystems.

Language users make choices from these subsystems.

2) Functional grammar:

It aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.

People use language to interact with each other.

Meanwhile they make choices from the subsystems of language according to different functions they serve.

Therefore, the function or use of language determines language system.

3) Systemic-Functional Grammar is based on two facts:

(1) Language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction

(2) Language is inseparable from social activities of man.

¤Language is a potential: it is what the speaker can do. (Halliday 1978/2001: 27) …hence the description of language as a ?meaning potential‘. (Halliday 1978/2001:

28)

¤The notion of ?situation‘ refers to those features which are relevant to the speech that is taking place.(Halliday 1978/2001: 29)

3. Systemic Grammar

In Systemic Grammar, language is conceived as a ―system of systems‖. Systemic Grammar tries to establish a network of systems of language. Language is regarded as a multilevel code system, as is shown below:

This is what Halliday called the three strata of language.

¤Language is being regarded as the encoding of a ?behaviour potential‘; that is, as a means of expressing what the human organism ?can do‘, in interaction with other human organisms, by turning it into what he ?can mean‘. What he can mean (the semantic system) is, in turn, encoded into what he ?can say‘ (the lexicogrammatical system, or grammar and vocabulary); to use our own folk-linguistic terminology, meanings are expressed in wordings. Wordings are, finally, recorded into sounds (it would be nice if we could say ?soundings‘) or spellings (the phonological and orthographic systems). (Halliday 1978/2001: 21)

A system is a list of choices or options. Systems and subsystems

Transitivity, mood and thematic systems are respectively components of the ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.

Mood (see textbook P. ____)

As is shown above, we divide a general area of meaning into smaller and smaller sub-areas. We make finer and finer distinctions in meaning. That is to say, we arrange systems and sub-systems on a scale according to the fineness of meaning. This scale is called SCALE OF DELICACY.

4. Functional Grammar

Halliday‘s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component (Halliday, 1985/1994/2004). He interprets language development from a functional point of view and formulates a functional theory of language.

Because of the complexity of adult language, Halliday reduced the seven functions to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are meta-functions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions.

1) The ideational function refers to the fact that we use language to talk about our experience of the world, including the worlds in our own minds, to describe events and states and the entities involved in them.

2) The interpersonal function means that we also use language to interact with other people, to establish and maintain relations with them, to influence their behavior, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world, and to elicit or change theirs.

3) The textual function means that in using language, we organize our messages in ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages around them and with the wider

Transitivity is simply the grammar of the clause in its ideational aspect. We have six processes in transitivity system: Material processes, Mental processes, Relational processes, V erbal processes, Behavioral processes, Existential processes.

1) Material processes are those in which something is done.

3)

Relational processes can be classified into two types: Attributive and Identifying. These two relations can be further classified into Intensive, Circumstantial, and Possessive.

There is a new office building at the end of the road.

Does life exist on Mars?

uses of language to express social and personal relations. Interpersonal function is realised by mood and modality. Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. If the speaker selects the imperative mood, he assumes the role of one giving commands and puts the addressee in the role of one expected to obey orders.

1) Mood is made up of two parts: the ―Subject‖ and the ―Finite‖ element. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause. Finite elements are tense morphemes, auxiliary verbs and modal verbs that express tense or modality . Residue refers to the rest of the

Complement Subject Finite element Predicator Adverbial

Residue Mood Residue

2) Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment of proposition, possibility According to Halliday, of the various speech roles, two are the most basic: giving and taking. In interpersonal communications, the commodities exchanged can also fall into

two kinds: goods-&-services and information. Thus, speech roles and commodities exchanged make up four principal speech roles:

offer, command, statement, and question.

Commodity exchanged

Role in exchange Proposal/goods-&-services Proposition/information

giving

offer

Would you like this teapot?

statement

He’s giving her the teapot demanding

command

Give me that teapot!

question

What is he giving her?

of order, command, statement and question. They, in turn, are matched by a set of desired responses: accepting an offer, carrying out a command, acknowledging a statement and

―Speech Functions and Responses‖:

Initiation expected response discretionary alternative Give goods-&-service

demand goods-&-services

give information

demands information

Offer

command

statement

question

acceptance

undertaking

acknowledgement

answer

rejection

refusal

contradiction

disclaimer

7. The Textual Function

The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch

of spoken or written discourse into coherence. It provides the remaining strands of meaning potential to be woven into the fabric of linguistic structure. It is realized by cohesive devices such as reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction.

1) Reference:

exophoric reference:

Who is he?(he is not mentioned in the text.)

endophoric reference:

J ane is a friend of mine. She works in Hong Kong. (she=Jane)

Mary dances better than June does 中，用does 代替dances〕

endophoric reference includes: anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference

anaphoric reference:

J ane is a friend of mine. She works in Hong Kong.(Jane←She回指)

cataphoric reference:

Here is the news: Linda and Williams are getting married next week.(Here the news下指)

2) Ellipsis: A: How given/known are you, boy? B: Seven, sir.

3) Substitution: A: Has John passed the exam? B: I think so.

4) Conjunction:and, but, because; nevertheless, therefore, however; because of, by the way, as I was saying; …

(Communicative Sentence Pattern)。例如，Mike wrote a letter(马克写了一封信)，其语义句型为施事一动作一目的，其语法句型为主语一动词一宾语，交际句型为主位一过渡一述位。

韩理德：系统功能语法摘要

SFG(systemic functional grammar): Theme and rheme

i. that which is the concern of the message;

ii. that of which something is being predicted (i.e. on which rests the truth of the argument);

4．Three lines of meaning in the clause

Three distinct functions in the clause: subject, actor, theme.

Three different strands of meaning:

The theme functions in the structure of the ―clause as a message ‖. A clause has meaning as a message, a quantum of information; the theme is the point of departure for the message. It is he element the speaker selects for ―grounding ‖ what he is going on to say.

The subject functions in the structure of the ―clause as an exchange ‖. A clause has meaning as an exchange, a transaction between speaker and listener; the subject is the warranty of the exchange. It is the element the speaker makes responsible for the validity of what he is saying.

The actor functions in the structure of the ―clause as a representation ‖. A clause has meaning as a representation, a construal of some process in ongoing human experience; the actor is the active participant in that process. It is the element the speaker portrays as the one that does the deed. Chapter 3 Clause as message:

Theme and rheme

Thematic structure gives the clause its character as a message.

―Following the terminology of the Prague School of linguists, the theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned. The remainder of the message, the

part in which the theme is developed, is called in Prague School terminology the Rheme. As a message structure, therefore, a clause consists of a theme accompanied by a rheme; and the structure is expressed by the order — whatever is chosen as the theme is put first.

separate tone group; this is especially likely when the theme is either (i) an adverbial group or

One tone group expresses one unit of information; and if a clause is organized into two information units, the boundary between the two is overwhelmingly likely to coincide with the junction of theme and rheme. This is in fact an important piece of evidence for understanding the theme + rheme structure.

6. Simple themes and multiple themes

A thematic equative: theme = rheme

In systemic functional grammar, a thematic equative is a thematic resource in which two or more separate elements in a clause are grouped together to form a single constituent of the theme-plus-rheme structure. An example of this is:

What the guests need for breakfast is an omelet.

Here, the theme—the grammatical point of departure—is in bold text; it announces at the start to the listener or reader what the message will be about—the writer's or speaker's angle ("I'm going to tell you what they need for breakfast"). The rheme (the rest of the clause) is in regular text. This type of clause sets up the theme-plus-rheme structure in the form of an equation, where theme = rheme. The equation is always expressed by some form of the verb be.[1]

A thematic equative allows for all possible parts of a clause to be shifted to the start, to be the theme, so that the message can be structured in whatever way the speaker or writer wants. For example:

An omelet is what the guests need for breakfast. [I'm going to tell you something about an omelet.]

Many common expressions are what are known as marked thematic equatives; these expressions include those that start with "That's why ..." and "That's what ..." ("That's why you can't do it," "That's what I meant").[2]

7. Unmarked themes and marked themes: subject as theme or non subject as theme

8. Theme and mood

What is the element that is typically chosen as theme in an English clause?

The answer to that question depends on the choice of mood.

1)theme in declarative clauses

2)theme in interrogative clauses

3)theme in imperative clauses

4)other characteristic themes

Unmarked or marked

8.6 Given + new and theme + Rheme

There is a close relationship between information structure and thematic structure.

Other things being equal, a speaker will choose the Theme from within what is Given and locate the focus, the climax of the New, somewhere within the Rheme.

Theme + rheme is speaker oriented, while Given + New is listener oriented. But both are speaker-selected. It is the speaker who assigns both structures, mapping one on to the other to give a

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