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Ecological Engineering24(2005)

441–446

Denitri?ers associated with methanotrophs and their potential

impact on the nitrogen cycle

Roger Knowles?

Department of Natural Resource Sciences,McGill University,Macdonald Campus,21,111Lakeshore Road,

Ste.Anne de Bellevue,Que.,Canada H9X3V9

Accepted10January2005

Abstract

Here I describe how losses of?xed nitrogen can occur in riparian zones by the activity of denitrifying bacteria associated with methane-oxidizing(methanotrophic)bacteria.Several methanotrophs catalyze nitrogen cycle processes that can occur in riparian buffer zones,including nitri?cation and nitrogen?xation.Methanotrophs can produce nitric and nitrous oxides during oxidation of ammonium(nitri?cation),but they cannot carry out denitri?cation.However,there is good evidence that denitrifying bacteria can be associated with methanotrophs and can use simple carbon compounds released by the methanotrophs as substrates for the denitri?cation reactions and for growth.Evidence is presented that denitri?ers isolated from methanotrophic gel-stabilized oxygen gradient systems can use methanol,formaldehyde,and formate,all methane oxidation intermediates,to support their denitri?cation.Such denitri?cation associated with methanotrophs can release dinitrogen and so contributes to losses of?xed nitrogen,and may also produce the important atmospheric trace gases nitric and nitrous oxides.Data presented also show that some methanotrophs produce nitrogen oxides,including nitrite,nitric oxide,and nitrous oxide,during growth on nitrate. Assimilatory reduction of nitrate appears to be a requirement for the release of these products.

?2005Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords:Denitri?cation;Methane oxidation;Methanotrophs;Nitrous oxide;Nitric oxide;Nitrogen monoxide

1.Introduction

Methanotrophic bacteria oxidize methane as their carbon and energy source and assimilate into cell ma-terial some of the carbon from the level of formalde-hyde,using either the ribulose monophosphate path-way(group I methanotrophs)or the serine path-?Tel.:+15143987751;fax:+15143987990.

E-mail address:knowles@nrs.mcgill.ca.way(group II methanotrophs)(Hanson and Hanson, 1996):

CH4→CH3OH→HCHO

↓Cell carbon

→HCOOH→CO2

They also carry out some transformations in the ni-trogen cycle(Knowles,2000):(1)The enzyme that activates methane,methane monooxygenase,is ver-satile in that it can also oxidize ammonia to more oxidized products including nitrite and nitrous ox-

0925-8574/$–see front matter?2005Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.01.001

442R.Knowles/Ecological Engineering24(2005)441–446

ide(B′e dard and Knowles,1989).There is interesting evidence that subunits of the two enzymes particu-late methane monooxygenase(pMmoA)and ammo-nia monooxygenase(AmoA)are probably related evo-lutionarily(Holmes et al.,1995).These reactions are termed methanotrophic nitri?cation.(2)Some methan-otrophs can?x dinitrogen but only under microaerobic conditions,since they have no effective mechanism of protection of their nitrogenase against oxygen inactiva-tion.(3)All can assimilate nitrogen as either ammonia or nitrate and can compete with nitrifying bacteria for ammonia and oxygen(Megraw and Knowles,1987). Nitrite,nitric oxide(NO),and nitrous oxide can be re-leased during assimilation of nitrate(Ren et al.,2000).

(4)There is no evidence that they catalyze dissimilatory (respiratory)reduction of nitrogen oxides(denitri?ca-tion;Knowles,1982).However,Ye and Thomas(2000) detected genes for dissimilatory nitrite and nitric oxide reductases in a Methylomonas species(strain16a),but they are evidently not expressed(R.W.Ye,personal communication).Thus,the signi?cance of these?nd-ings for methanotroph biology is not yet clear.

Despite the fact that methanotrophs lack the abil-ity to denitrify,they can supply extracellular carbon and energy substrates,including methanol that can sup-port growth and activity of true denitrifying bacteria, provided that other conditions are appropriate(Amaral et al.,1995).Indeed,Hyphomicrobium strains with den-itrifying potential are common contaminants during the isolation and puri?cation of methanotrophic bacteria.

Here I present some of our experimental evidence for the co-occurrence of denitri?ers and methanotrophs in environmental gradients of methane and oxygen such as occur in many terrestrial and aquatic systems.I also discuss evidence that nitrite and gaseous N oxides can be released when nitrate is assimilated by methan-otrophs at low oxygen concentrations.

2.Materials and methods

The studies reviewed here were done using named organisms from culture collections or bacteria isolated from a deciduous swamp soil at Mont St.Hilaire, Montr′e al.Methanotrophs were cultured in shake?asks in nitrate mineral salts(NMS)medium(Whittenbury et al.,1970)under a methane-containing atmosphere with a desired concentration of oxygen.Some stud-ies were done using agarose gel-stabilized diffusion columns in which opposing concentration gradients of methane and oxygen were established as described by Amaral and Knowles(1995).Dissolved oxygen was determined by microelectrode,dissolved methane by gas chromatography(GC)after equilibration of a gel sample in a helium-?lled?ask,nitrogen ions by capil-lary electrophoresis,and nitrous oxide by GC(Amaral and Knowles,1995).Some nitrogen ion analyses were done using a continuous?ow Chemlab autoanalyzer with colorimetry,and nitric oxide was determined with a Sievers NO analyzer using chemiluminescence in the presence of ozone(Ren et al.,2000).

3.Results and discussion

3.1.Methanotrophic nitri?cation

There is very good evidence that methanotrophs can oxidize ammonia through hydroxylamine to ni-trite,nitrous oxide,and nitrate(reviewed in B′e dard and Knowles,1989)and that this occurs in nature.In lake sediment,we showed that exposure to moderate concentrations of methane stimulates such ammonia oxidation with resulting production of nitrogen oxides (Roy and Knowles,1994;Fig.1).

3.2.Denitri?cation by methanotrophs

Despite an uncon?rmed report by Davies(1973), there is no good evidence that methanotrophs can deni-trify.Ye and Thomas(2000),using molecular methods, detected genes for nitrite and nitric oxide reductases in a Methylomonas strain but did not show expression of these genes(R.W.Ye,personal communication,2001). Thus,the signi?cance of this?nding for methanotroph biology is unclear.

3.3.Methanotrophs and associated denitri?ers

We have simulated microenvironments that occur in soils and aquatic environments,by using gel-stabilized agarose columns that we inoculated with a deciduous swamp soil.We passed methane and oxygen across the bottom and top,respectively,of the columns,so that opposing concentration gradients of these gases were established by diffusion.The nitrate(or ammo-

R.Knowles/Ecological Engineering24(2005)441–446

443

Fig.1.The effect of different concentrations of methane on production or consumption of ammonium( ),the nitrogen oxides,including nitrite (?),nitrate( ),nitrous oxide( ),oxygen( ),and methane(?)by slurries of lake sediment(Hamilton Harbour,Lake Ontario)incubated aerobically(from Roy and Knowles,1994).

nia),mineral salts,methane,and oxygen in the column

supported growth of methanotrophs that developed as a horizontal band of cell material,depleting methane and oxygen concentrations to zero at the band of growth (Amaral and Knowles,1995;Fig.2).This was anal-ogous to the situation in many strati?ed lakes where active methanotrophic activity consumes methane and oxygen at the top of the hypolimnion(B′e dard and Knowles,1987).If the agarose column contained ni-trate,nitrous oxide was produced,suggesting that den-itri?cation occurred(Fig.2).

Columns inoculated only with a denitrifying bac-terium isolated from the same soil did not produce nitrous oxide,con?rming that the presence of both methanotrophs and associated denitri?ers was neces-sary(Amaral and Knowles,1995;Fig.3).

Denitri?ers isolated from the band of methan-otrophic growth in such a column showed denitrifying activity when they were placed in spent methanotroph culture medium but not when placed in fresh NMS medium(Amaral et al.,1995;Fig.4).This shows that products of methanotroph metabolism were required for activity.

Furthermore,pure culture experiments showed that the isolated denitri?ers could not denitrify using glu-cose,but they could denitrify using the intermediates of methane oxidation,methanol,formaldehyde,and

for-Fig.2.Methane(?),nitrous oxide( ),and oxygen( )concen-trations in a nitrate mineral salts diffusion column inoculated with swamp soil and measured8days after development of a band of methanotrophic growth(dashed lines)(from Amaral and Knowles, 1995).

444R.Knowles /Ecological Engineering 24(2005)

441–446

Fig.3.Methane (?)and oxygen ( )consumption and nitrous oxide ( )production in an NMS column inoculated with a methanotrophic enrichment alone (A),the enrichment plus a denitri?er D-1(B),and the denitri?er D-1alone (C).Dashed lines show bands of methanotroph growth.Incubation was without acetylene (from Amaral et al.,1995).

mate,which may be released from methane-oxidizing cells (Amaral et al.,1995;Table 1).

This is good evidence that products released dur-ing oxidation of methane can support activity of

den-

Fig.4.Production of nitrous oxide by isolated denitri?ers D-1to D-3incubated in ?lter-sterilized spent NMS medium from a methan-otrophic enrichment (closed symbols)and in fresh NMS medium (open symbols).Incubations were under helium with 10%acetylene (from Amaral et al.,1995).

itrifying bacteria nearby,if the oxygen concentra-tion is suf?ciently low to allow denitri?cation to pro-ceed.Oxygen can be depleted by the methanotrophs and also by denitrifying bacteria growing in their aerobic mode.Thus,it is clear that methanotrophs cannot only assimilate nitrate but can also stimu-late reduction of nitrate to nitrite and gaseous nitro-gen oxides by associated bacteria under appropriate conditions.

In this connection,it should be noted that activ-ities of methanotrophs and denitri?ers were recently used in a two-stage process for the removal of nitrogen

Table 1

Nitrous oxide produced by three denitri?ers (D-1,D-2,and D-3)isolated from methanotrophic diffusion columns in which nitrous oxide production was observed Carbon source

Denitri?er mM

D-1D-2D-3None—cells only 0001.8Glucose 65.00.10.14.4Methanol 3.100.158.0Formaldehyd 3.10022.0Formate

3.1

0.1

7.2

656.0

Data are nmol of nitrous oxide produced per mL of culture in 4days in the presence of nitrate,mineral salts,and the indicated carbon sources (mM concentrations)(from Amaral et al.,1995).

R.Knowles/Ecological Engineering24(2005)441–446

445

Fig.5.Consumption of nitrate and oxygen and production of nitrite, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide by Methylobacter strain T20grow-ing initially aerobically in NMS medium.Less than half of the30% methane supplied at the beginning was consumed during the exper-iment(from Ren et al.,2000).

from nitrate-contaminated ground water.An aerobic methanotrophic stage was followed by an anaero-bic denitrifying stage in which methanol and other products released by the methanotrophs in the?rst stage were used by the denitri?ers in the second stage (Eisentraeger et al.,2001).

There is another way in which methane-oxidizing bacteria might contribute products usually attributed to nitri?cation or denitri?cation.We have shown that when some methanotrophs assimilate nitrate for growth,and especially when the oxygen concentra-tion in their environment becomes depleted through methane oxidation,they produce nitrite,nitric oxide, and nitrous oxide.As much as250ppmv of nitric ox-ide can accumulate in the reaction vessel headspace, a concentration that is toxic for most bacteria(Ren et al.,2000;Fig.5).Active assimilatory nitrate reduc-tion with some accumulation of nitrite appears to be necessary,probably followed by a chemical decompo-sition(chemodenitri?cation)of the nitrite(Ren et al., 2000).

4.Conclusion

Despite the fact that methanotrophs are not them-selves known to carry out denitri?cation,they can support denitri?cation by associated bacteria.To do this,they(1)release intermediates of methane oxida-tion,such as methanol,that support growth and activ-ity of some denitri?ers or other bacteria and(2)con-sume oxygen thus creating a microenvironment more favourable for denitri?cation.Such associations are likely to be active at or just above the aerobic–anaerobic interface in moist or waterlogged riparian or other habi-tats where active methane production may occur in the anaerobic zone.They will thus contribute to removal of?xed nitrogen compounds that are passing through the riparian buffer zone.

Acknowledgements

The studies described in this paper were supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada(NSERC)under their operating grant and BOREAS programmes.

References

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Cast P earls before swine.牛一猪) 7)落汤鸡/落水狗:Like a drow ned mouse .鸡/狗一鼠) 8)热锅上的蚂蚁: Like a cat o n hot bricks.蚂蚁一猫) 9)宁为鸡头,毋为牛后: Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lio n.鸡 —狗,牛一狮) 由此可见,中国成语中的动物在英语成语中已不属于同一动物了。 2. 与颜色有关的成语或谚语英汉也不尽相同 在颜色的作用上,有相同点。比如,红色(red ),无论是在英语国家,还是在 中国,往往都与庆祝活动和喜庆日子有关。如中国有 开门红”代表着好运气。 英语有“redletter days 纪念日,喜庆日)等。但更多的还是有不同点,而且两种 语言在颜色 的意义上也有区别。如 黄色”(yellow )在西方黄色表示懦弱,胆小, 不敢面对现实。而在中国,黄色是帝王的象征。只有皇帝才配着黄色。再如 蓝 色” (blue )在英语中通常表示不快活,心情不好。如: 1) He is blue today 文化与翻译 英汉成语、谚语中的语言文化差异 其语言也必然会有很大的差别。语言 来谈 由于中西方的社会文化存在着很大的差异, 离不开文化,文化也离不开语言。本文就英汉成语或谚语对译的几个实例, 谈两种语言在成语或谚语中所存在的文化差异。 1.与动物有关的成语或谚语英汉不尽相同 1)他壮得像头牛。 He is as stro ng as a horse 牛一马) 2)她胆小如 鼠。 She is as timid as a hare (鼠一兔) 3)养虎遗 患: Warm a sn ake in on e's bosom 虎—蛇) 4)瓮中之鳖: Like a rat in a hole.(鳖一鼠) 5)害群之 马: Black shee p.马一羊) 6)对牛弹琴:

文化经典选修教材重点翻译(附带重点字词和参考译文)

要求: 1.通读全句,划出采分点(实词、虚词、句式),然后翻译。 2.翻译后,通读自己的译文,检查有无舛漏。 3.这里只是选取了课文里的部分重点句子以帮助大家复习,会考小本里的课外文言文段落还需大家用心温习。 《晋灵公不君》 1.将谏,士季曰:“谏而不入,则莫之继也。会请先,不入,则子继之。” (赵盾)准备进谏,士季说:?(您是正卿,您)去进谏,如果国君不接受,那就没有谁能接着进谏了。我请求先去进谏,假如国君不采纳,那么您再继续进谏。? 2.犹不改。宣子骤谏,公患之,使鉏麑贼之。 (晋灵公)仍旧不改。赵宣子多次进谏。晋灵公很厌恶他,(就)派鉏麑(去)刺杀他。 3.晨往,寝门辟矣,盛服将朝。尚早,坐而假寐。 (鉏麑)清早赶去,看到卧室的门已打开了。(赵宣子)已穿戴整齐准备上朝,由于时间还早,端坐在那里打瞌睡。 4.公嗾夫獒焉。明搏而杀之。盾曰:“弃人用大,虽猛何为!”斗且出。提弥明死之。 晋灵公唤出那条猛犬向赵盾扑去。提弥明徒手搏击猛犬,把它打死了。赵盾说:?不用人而使唤狗,即使凶猛,又顶得了什么??一面搏斗,一面退出宫门.提弥明为赵盾战死(殉难)。 5.初,宣子田于首山,舍于翳桑。 当初,赵宣子在首阳山打猎,在翳桑住了一晚。 6.使尽之,而为之箪食与肉,置诸橐以与之。既而与为公介,倒戟以御公徒,而免之。 (赵盾)要他吃光,并给他预备一筐饭和肉,放在袋子里送给他。不久灵辄做了晋灵公的甲士,却把戟掉过头来抵御灵公手下的人,使赵盾得免于难。 7.对曰:“子为正卿,亡不越竟,反不讨贼,非子而谁?” (太史)回答说:?您是正卿,逃亡没有越过国境,回来后又不声讨叛贼,弑君的不是您又是谁?? 《求谏》 1.朕每闲居静坐,则自内省,恒恐上不称天心,下为百姓所怨。但思正人匡谏,欲令耳目外通,下无怨滞。又比见人来奏事者,多有怖惧,言语致失次第。寻常奏事,情犹如此,况欲谏诤,必当畏犯逆鳞。 我每当无事静坐,就自我反省。常常害怕对上不能使上天称心如意,对下被百姓怨恨。只想得到正直忠诚的人匡救劝谏,好让我的视听能和外边相通,使下面没有积怨。此外近来见到来奏事的人,常显得心怀恐惧,连讲话也变得语无伦次.平时奏事,情况尚且如此,何况要折面谏诤,必然害怕触犯逆鳞. 2.臣闻木从绳则正,后从谏则圣。是故古者圣主必有争臣七人,言而不用,则相继以死。陛下开圣虑,纳刍荛,愚臣处不讳之朝,实愿罄其狂瞽。

文化英语翻译精编版

文化英语翻译 GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-

Unit1 中国丝绸 中国是丝绸的故乡。栽桑、养蚕、缫丝、织绸是中国古代人民的伟大发明。商周时期(前1600——前256)丝绸的生产技术就已发展到相当高的水平。西汉(前206——公元25)时张蹇通西域,把中元与波斯湾、地中海紧密联系起来,开辟了中外交流贸易的新纪元。从此中国的丝绸以其卓越的品质、精美的花色和丰富的文化内涵闻名于世,成为中国文化的象征、东方文明的使者。 Chinese Silk China is the home of silk. Mulberry planting, sericulture, silk reeling and thickening are all great inventions of the ancient Chinese. As early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (1600-BC256BC), the Chinese people’s silk-weaving techniques had reached an extremely high level. During the Western Han Dynasty(206BC-25AD),Zhang Jian ,an outstanding diplomat ,traveled around central Asia and connected China with the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean, opening up a new era of Sino-foreign trade, exchange and communication. From then on, China’s silk became well known for its extraordinary quality, exquisite design and color , and abundant cultural connotations. Hitherto, Chinese silk has been accepted as a symbol of Chinese culture and the emissary of oriental civilization.

中国文化英语翻译

Unit1 中国丝绸 中国是丝绸的故乡。栽桑、养蚕、缫丝、织绸是中国古代人民的伟大发明。商周时期(前1600——前256)丝绸的生产技术就已发展到相当高的水平。西汉(前206——公元25)时张蹇通西域,把中元与波斯湾、地中海紧密联系起来,开辟了中外交流贸易的新纪元。从此中国的丝绸以其卓越的品质、精美的花色和丰富的文化内涵闻名于世,成为中国文化的象征、东方文明的使者。 Chinese Silk China is the home of silk. Mulberry planting, sericulture, silk reeling and thickening are all great inventions of the ancient Chinese. As early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (1600-BC256BC), the Chinese people’s silk-weaving techniques had reached an extremely high level. During the Western Han Dynasty(206BC-25AD),Zhang Jian ,an outstanding diplomat ,traveled around central Asia and connected China with the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean, opening up a new era of Sino-foreign trade, exchange and communication. From then on, China’s silk became well known for its extraordinary quality, exquisite design and color , and abundant cultural connotations. Hitherto, Chinese silk has been accepted as a symbol of Chinese culture and the emissary of oriental civilization. Unit 2 中国园林 中国园林是把人造的山水、植物、建筑等与自然地貌有机结合的环境艺术,是我国古代建筑艺术的珍宝。其建造原则是“妙极自然,宛自天开”。游赏中国古典园林,能充分领略“假自然之景,创山水真趣”的园林意境。在世界三大园林体系中,中国园林历史悠久、内涵丰富,被誉为世界造园史上的渊源之一。 Chinese Classical Garden The Chinese classical garden is a precious treasure of our ancient Chinese architecture. It is a kind of environment art, which systematically combines artificial mountains and rivers, plants and buildings with the natural landscape. The construction standard of a Chinese classical garden is “artificial as it is, the garden must look ingenious and natural.” When you go sightseeing in a Chinese classical garden, you should be able to appreciate its artistic concept which “makes use of the natural landscape to create the real fun of mountains and rivers foe viewers.” Of the world’s three major garden systems, the Chinese classical garden is hailed as one of the origins of the world’s garden due to its long history and abundant connotations. Unit3 文房四宝 笔墨纸砚是中国古时文人书房当中必备的宝贝,被称为“文房四宝”。用笔墨书写绘画在中国可追溯到五千年前。秦(前221——前206)时已用不同硬度的毛和竹管制笔;汉代(前206——公元220)以人工制墨代替了天然墨;有了纸张以后,简牍锦帛逐失使用;砚台则随笔墨的使用而发展。“文房四宝”到宋朝(960——1279)以后特指湖笔(浙江湖州)、徽墨(安徽徽州)、宣纸(安徽宣州)、端砚(广东肇庆,古称端州)。可以说文房四宝书写了整个中华文明。 The Four Treasures of the Study

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中级翻译之一(文化与翻译)

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翻译与文化经典

中央民族大学本科生学年论文 2016年12月14日 中国佛经翻译的阶段以及特点

中国佛经翻译的阶段以及特点 中国历史上最早的翻译是对佛经的翻译,这也是中国首次吸取外来文化的开始。佛经的翻译给我们今后的翻译事业有很大影响,而且一定的程度上影响了我国的文学语言以及相关语法。佛教创立于公元前六至五世纪的古印度,早在公元65年之前就传入了中国。我国的佛经翻译一般可以分为四个重要的阶段(草创时期、发展时期、全盛时期、结束时期)。[1] 一草创时期(东汉桓帝公元148年--西晋公元316年) 这个时期大量的佛经开始被翻译成汉文,此阶段的主要翻译高僧有安清大师、支娄迦谶(chen)等。安清大师所翻译的主要是小乘佛教的基本教义与修行方法,偏向于直译。而支娄迦谶所翻译的都是大乘佛教的教义,为确保原文的真实面目,他的译作大多数是音译。他们翻译的风格是“义理明晰、文字允正、辩而不华、质而不野”,“辞职多胡音”,“好简略,从文丽”。那时的翻译方式全凭口授,通过听外僧的诵经,一个人把它口译成汉语,另一人或几个人听口译后撰写成汉字,之后再进一步的修改。 这时期的主要译作有《大安般守意经》、《人本欲生经》,《般若道行经》十卷、《般舟三昧经》二卷等。并且很多在后来的佛经翻译史上具有重要的地位。这期间的佛经翻译特点可以分为四个层 面。第一是,翻译佛经的主要力量是外籍僧人和滑稽胡裔僧人,而汉族信徒为辅助力量。也就是说外籍僧人主译,汉族信徒为辅。 第二是,译经僧侣对佛教经典抱有虔敬态度,唯恐违背经旨。又因经

验不足,缺乏语言学方面的知识,一般都采用直译法。第三是,佛经翻译活动还只是民间私人事业。第四是,作为外来的唯心主义神学,与中国神仙方术相结合。 佛经翻译的起步期和萌芽时期,也正是中国史上的翻译事业的开始时期。 二发展时期(东晋公元317年-隋末公元617年) 从东晋至隋末期间是佛经翻译的第二阶段,时间大约为公元317—617年,也就是中国佛经翻译的发展阶段。十六国时期,佛教盛行。不仅归因于统治者的提倡,也因为常年战事连连,人民流离失所,生活困苦不堪,无力反抗之余,不得不寻求精神寄托。南北朝时期的统治者为了巩固他们的统治,极力扶植佛教,到处兴建寺庙,因此译经事业在这段时期十分兴盛。在这样的背景下出现了释道安,鸠摩罗什,彦宗,真谛等很多著名的译僧。他们的主要译作是:注《般若道行》、《迷迹》、《安般》、《摩河般若》、《妙法莲华》等;著《天竺记》、《西域传》、《大隋西国传》、《辩证论》等;译《弥勒下生经》一卷、《仁王般若经》一卷以及《疏》六卷等。他们几位译僧是最早实践翻译的“信、达、雅”,也是最早实现了翻译的几个重要的标准。且他们的实践对后来的翻译史上有了很大的影响。这期间的翻译高僧们的翻译风格是“五十本,三不易”、“有天然西域之语趣”、首倡“译者署名,以负文责”、佛经翻译要例“十条”和佛经译者“八备” 说精于大乘之说。发展时期的翻译不像草创时期一样,外籍高僧是翻译的主要力量,这一时期已经出现了中外高僧译者共译的现象。所以

《中国文化经典研读》课文翻译

《中国文化经典研读》课文翻译 《论语》十则 一、“学而”篇 [原文] 子曰:“君子食无求饱,居无求安,敏于事而慎于言,就有道而正焉,可谓好学也已。” [译文] 孔子说:“君子,饮食不求饱足,居住不要求舒适,对工作勤劳敏捷,说话却小心谨慎,到有道的人那里去匡正自己,这样可以说是好学了。” 二、“为政”篇 [原文]“吾十又五而志于学,三十而立,四十而不惑,五十而知天命,六十而耳顺,七十而从心所欲,不逾矩。” [译文] 孔子说:“我童年学习,到了十五岁时立下了求学的志向,三十岁时学问和处事都可以在社会上立身了。四十岁时学问上的问题都能清楚明白,立身处事有坚定的原则,不会被外界左右。五十岁时我知道了天命,知道了天给予我的使命职责和命运。六十岁时我听到顺耳话能够分辨是非,听到逆耳话能够理解他人,对各种人的各种话都能分辨取舍。七十岁时我的心灵和行为都达到了自由王国的境地,行随心至,从不越过仁的规范。” 三、“公冶长”篇 2、吾十有五而志于学,三十而立,四十而不惑,五十而知天命,六十而耳顺,七十而从心所欲,不踰矩。 (1)重点字词 有:通“又”。于:在。立:自立。不惑:遇事不疑惑。 天命:指不能为人力所支配的事情。 耳顺:对此有多种解释。一般而言,指对那些于己不利的意见也能正确对待。 从:遵从,随。踰:逾,越过。矩:规矩。 (2)翻译:先生说:“我十五岁立志学习;三十岁能够自立;四十岁遇事不疑惑;五十岁懂得了天命;六十岁能正确对待各种言论,不觉得不顺;七十岁能随心所欲,但不超越规矩。” [原文] 颜渊季路侍。子曰:“盍各言尔志?”子路曰:“愿车马衣轻裘与朋友共,蔽之而无憾。”颜渊曰:“愿无伐善,无施劳。”子路曰:“愿闻子之志。”子曰:“老者安之,朋友信之,少者怀之。” [译文] 颜回、子路侍立在孔子身旁(颜渊:名回,字子渊。季路:名由,字子路或季路)。孔子说(子:男子的尊称,这里指孔子):“何不各自谈谈你们的志向呢(盍:何不)”子路说:“愿将我的车马、衣服和朋友共同享用(衣[轻]裘:泛指衣服。“轻”字为衍文,是因《论语?雍也》中有“衣轻裘”而误衍。“裘”:本指皮衣。共:动词:指共同享用),用坏了也不抱怨(敝之:指把车马、衣裘用破,用坏。敝:使动用法。憾:抱怨,不远)。”颜渊说:“(我)想的不是夸耀自己的好处[轻声](伐:夸耀),不夸大自己的功劳(施:张大,夸大)。” 子路说:“愿意听听您老人家的志向。”孔子说:“老年人,使他们安逸;平辈的人(朋友),使他们信任我;年轻人,使他们归依我(安、信、怀:都作使动用,宾语‘之’分别指代‘老者’、‘朋友’、‘少者’。安:安逸。怀:归依 四、“雍也”篇

文化与翻译

从英汉互译看文化与翻译 摘要:在英汉互译中,文化始终是翻译的一大障碍,对源语与译语文化掌握的好坏,直接影响着译作的好坏。翻译不仅仅是两种语言之间简单的互换,更是两种文化的交流。如果忽视文化对翻译的作用和影响,译文是绝不可能成功的。 关键词:英汉互译;源语文化;译语文化;文化交流 Abstract:In the translation of Chinese to English and English to Chinese, culture is always a big barrier for tranlation. The level of grasp of culture of original language and target language, directly influences the quality of tranlation works. Translation is not only the exchange of two linguistic forms but the interaction of two cultures. If the influence of culture to tranlation is neglected, the translation won’t be successful. Key words:English-Chinese translation;original language culture;target language culture;cultural exchange

一、前言 我国的翻译史最早可以追溯到东汉时期的佛经翻译,到现在已经有几千年的历史了。在历史上也出现了几次翻译高潮,而每一次翻译高潮的出现都总是与所处的时代背景密不可分。随着时代的发展,翻译的观念、方法、风格、标准都在改变、演进。如今翻译界对翻译中涉及到的文化问题越来越重视了。“翻译已不再仅仅被看做是语言符号的转换,而是一种文化转换的模式。”(郭建中, 2000)。张今先生曾给翻译下过这样一个定义:“翻译是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具,它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和文化进步,它的任务是要把原作品中包含的现实世界的逻辑映象或艺术映象,完好无缺地从一种语言中译到另一种语言中去。”从这个定义中我们可以看出翻译就是在进行两种文化的交流(王小凤,2004)。 二、翻译中的文化因素 谈到翻译,就必然会涉及到语言,语言是人们进行翻译的基本工具。翻译中的文化问题主要是通过语言表现出来的。“语言是文化的有机组成部分,而且是极为重要的一部分;它记录着人类文化发展的历史,反映着社会文明进步的成果,是交流、传播、延续和发展文化的工具;文化是语言活动的大环境,各种文化因素都必然体现在语言文字之中。”(包惠南,2001) 何谓文化,不同的人给予它不同的定义。但归纳起来就是“文化是指人类社会进步文明的全部成果”(包惠南,2001)。它体现在人类生活的各个方面,不同民族的人由于价值观念、宗教信仰、所受教育影响的不同,因此在许多方面都有着自己特殊不同的一面。而这些不同的方面就是要在翻译中解决的文化问题。由于不同民族的人有着不同的价值观、宗教信仰以及不同的身体体验,因而在对事物的看法上就会有不同的观点。 人们常说,要掌握两种语言,必须掌握两种文化。对于一个翻译工作者来说,那就更是如此了。一个人的语言无时无刻都在反映着他所在民族的文化。早在18世纪,伏尔泰在《论史诗》中就对西欧各主要民族的语言进行过比较,他写道:“从写作的风格来认出一个意大利人,一个法国人,一个英国人或一个西班牙人,就像从他们的面孔的轮廓,他发音和他的行动举止来认出他的国籍一样容易。”(马奇,1987)。每个民族的思维、心理都可能在他们语言的运作中反映出来。茅盾1954年在全国文学翻译工作会议的报告中曾经指出翻译过程中应注意的问题,他说:“好的翻译,自然不是单纯技术性的语言外形的变易,而是要求译者通过原作的语言外形,深刻地体会了原作者的艺术创作过程,把握住原作的精神,在自己的思想、感情、生活体验中找到最适合的印证,然后运用适合于原作风格的文学语言,把原作的内容与形式正确无遗地再现出来。”因此,对于一个译者来说,他除了要掌握本民族的文化外,还要深人了解、掌握译语民族的文化,从而使所议内容更忠实于原文。译者在翻译一些作品时,就要充分考虑到源语中的文化渊源,并且考虑到这种文化内涵对于译语民族的人来说是否熟悉,从而采取不同的翻译方法(乔曾锐,2000)。如“东施效理”的英译,由于该成语典故性强,常常难为外国读者所理解,因此对它予以介绍是必要的,《新世纪汉英大词典》的处理是Dongshi, ugly woman, knitting her brows in imitation of the famous beauty Xishi, only to make herself uglier----blind imitation with ludicrous effect.但在一定的上下文中常使用直译另加注的办法,如“难道这也是个痴丫头,又是颦儿来葬花不成?因而又自笑到

翻译与文化环境

摘要:20世纪80年代以来,翻译的文化学派提出了翻译理论研究的“文化转向”。本文试图通过运用操纵与改写理论对《牛虻》的两个译本进行分析,探讨文化环境对翻译产生的深远影响。 关键词:文化转向;勒菲维尔;操纵与改写理论;牛虻 作者简介:王伟浩,男,天津外国语大学英语翻译理论与实践研究生。 [中图分类号]:h315.9 [文献标识码]:a [文章编号]:1002-2139(2016)-21--01 一、《牛虻》在不同文化环境下的解读 《牛虻》是随1953年李?z民的译本第一次传入中国,牛虻的英雄形象给读者留下深刻的印象,《牛虻》继而成为一部经典的革命小说,畅销中国。当时新中国建国伊始,社会百废待兴,文学翻译与创作也受到很大的影响。当时有很多革命题材的小说被引进中国。李?z民曾在《牛虻》译本前言中写道: 我的文学翻译选题的原则与信念就是:英――烈――传,也就是把外国文学作品中反映了阶级斗争和民族解放斗争中推动社会与历史进步的英烈人物形象的优秀作品,翻译介绍给我国读者,特别是青少年读者。 《牛虻》翻译的风格十分符合当时我国倡导的革命精神。《牛虻》出版后,团中央把李?z 民的译本作为优秀读物推荐给广大共青团员阅读。为了加深读者对《牛虻》的理解并让其在中国得到认可,各种机构组织如图书馆和文化中心通过举办文学演讲来讨论《牛虻》。赞助人系统内的官方媒体,对《牛虻》的传播起到了积极的推动作用。 庆学先的译本给了读者一种不同的理解。《牛虻》蕴含的独特的西方文化内容也被学者所发掘,并意识到其价值,进而将其中的独特内容表达出来。文学与政治逐渐脱离开来,取得了相对独立的位置,大批被视为资产阶级情调的书籍都能散见于各大书店。由于市场经济的不断发展,独立的出版商与赞助机构也相继出现,文学作品、作家、出版社可以不再完全依靠国家赞助人,而相对独立地运作。也就是说,只要文学作品本身有价值,得到读者认可,还是有赞助机构愿意出版的。在此背景下,庆学先的《牛虻》译本便由漓江出版社出版发行。而且从前言中,我们也能看译者作为“专业人士”翻译思想的转变: 由于历史原因,《牛虻》影响了一代中国青年,曾被当做政治教科书一样对待。尽管时代不同了,小说仍值得一读。读者仍然可以找到他们所想要的。读者不仅能感受强烈的影响主义,更能找到一种伟大的精神。最后读者将会找到一个全新的主题。 二、“三要素”理论下的两个译本对比分析 勒菲维尔指出:翻译总是在一个大的文化环境下发生的,总是脱离不了原文本所产生的历史背景,也脱离不了目标文本的时代背景。上世纪50年代中苏关系正处于蜜月期,《牛虻》在苏联的极高声誉必定会为其进入中国打下了很好的基础。 小说的主题是其灵魂所在,不同文化背景与意识形态下,小说主题的思想解读会大相径庭。李?z民的译本将主题放在“革命与战斗”上,而庆学先的译本则强调“爱情与人性”。 上文提到,诗学有两个层面:一是文学策略、类型、主题原型特征和状态以及符号的集合,二是文学在整个社会系统中的角色或者说是应该扮演的角色。勒菲维尔认为诗学的边界超越语言、民族和政治实体。一个时代的主流诗学要么被译者本身接受,要么个人、团体和体制通过某种强制性措施将某种诗学作为一种尺度。为了使外国作品更加为目标文化所接受,译者往往调整原文本以适应目标文化的诗学观。20世纪50年代,主流诗学受控于政治,为政治服务,形成所谓的文学“样板戏”。而21世纪,文学不再受到严格的限制,可以较大程度上做回自己。语言、形式。风格与其他文学元素在文学作品中的重要性被凸现出来。 勒菲维尔的“三要素”理论将赞助人分为“分化型赞助人”和“非分化型赞助人”。20

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