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大学生英语写作必备知识

1.记叙文的展开

(1) Considering purpose and audience: keep in mind that your story should deal with an event or

a topic that will appeal to your audience.

(2) Development through prewriting: freewriting is a helpful prewriting technique. As you think about the story you want to relate, many ideas will crowd into your mind.

(3) Development through revising.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

2.描写性文章的展开：选准话题，考虑读者

The main purpose of a descriptive essay is to make readers see or hear, taste, smell or feel—what you are writing about. Vivid details are the key to descriptive essays, enabling your audience to picture and experience what you describe. As you start to think about your own descriptive essay, choose a topic that appeals to at least one of your senses. When selecting your topic, consider how much your audience already knows about it. Once you have selected your topic, focus on the goal or purpose of your essay.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

3.写作前的准备工作，应该考虑的一些问题

(1)Understanding the nature and length of an assignment;

(2)Knowing your subject;

(3)Knowing your purpose and audience;

(4)Determining your point of view;

(5)Using peer review;

(6)Doing a personal review.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

4.修改短文遵循四个原则

(1)Unity;

(2)Support;

(3)Coherence;

(4)Sentence skills.

If you advance a single point and stick to that point, your paper will have unity; if you support the point with specific evidence, your paper will have support; if you organize and connect the specific evidence, your paper will have coherence; if you write clear, error-free sentences, your paper will demonstrate effective sentence skills.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

5.写作时要评估读者已有知识

When writing an essay, try to remember that your instructor is not the only member of your audience. Although the instructor is often the only person who will read the finished product, customizing a paper to his or her level of knowledge can run the risk of leaving out important

information, since many instructors know more about your topic than the average reader would. In addition, omitting information that your instructor already knows can result in a weak or unbalanced paper. However, if you assume that your reader is less knowledgeable than you, you are likely to provide more details and better explanations, which usually results in a much stronger paper.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

6.任务描写的两个目的

Generally speaking, the objective of describing a person is twofold: to portray the person vividly so that readers can imagine what he or she looks like, and to show how the person is significant in your life. Although your writing will reveal something about yourself and your relationship with the person, the focus should remain fixed on the person you are describing—physical appearance, typical behavior, way of speaking, specific anecdotes, etc. For example, suppose that you want to write a descriptive essay about your grandfather. You decide to write about his physical appearance and ways of living. To achieve this, you might describe his rough and gnarled4 hands, a result of his lifelong labor, but you might also describe how he would hold your hands so gently with his rough hands when having a conversation or taking a walk with you.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

7.倒着读，检查文章

Proofreading means checking the final, edited draft of your paper closely for typos and other careless errors. A helpful strategy is to read your paper backward, from the last sentence to the first. This helps keep you from getting caught up in the flow of the paper and missing small mistakes.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

8.写记叙文时要注意事件时长

When you write a personal narrative, the duration of the event about which you’re writing becomes a raw resource; you can use it, alter it, and control it. Of course, you could write a “straight” narrative that sticks closely to chronological time, but very few narrative topics work well this way. Think about it: you can read the body paragraphs of a 600-word essay in less than five minutes. Do you want to write your essay about a five-minute life experience? Perhaps, but searching for such a topic would truly restrict your opportunities.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

9.描述过往经验的意义

Why do we write about our past experiences? Perhaps out of nostalgia for the past, or perhaps to make sense of the past. When we write about significant events in our lives, we come to know ourselves better, bringing into focus what’s truly important to us and clarifying our beliefs and values. We also examine the forces—within ourselves and in our social structures—that have shaped our lives. In a word, a personal experience essay can help us explore, deepen, and complicate our perceptions of the world.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

10.名言引用

法国思想家、散文家Montaigne 曾说：“I quote others in order the better to express my own self.”。在英语写作中，恰当地引用至理名言来证明自己文章中的观点更具有说服力，可以使问题和观点的阐述更为深刻有力，有时会取得画龙点晴的效果。引文一定要准确无误，与内容紧密相关，不能断章取义、牵强附会，并要正确地使用标点符号。如果用引语来证明自己的观点，就需要通过转述动词(reporting verb) 用不同的短语和从句把引语自然流畅地融入到自己的论点表述中。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

11.程序描述

程序描述是描写和叙述一系列导致某一特定结果的连续发生的过程，即在一段时间内根据事情发生的先后顺序，或者应该遵循的程序或步骤逐步描述。这种段落扩展方法也称为“how to paragraph”或“process paragraph”，常为科技文章所采用，主要描述实验、生产、操作和制造等具体清晰的过程。

在使用这种方法时，应注意动词的时态和语态。程序描述由于客观性较强，多使用被动语态。在描述一个过程或一个步骤时，经常用现在时的被动语态，这是一种最基本的描述。当报告一个过去的特定程序时，常常用过去时的被动语态。如果描述不涉及过程或步骤，常用一般现在时的主动语态。在叙述一个过程时，偶尔也用一般过去时的主动语态。注意在描述一个过程或报告一个程序时，次第顺序是非常重要的，信号词如first，second，next，finally 等常用于这种类型的描述。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

12.段落扩展

段落的扩展就是围绕段落主题句，用重要和相关的细节材料对段落的主题加以阐述、论证、说明或引申。段落扩展的方法有许多种，比较常用的有10 种：描述、定义、例证、划分与分类、比较与对照、因果关系、论证、图表数据、引证和综合法。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

13.文章结构和注意事项

大部分文章都由开篇、主干、结尾三部分组成。通常开篇（引言）和结尾（结论）只需一个段落，而主干往往需要数个段落。

开头的段落（引言）要引人入胜，要能够激起读者对文章的兴趣、关注和好奇心，或提供必要的背景知识。撰写文章的开篇往往是最难的，作者必须想好从何处说起，向哪个方面展开。文章的中间部分（即主干）应条理清楚地摆出作者的观点和实例。主干通常由数段组成，段落的先后次序取决于文章的主题或类型。如叙述文可以按照时间顺序排列，而说明文的段落往往按照观点的重要性来排列，把次要的放在前面，重要的放在后面，最重要的应在最后出现。也就是说，用递进的方法使文章在高潮中结束。

结尾段落主要是重申或总结讨论过的要点，不再提出新的观点或问题。收尾部分应内容充实，简短有力，应能画龙点睛，发人深省。开头和结尾段落最好能互相呼应，如在开头的段落提出一个问题，在结尾的段落应给出答案。

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

14.作文类型概述

描写文主要写的是外观和情感，记叙文写的是事件和经历。而说明文所涉及的主要是过程和关系。人们描述某物的外观时，要用描写文，但是要讲解此物是如何制作的，如何使用，可能如何变化时，就要用说明文了。记叙文谈论一个历史事件时，应叙述事件本身，事件发生的时间、地点以及与事件有关的人物。说明文讨论的则是事件发生的原因及后果，其性质和历史意义。

在动笔前应做好充分的准备。写作犹如盖房，通常建筑工人在动工前手头都有蓝图并准备好了足够的材料。写作者在下笔前也应事先有个规划，同时要收集足够的资料。

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

15.如何修改和编辑句子

When revising sentences in a paper so that they flow smoothly and clearly, you need to edit the paper for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, mechanics, usage, and spelling. Here are the most common methods:

(1)Write complete sentences rather than fragments;

(2)Do not write run-ons;

(3)Use verb forms correctly;

(4)Make sure that subject, verbs, and pronouns agree;

(5)Eliminate faulty modifiers;

(6)Use pronoun forms correctly;

(7)Use capital letters where needed;

(8)Use the following marks of punctuation correctly: apostrophe, quotation marks, comma, semicolon, colon, hyphen, dash, parentheses;

(9)Use correct manuscript form;

(10)Eliminate slang, clichés, and pretentious words;

(11)Check for possible spelling errors;

(12)Eliminate careless errors.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

16.如何变换句型

The following are four methods you can use to revise simple sentences, making them more complex and sophisticated:

(1)Add a second complete thought (coordination);

(2)Add a dependent thought (subordination);

(3)Begin with a special opening word or phrase;

(4)Place adjectives or verbs in a series.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

17.如何修改句子

The following strategies will help you to revise your sentences effectively:

(1)Use parallelism;

(2)Use a consistent point of view;

(3)Use specific words;

(4)Use active verbs;

(5)Use concise words;

(6)Vary your sentences.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

18.好作文的标准

作文和段落一样，应该具有一致性，也就是说，文中所有的事例、观点都涉及并有助于表达文章的论题或中心思想。无关的内容，尽管有趣，也应割舍。人们在说话、做报告时可以离题插几句与主题无关的话，但是写作时不可如此。

作文的各个段落都应该有各自的中心思想，段落的安排顺序应该合乎逻辑，这样文章才能成为有机的整体。文章如何展开取决于题材和体裁，一个办法是按照段落表达的观点的重要性来安排，把最重要的放在最后，文章以高潮收尾。

写文章和绘画一样，各部分的比例应协调。主要的事例、观点所占篇幅应大于次要的事例、观点。文章中间的主干部分大约占全文篇幅的70%~ 80%比较合适。开篇和结尾固然重要，但须简洁。好作文应该有重要、有趣、新鲜的内容，而且语言表达清楚、准确、得体。——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

19.段落描写

一个段落恰如一篇微型文章，它应该具有一致性、内容连贯并且展开得法。一致性指段落中的各句都紧紧围绕同一个中心或主题。如有必要另辟主题则须重起一段。内容连贯要求文字条理清晰，层次结构清楚，句与句之间有内在的逻辑关系。另外，一个展开得法的段落应运用一种或几种恰当的展开方法。要展开一个段落，方法有多种，如通过比较和对比展开，或按过程顺序展开，等等。

段落需要事先设计好：

首先，要定下一个主题或一个中心意思，并用一句完整的话表达出来（即主题句）；

其次，选择有助于阐述这一中心意思的细节、例子或事实；

最后，把这些细节按逻辑顺序排好。有了这个大纲，段落的初稿就完成了一半。

段落的展开有多种方式。比如，可以按时间顺序，或按过程、空间顺序来叙述；或通过举例、对比、因果、分类等方式来展开段落。

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

20.避免歧义和表达不清楚的句子

When writing a paper, we try to avoid using ambiguous sentences. A paper with vague sentences will leave the reader lost and without a clear understanding of your topic. Instead, our writing should contain specific, concrete details to help the reader visualize what we are discussing and hold the reader’s attention. Using the RENNS model, developed by Lynn Quitman Troyka, c an help us make our writing more specific. RENNS stands for Reasons, Examples, Names, Numbers, and Senses.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

21.用细节呈现胜于用语言描述

To show more than tell is to write in a manner that allows the reader to experience the story through a char acter’s action, words, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the narrator’s summarization. When applying “show more than tell,” the writer unveils the character by what that character says and does. It can be done by writing scenes, describing characters’ actions, revealing character through dialogue, and using the five senses whenever possible. If we say, “Mary had a broken leg,” readers cannot feel anything, but if we describe a bare bone sticking through pale skin, readers experience the pain along with the character. We all know the saying that actions speak louder than words, especially telling words. When done well, showing reveals character and enables readers to feel as if they are part of the event.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

22.用细节呈现胜于用语言描述

To show more than tell is to write in a manner that allows the reader to experience the story through a character’s action, words, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the narrator’s summarization. When applying “show more than tell,” the writer unveils the character by what that character says and does. It can be done by writing scenes, describing characters’ actions, revealing character through dialogue, and using the five senses whenever possible. If we say, “Mary had a broken leg,” rea ders cannot feel anything, but if we describe a bare bone sticking through pale skin, readers experience the pain along with the character. We all know the saying that actions speak louder than words, especially telling words. When done well, showing reveals character and enables readers to feel as if they are part of the event.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

23.结尾的常用方法

Here are common methods of conclusion:

(1) End with a summary and final thought;

(2) Include a thought-provoking question or short series of questions, such as:

A. Why the subject of your paper is important;

B. What might happen in the future;

C. What should be done about the subject;

D. Which choice should be made

(3) End with a prediction or recommendation.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

24.开篇的常用方法

Here are some common methods of introduction:

(1) Begin with a broad, general statement of your topc and narrow it down to your thesis statement;

(2) Start with an idea or a situation that is the opposite of the one you will develop;

(3) Explain the importance of your topic to the reader;

(4) Use an incident or a brief story;

(5) Ask one or more questions;

(6) Use a quotation.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

25.如何写简历

(1) Your resume, along with your letter of application, is your introduction to a potential employer. First impressions count, so make the resume neat!

a. Type the resume on good-quality letter paper;

b. Proofread very carefully for sentence skills and spelling mistakes;

c. Be brief and to the point;

d. Use a model format;

e. Start with your most recent education or employment.

(2) Your resume should point up strengths, not weaknesses;

(3) You can list the names of your references directly on the resume. Be sure to get the permission of people you cite before listing their names.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

26.避免固化思维的方法

Another way to escape from fixed ways of thinking is track switching. Similar to changing the entry point, track switching is changing from one track or pathway of thinking to another, which can be anything from a reversal to merely a changed entry point, or both. More specifically, you follow one track of thinking and then deliberately let your brain switch directions by changing the track or the entry point. Try to switch tracks as often as you can in problem-solving processes.

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

27.创意思维中的反推法

The reversal method in creative thinking is about generating ideas in the opposite direction, and no one says it better than de Bono (1970): “In the reversal method one takes things as they are and then turns them round, inside out, upside down, back to front. Then one sees what happens. It is a provocative rearrangement of information. You make water run uphill instead of downhill. Instead of driving a car the car leads you.”

——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

28.如何写读书报告

How to write a report:

(1) a summary of the work

a. Identify the author and title of the work and include in parentheses the publisher and publication date.

b. Write an informative summary of the materials: condense the content of the work by

highlighting its main points and key supporting points.

(2) you reaction to the work

a. How is the assigned work related to ideas and concerns discussed in the course?

b. How is the work related to problems in our present-day world?

c. How is the work related to your life, experiences, feelings and ideas?

d. Evaluate the merit of the work: the importance of its points; its accuracy, completeness and organization.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

29.如何写摘要

How to summarize an article:

(1) Take a few minutes to preview the work, including the title, the subtitle, first and last several paragraphs and other items;

(2) Read the article for all you can understand the first time through. Do not slow down or turn back. Check or mark main points and key supporting details;

(3) Go back and reread more carefully the areas you have identified as most important;

(4) Take notes on the materials. Concentrating on getting down the main ideas and the key supporting points;

(5) Prepare the first draft of you summary.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

30.转承词语

转承词语不仅在段落内很重要，而且在段落之间也很重要。我们可以把段落之间的转承语看作是链条的连结，通过给两个段落中第二个段落的主题句加转承词语把两个段落连接起来。单个的词、短语或概括上个段落主题思想的从句都可以充当段落间的转承词语。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

31.多样性

句型多样化对好文章来说是不可缺少的。好几句长短相同、结构相似、且用同一个名词或代词作主语的句子连在一起，必然会显得极其单调。为多样化起见，短句和长句，简单句、并列句和复合句，圆周句和松散句都应交叉使用；也可偶尔用一个问句、祈使句或感叹句。——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

32.必要的词不要放在句子中

句中不应有任何不必要的词。只要意思充分表达了，用词越少越好。用词过多只会使意思模糊，而不是更明晰。人们常常用多余的词，所以最好在写完一篇文章后，仔细检查一两遍，看看有没有一些词可删去而又不影响意思的表达。

Wordy: It was blue in color.

It was small in size.

Mary is a quiet and careful woman.

He returned in the early part of the month of August.

Concise: It was blue.

It was small.

Mary is quiet and careful.

He returned in early August.

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

33.连贯性

连贯性是指句子各部分之间具有清楚、合理的联系。句子中的词语和各部分应恰当地衔接，它们之间的关系应十分清楚。不连贯的句子通常有以下几种毛病：平行结构使用有误；代词指代不清楚；修饰语和被修饰语的关系不明确；在人称、数、语态、时态或语气上有混乱之处。

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

34.一致性

对一个有效的句子来说，一致性是其第一特质。一个具有一致性的句子表达单一、完整的思想。它不包含不紧密相关的思想，也不表达本身不完整的思想。

——摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

35.具体细节的重要性

Specific details are valuable in two key ways. First, details excite the reader’s interest. They make writing a pleasure to read, for we all enjoy learning particulars about people, places, and things. Second, details serve to explain a writer’s poi nt. They give the evidence needed for us to see and understand general ideas. The body paragraphs in essays contain only vague generalities, rather than the specific supporting details that are needed to engage and convince a reader.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

36.如何确定一个好论点？

Tips for writing good thesis statements:

(1) Write statements, not announcements: a thesis statement must make a point about a limited subject;

(2) Avoid statements that are too broad: the thesis statement should be focused enough that it can be effectively supported in a five-paragraph essay;

(3) Avoid statements that are too narrow: a thesis statement must be broad enough to require support in an essay;

(4) Make sure statements develop only one idea: the point of an essay is to communicate a single main idea to readers.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

37.确定论点时的常见错误

When writing thesis statements, people often make mistakes that undermine their chances of producing and effective essay. One mistake is to simply announce the subject rather than state a true thesis. A second mistake is to write a thesis that is too broad, and a third is to

write a thesis that is too narrow. A forth error is to write a thesis containing more than one idea. ——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

38.如何修改文章

Here are some quick hints that can help make revision easier. First, set your first draft aside for a while. You can then come back to the draft with a fresh, more objective point of view. Second, work from typed or printed text. You’ll be able to see the paper more impartially in this way than if you were just looking at your own familiar handwriting. Next, read your draft aloud. Hearing how your writing sounds will help you pick up problems with meaning as well as with style. Finally, as you do all these things, add your thoughts and changes above the lines or in the margins of your paper. Your written comments can serve as a guide when you work on the next draft.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

39.构思的技巧

Techniques for prewriting:

(1) Freewriting: to write whatever comes into your mind;

(2) Questioning: to generate ideas and details by asking questions about your subject, such as why? When? Where? Who? and How?

(3) Making a list: to brainstorm and collect ideas and details that relate to your subject;

(4) Clustering: diagramming or mapping, to use lines, boxes, arrows, and circles to show relationships among the idea and details that occur to you;

(5) Preparing a scratch outline: to think carefully about the point you are making, the supporting items for that point, and the order in which you will arrange those items.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

40.自由写作

Freewriting means jotting down in rough sentences or phrases everything that comes to mind about a possible topic. See if you can write nonstop for ten minutes or more. Do not worry about spelling or punctuating correctly, about erasing mistakes, about organizing materials, or about finding exact words. Indeed, explore an idea by putting down whatever pops into your head. If you get stuck for words, repeat yourself until more words come. There is no need to feel inhibited, since mistakes do no count and you do not have to hand in your Freewriting.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

41.创意思维是需要避免感情色彩的

It is imperative that creative thinkers overcome emotional blocks. To do that, as de Bono (1970) points out, is to suspend judgment. First, we need to be aware of the difference between being right and being effective: “Being right means being right all the time. Being effective means being right only at the end.” Second, creative thinking is about being effective: we are allowed to be wrong on t he way as long as we are right in the end. De Bono says “judgment is suspended during the generative stage of thinking in order to be applied during the selective stage. The

nature of the system is such that a wrong idea at some stage can lead to a right o ne later on.”——摘自《英语写作教程—从创新思维到批判思维》

42.大小写的规范都有哪些？

实词、专有名词首字母应大写，而冠词、并列连词（and, or, but, nor, for）、介词除非位于句首，否则应小写。

——摘自《英语写作手册》（中文版）（第二版）

43.如何根据语体风格恰当地措辞？

常用的词可分为三类：正式的、一般的、非正式的。正式的词也可称作学术性的词、文雅的词或“大”词。这类词主要用于正式文体，如学术性或理论性著作、政治和法律文件，以及正式的演讲或报告；一般词汇是人们常用的，并在多种文体中出现的；非正式词主要用于非正式的、不讲究客套的谈话，很少出现于正式文章中。在文学作品中它们主要用来记述人们的想法和对话。这类词一般很短，只有一两个音节。

——摘自《英语写作手册》（中文版）（第二版）

44.保持段落连贯性的方法

保持段落连贯性的两种方法：第一，用转承词语或称转承信号词(transition sig-nals) 表明一个意思是怎样与另一个意思相连的；第二，按照一定的逻辑顺序排列句子，采用何种逻辑顺序应取决于文章的主题和写作目的。最常用的逻辑顺序是时间顺序、空间顺序和主次顺序。在同一个段落写作中，可以把不同的逻辑顺序有机地结合起来。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

45.长句和短句

短句一般令人瞩目；而长句能够准确表达复杂的思想，因为它含有许多修饰语。短句适宜于陈述重要的事实和想法；长句则适宜于解释观点、理论或描写有很多细节的事物。

——摘自《英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

46.从修辞角度看句子

从修辞的角度看，句子有松散句、圆周句和对偶句之分。松散句把主要意思放在次要意思之前，先说最重要的事情，因而读者在看到最初几个词后就知道这句话的主要内容了。圆周句的安排则相反：把最重要的意思放到最后面或靠后的位置上，并且句子的结构直到最后一个词时才完整。对偶句会给人留下深刻的印象，因为它包含相反的意思，而且因节奏和谐而悦耳。对偶句主要用于说明文、辩论文及演说等正式文体中。

——摘自《英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

47.句子结构要分清

按结构划分，句子有简单句、并列句、复合句和并列复合句四种。

简单句中有一个主语和一个谓语动词，但可以有几个宾语、定语或状语。有两个以上主语或谓语动词的句子，即像He and his brother went to town and bought a pile of books 这样的句子，在有的语法书上算简单句，但在有的书上算并列句。短的简单句往往强劲有力，意思尤为清楚，和长句子一起用还会使句式富于变化。

并列句包含两个或更多的独立从句（或简单句）。这些意思相关的独立从句用并列连词（and，but，or 等）连接起来，也可以不用连词而用分号连接。意思相关的各从句不应相互矛盾，

应大致具有同等重要性，并按一定顺序排列。

复合句包含一个主句和一个或更多的从句，主句与从句间用连词来显示它们的关系。从句可以当全句的主语、宾语、表语、定语或状语。一般说来，主句表述主要的意思，从句表述次要的意思。

并列复合句包含至少两个主句和一个从句——即并列句和复合句的组合。

——摘自《英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）

48.应对作文式试题的五大步骤

To write an effective exam essay, follow these five steps:

(1) anticipate ten probable questions

预测10个可能考到的问题

(2) Prepare and memorize an informal outline answer for each question

写下每个问题的答案要点并加以记忆

(3) Look at the exam carefully and do several things

仔细阅卷，牢记几点注意事项

(4) Prepare a brief, informal outline before writing your essay answer

正式作答之前，先写一份简略的回答提纲

(5) Write a clear, well-organized essay

写下条理清晰、构思严密的作文式回答

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

49.论证的策略

Because argumentation assumes controversy, you have to work especially hard to convince readers of the validity of your position. Here are five strategies to help win over readers whose viewpoint may differ from yours:

(1) Use tactful, courteous language: You are attempting to persuade readers to accept your viewpoint. It is important not to anger them by referring to them or their opinions in rude or belittling terms. Keep the focus on the issue you are discussing, not on the people involved in the debate.

(2) Point out common ground: Another way to persuade readers to consider your opinion is to point out common ground— opinions that you share. Find points on which people on all sides of the argument can agree. Readers will be more receptive to your idea once they have considered the ways in which you and they think alike.

(3) Acknowledge differing viewpoints: The earlier you acknowledge the better. Ideally in the introduction. By quickly establishing that you recognize the other side’s position, you get your readers “on board” with you, ready to hear what else you have to say.

One effective technique is to cite the opposing viewpoint in your thesis statement. In the first part of the thesis, you acknowledge the other side’s point; in the second, you state your opinion, suggesting that yours is the stronger viewpoint.

Another effective technique is to use one or two sentences in the introduction to acknowledge the alternative position.

(4) When appropriate, grant the merits of differing viewpoints: Sometimes an opposing argument contains a point whose validity you cannot deny. Then, the strongest strategy is to admit that the point is a good one. You will lose credibility if you argue against something that

clearly makes sense. Admit the merit of one aspect of the other argument while making it clear that you still believe your argument to be stronger overall.

(5) Rebut differing viewpoints: To rebut means to point out problems with an opposing view, to show where an opponent’s argument breaks down.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

50.分类说明文的展开

Developing a division or classification essay:

When writing a division or classification essay, your purpose is to present your audience with your own unique way of dividing and classifying a particular topic. In order to write a successful essay, you will need to first choose a topic that interests readers and lends itself to being divided and classified.

Once you’ve selected your topic and figured out how to divide it, you will need to provide specific details so that readers fully understand the categories you made. Whatever division you make, be sure to include enough details to make your division-classification method clear to your readers. And always keep your audience in mind, so that you can write an essay appealing to them.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

51.要保持段落的整体性

段落写作要遵循一致性或整体性(unity) 原则。Uni—是拉丁语的一个前缀，意思是“one”。段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，段落内容应保持一致, 每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关，那些与主题无关和不能展开论证主题思想的句子应删除，从而形成一个严谨的段落结构。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

52.要注意标点符号

一个完整的句子以大写字母开始，以句号结束。这也是初学者应该记住的一个简单的规则，因为写中文时可用逗号将完整的句子分开。写英文时用逗号代替句号、分号、冒号或破折号叫“逗号错”，这是中国学生需要避免的。

——摘自《英语写作手册》（中文版）（第二版）

53.演绎法与归纳法

主题句的位置比较灵活，通常位于段首, 其优点是开门见山，一目了然。用演绎法(deduction)写的段落也称“扩张法”，就是以概述主题开首，随之辅以细说，即用具体细节或事例来演绎展开主题句中的主题思想。用归纳法(induction) 写段落也称作“收拢法”，从细节出发，最后归纳到段落的中心论点。用此种方法写作时，主题句一般位于段落的末尾，它是依据上文的细节推出的论点，起到画龙点睛的作用。

主题句有时也位于段落的中间。这种写作方法常用来比较或对比不同的对象。段中主题句起承上启下、使上下文平衡的作用。

为了强化主题，写作时可采用演绎法与归纳法相结合的方法。有时主题句可能会出现在段首而又在段落最后一句重述，前后呼应，两次点题可更加突出段落的主题。这就是所谓的“三明治式结构”(sandwich-style)。如果段落很长，运用这种结构可以给人更深刻的印象，并有助于读者对主题思想的理解。

在有的段落中，主题句甚至不直接写出来，而是通过细节的陈述含蓄地表达出段落的主题思想(implied topic sentence)。实际上它是客观存在的，只是隐含在字里行间，需由读者意会。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

54.写作是一个发现的过程，并非一蹴而就

Writing is seldom an easy, one-step journey in which a finished paper comes out in a first draft. The truth is that writing is a process of discovery involving a series of steps, and those steps are very often a zigzag journey. Very often, writers do not discover just what they want to write about until they explore their thought in writing.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

55.文章的构成

The traditional college essay is a paper of about five hundred words that typically consists of an introductory paragraph, two to four supporting paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. The central idea, or point, developed in any essay is called a thesis statement. The thesis appears in the introductory paragraph, and the specific support for the thesis appears in the paragraphs that follow. The supporting paragraphs allow for a fuller treatment of the evidence that backs up the central point than would be possible in a single-paragraph paper.

——摘自《美国大学英语写作》

56.当一个名词同时带有几个修饰词语时，修饰词语的位置如何排列呢？

在英语中，当一个名词同时带有几个修饰词语时，修饰词语的位置大体可按下列顺序排列：限定词（包括冠词、物主代词、指示代词、不定代词等）→数词→一般描绘性形容词（短词语在前，长词语在后）→表示大小、长短、高低的形容词→表示形状的形容词→表示年龄、新旧的形容词→表示颜色的形容词→表示国籍、地区、出处的形容词→表示物质、材料的形容词→表示用途、类别的形容词→名词中心词。

例如：A tall intelligent young Chinese debater’s eloquent speech particularly attracted the audience’s attention.

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

57.从属法是什么？

把两个意思有联系但并不同等重要的简单句用某种手段连接起来，使一个句子从属于另一个句子，就构成复合句。我们把这一扩展句子的方法称为从属法。从属法可以更准确地表达作者的意图，使句子的表达形式多样化。从属法扩句有三种主要方式：用名词从句扩展用形容词从句扩展和用副词从句扩展。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

58.英文写作参考图书

美国大学英语写作(第六版)

一部全面、系统、实用的英语写作教材

作者：John Langan导读：史宝辉

◎权威：集作者20余年英语写作教学经验之大成，已数次再版，是历经锤炼的经典写作教材

◎系统：详细介绍写作过程，讲解九种作文的写作方法，评析学生习作，并选用名家作品供分析和模仿

◎实用：讲解大学阶段常用体裁的写作，如怎样写文章摘要、学习报告、简历、求职信和研究论文，以及如何查阅资料等

◎便捷：提供各类练习和网上辅助教学资源，便于学习者和教师使用

简明英语写作教程（第三版）

一部简明、实用的英语写作教材

作者：V. R. Narayanaswami导读：丁言仁

◎内容经典：集作者多年讲授英语写作课的经验，自1979年出版以来，多次重印、修订，至今盛销不衰

◎实用性强：针对英语写作的用途分为九个单元——段落、描述和记叙、议论文、信札、笔记、摘要、报告、备忘录、图表应用，讲解主要的修辞手段和实用文体的写作方法和技巧◎方便教学：语言深入浅出，讲解循序渐进，配以范例说明和各种练习；配有中文导学，帮助学习者把握重点

◎注重交际性：强调写作是一种交际行为，鼓励学习者在作文中使用自己的语言、知识和经验

高级实用英语写作

一本丰富实用的英文写作指导手册

作者：DeWitt H. Scott Michael Krigline

本教材由具有丰富写作经验的美籍英语教师编写，引用了资深英文编辑DeWitt Scott 从自己的编辑和写作经验中总结出的英语写作指导原则，为中国学生在实际生活中的成功写作铺平道路。

内容包括写作技巧、写作文体和对中国学生英语写作中普遍性错误的分析和指导，从语言、思维方式和东西方文化差异三个层面阐述了如何在英语写作中克服这些障碍。

新世纪实用英语写作第三版

新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）

作者：张玉娟陈春田邹云敏王青华

《新世纪实用英语写作》是一本全面、系统、实用的英语写作教材，自2003年出版以来，已再版三次，重印数十次，广泛应用于大学本科、研究生英语写作课程中。

本书是大学英语写作课程推荐教材，也是学习者参加英语写作比赛、提高写作水平、培养思辨能力、提升英语综合应用能力的必备参考书。本书配有PPT课件，方便教学。

系统性从句子、段落到篇章，系统阐述英语写作的基本理论和技巧；突出把握主题、立意构思和逻辑论证等内容，强调思辨能力训练。

知识性例句和范文选自英美权威书刊，信息丰富、语言地道。注重传授学习方法和策略，兼顾英美文化知识输入，培养跨文化交际意识。

指导性梳理写作要点，夯实写作基础，提供备考指导。评析全国大学英语四、六级考试、硕

士研究生入学英语考试、全国公共英语等级考试、新托福考试和雅思考试写作真题及范文。实用性讲析信函、简历、个人陈述、备忘录等实用文体，指导科研论文、会议发言、摘要、壁报等学术写作，内容翔实，可操作性强，有助于提高英语应用写作和学术写作能力。

英语写作(句子·段落·篇章) 英语写作规范

英语论文写作英语应用文写作

高等学校英语写作进阶系列

主编：石坚帅培天

“高等学校英语写作进阶系列”提供了从基础阶段到高级阶段、针对不同需求的英语写作学习方案。

◎各分册循序渐进，既可系统学习，亦可独立使用

◎写作知识内容丰富，且融入许多前沿性的教学成果

◎行文采用第一人称，深入浅出，既充分体现人文精神，又使学习者沉浸在英美语言文化的浓厚氛围之中

◎更新写作教学理念，将阅读和写作有机结合, 通过诸多讨论形式，鼓励学习者进行深入思考，真正做到“读有所思，写有所得”

◎练习编排采用“预测—实践—效果检测”三段循环式的科学方法，唤起学习者的求知欲，循序渐进提高写作技能

教材结构：

英语写作—句子?段落?篇章

英语论文写作

英语应用文写作

英语写作规范

研究生英语写作（待出版）

英语写作教程4——创新思维与写前技巧英语写作教程2——细节描写与读者意识

英语写作教程3——中心思想与扩展形式英语写作教程4—批判思维与议论文

英语写作教程

——从创新思维到批判思维（1－4 册）

主编：张在新

本套教材根据北京外国语大学英语学院多年来写作教学的经验和研究成果编写而成。教材遵循通过思维训练来学习写作的全新理念，打破了英语写作教学中纯粹学习语言和结构的传统模式，具有如下突出特点：

◎将创新思维策略与写前构思技巧结合，同时也将批判思维训练渗透到写作阶段，并重点在议论文中运用，为学习者挖掘写作题材、培养和开发创新能力、

◎提高批判思维水平提供一个全新的体验空间

◎采用在实践中学习的教学理念，教学内容的编排遵循由浅入深、精讲多练的原则；课堂练习、课外作业围绕教学的目的和技能而设计

◎编者博客提供适量影视片段、电视公益和商业广告等多媒体材料作为练习的补充，学习者能从日常生活的可视侧面中感受创新思维和批判思维在写作学习中的重要性及实践意义

教材结构：

第一册创新思维与写前技巧Creative Thinking and Prewriting

第二册细节描写与读者意识Writing with Concrete Details for a Specific Audience

第三册中心思想与扩展形式Central Idea and Modes of Development

第四册批判思维与议论文Critical Thinking and Argumentation

英语写作手册(英文版)

英语写作手册（英文版第三版）（中文版第二版）

编著：丁往道吴冰钟美荪郭庆

《英语写作手册》由北京外国语大学资深专家学者根据多年的教学和研究经验精心编写而成，自1984 年推出以来，深受读者欢迎，多次重印，如今印数已超过两百万册。

《英语写作手册》（英文版第三版）由原作者倾力修订，在保留原书经典内容的基础上进行了更新和补充，新增了练习和参考答案，进一步强化学练并重的教学要求，是高校英语专业和非英语专业写作课程的首选教材。

◎系统全面：从文稿格式、选词、造句到篇章、论文、应用文，内容全面、循序渐进，引导学生在系统学习中融会贯通

◎内容丰富：讲解深入浅出，范例典型实用，练习针对性强，附有学生范文，方便比较学习◎讲练结合：理论与实践并重，课上练习、课下作业、参考答案紧密结合、环环相扣，帮助学生在实际运用中稳步提升

《英语写作手册》（中文版第二版）是英文版（第三版）的中文对照版，更方便非英语专业的学生和英语自学者使用。

商务英语写作

主编：胡英坤车丽娟

突出商务写作特点，包括商务信函的结构、特点、写作原则和注意事项，提供常用句型和表达，帮助学生全面提高商务写作能力与沟通技巧。

科技英语写作

编著：秦荻辉

突出科技英语写作的核心内容，剖析并归纳科技英语写作的词法、句法特征；囊括论文及应用文写作；例文精选自原版科技文献及权威教科书，语言地道，风格自然。

高等学校研究生系列教材实用英语写作

实用英语写作

编著：李健

提供写作实例，涵盖各种体裁的写作方法；包括留学及求职申请、国际学术交流及商务交流写作；写作素材新颖真实。

高级英语写作教程

主编：冀成会

不仅包括基本写作类型，更涵盖便条、请柬等日常应用文写作，以及求职简历、专业论文等实用写作，内容全面，在有效提高学生的写作技能的同时，也关注写作方法和格式

英语专业毕业论文写作

英语专业毕业论文写作（第二版）

主编：穆诗雄

◎全面解析英语专业毕业论文写作的基本知识和写作各阶段的注意事项

◎详细讲解文学、语言学、文化、翻译、教学法五个研究方向论文写作的思路要领

◎提供各个研究方向的学生习作，并配备详细的评析，方便学习者参考

59.主题句和辅助句

在段落中用于概括段落主旨大意的句子，叫做主题句。一个好的主题句能够准确地表达作者的观点或态度。在段落中对主题句起表述作用的句子叫做辅助句。辅助句用来解释、说明或扩展主题句所表述的主题思想。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

60.定语、状语构句规则

按照英语构句规则，充当定语或状语的词、短语或从句必须尽可能地靠近所修饰的成分。如果忽视了这个规则，就会破坏语言表达的科学性和规范性。请看下面句子：

Misplaced Modifiers

●Please give the book to the boy with the blue cover.

●That cat belongs to my neighbor with five kittens.

●George couldn’t drive to work in his small sports car with a broker leg.

以上的例子表明了句中的修饰语就是所谓的误置修饰语，它使句子意思混淆，引起误解，甚至荒谬可笑。

——摘自《新世纪实用英语写作》（第三版）

61.使用具体的词更加利于表达

具体词汇有助于使文章清楚、准确、生动和鲜明，因为与一般词汇相比，具体词汇的信息量更大，表达力更强。

General It is often windy and dusty here in spring.

Specific In spring there is often a very strong northwest wind. It carries so much fine dust with it that sometimes the sun becomes obscure. There is no escape from the fine dust; it gets into your eyes, your ears, your nostrils, and your hair. It goes through the cracks of closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.

——摘自《英语写作手册》（中文版）（第二版）

62.如何使用习语

习语是有特殊意思的固定短语，其意思和组成这个习语的各个词的意思大不相同。

习语常用于发言和文章中，使得语言自然、地道。外国学生在使用习语时应注意两点：1）大多数习语用于非正式或口语化文体，谈话时可用；但少数是俚语，应慎用，如all balled up （使……变得紊乱/一团糟），to cough up（勉强说出或供出）；2）很多习语由于用得太多而

不再新鲜有趣，如armed to the teeth，as good as gold，因而以少用为宜。

——摘自《英语写作手册》（中文版）（第二版）

63.修辞格是什么

词可以有两种使用法：一是按本来的意思使用；一是按引申的意思使用。后一种用法也可说是比喻的或形象的用法，目的在于激发读者或听众的想象。在 a colorful garden 这个短语里，colorful 是按词的本来意思使用的；但在a colorful life 和a colorful career 这两个短语里，colorful 就是比喻的用法了。

1）明喻

明喻用like，as 或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的手法叫明喻。

O my love’s like a red, red rose. —Robert Burns

That man can’t be trusted. He’s as slippery as an eel.

The old man’s hair is as white as snow.

2）隐喻

用一个词来指代与该词本来所指事物有相似特点的另一个事物的手法叫隐喻。这也是一种比较。不过这个比较是暗含的，而不用as 或like 点明。假如彭斯把上面引的那个诗句写成O my love’s a red, red rose，省去原有的like 这个词，他便是用隐喻而不是明喻了。

3）拟人

把事物或概念当作人或具备人的特质的手法，叫拟人。拟人在诗歌中很常见：

Youth is hot and bold,

Age is weak and cold,

Youth is wild, and Age is tame.

—William Shakespeare

4）换喻

用某一事物的名称代替与之密切相关的另一事物名称的手法叫换喻。例如crown可以代替king，the White House 可以代替美国总统或政府，the bottle 可以代替wine 或alcohol，the bar 可以代替the legal profession 等。换喻用得好，则可产生简明生动的效果：

Sword and cross in hand, the European conquerors fell upon the Americans.

When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.

His purse would not allow him that luxury.

5）提喻

指用部分代表整体，或用整体代表部分：

The farms were short of hands during the harvest season.

He had to earn his daily bread by doing odd jobs.

Germany beat Argentina 2 to 1 in this exciting football match.

The poor creature could no longer endure her sufferings.

在上面的例句中，hands 代表人，bread 代表食物或生活费，两个国家名字代表两个球队，creature 代表女人。

换喻和提喻有相似之处：二者都是一种替换，有时它们与隐喻不易区分，因为后者在一定程度上也是一种替换。

6）婉言

即用温和或模糊的表达法替换生硬的或令人不快的表达法，例如：

to die to pass away, to leave us; one’s heart has stopped beating

old people senior citizens

mad emotionally disturbed

dustman sanitation worker

lavatory bathroom, men’s/women’s room

invasion, raid military action

driving inhabitants away pacification

7）反语

这是指与真正的意思明显相反的词，用它的目的在于产生特殊的效果。假定你准备郊游，并且期待天气会很好，但是那天却下大雨。如果你不说天气糟透了，而说What fine weather for an outing! 那就是用反语了。把野蛮的行为称作civilized 或cultural，也是反语。

8）夸大和缩小

前者是把事情说得过分；后者是把分量或程度压低。两者的目的相同，都在于使陈述或描写鲜明、有趣。

She is dying to know what job has been assigned her.

On hearing that he had been admitted to that famous university, he whispered to himself, “I’mthe luckiest man in the world.”

It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.

“He is reall y strange,” his friends said when they heard he had divorced his pretty and loving wife.

9）移位修饰

把修饰语从它本应修饰的名词之前移到与该名词有关的词之前的手法，叫移位修饰。当某人说I’ve had a busy day 时，他就用了这个修辞手段，因为busy 本应修饰人，现在却用来修饰day。

10）矛盾修饰

意思矛盾的词有时可用在一起，以达到加深印象的目的：

The coach had to be cruel to be kind to his trainees.

When the news of the failure came, all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat.

The president was conspicuously absent on that occasion.

11）头韵

两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始，便构成头韵，如proud as a peacock 和blind as a bat。头韵常用于诗中来突出意思上有联系的词：

Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save,

From the cradle to the grave,

Those ungrateful drones who would

Drain your sweat—nay, drink your blood?

1月全国自考英语写作基础试题及答案解析

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话题三：校园生活 be good for 有益于 develop one’s friendship 发展友谊 impress sb a lot 给某人留下深刻印象 it’s always shining inside my heart. 它总是在我的内心里闪耀 benefit a lot from 在---中受益匪浅 sth will last in my heart forever 某事将永存我心 unforgettable experience 难忘的经历 lifelong memory 一生的记忆 in one’s mind 在某人的脑海中 keep sth in one’s heart 将---用存心中 I will treasure it forever 我将永远珍惜 provide opportunities for sb 为---提供机会 cooperate with others 与人协助 gain knowledge through reading 通过阅读获得知识 open up one’s mind 拓展某人的思维 result from--- 源于--- scientific studying methods 科学的学习方法 spoken English 英语口语 on one’s own 独自，靠某人自己 turn out to be 结果证明是--- through this transformation 通过这次的转变 practice makes perfect 孰能生巧 keep on doing sth 坚持做某事 no matter how difficult it is 无论多么困难--- try my best to get over--- 尽力去克服--- No pains, no gains 一份耕耘，一份收获 make efforts to overcome--- 努力战胜--- the best way to do sth is 做某事最好的方法是--- set practical goals 设定切实可行的目标 strengthen ourselves both physically and mentally. 在身体上和精神上增强自己be good at sth 擅长某事 believe in yourself 相信自己 try your best to catch up 尽力赶上 make rapid progress 快速取得进步 as long as 只要 willing to make an effort 愿意付出努力 positive attitude 积极的态度 sth is the power that drives you to success 某事是驱使你成功的力量maintain a positive attitude 保持一个积极的态度 keep us feeling optimistic 让我们感到更加的乐观话题八：个人观点、建议

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