Research in e-HRM Review and implications

Research in e-HRM:Review and implications

Stefan Strohmeier ?

Chair for Management Information Systems,Saarland University,Postfach 151150,66041Saarbrücken/Germany

Abstract

This article reviews current empirical work on electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM)and discusses some implications for future research.Based on a definition and an initial framework the review analyzes the used theories,the employed empirical methods,the chosen levels of analysis,the examined topics,and the revealed findings.The review reveals an initial body of work from several disciplines,that is mainly non-theoretical,employs diverse empirical methods,and refers to several levels of analysis and to diverse focal topics of e-HRM.Based on the review some initial theoretical,methodical,and topical implications are discussed in order to support a future research program in e-HRM.

?2006Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Electronic HRM;e-HRM;Virtual HRM;Web-based HRM;Internet;Human resource information system

1.Introduction

The rapid development of the Internet during the last decade has also boosted the implementation and application of electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM).Surveys of HR consultants suggest that both the number of organizations adopting e-HRM and the depth of applications within the organizations are continually increasing (e.g.CedarCrestone,2005).In addition,an escalating number of practitioner reports provide anecdotal evidence that e-HRM is becoming increasingly common and may lead to remarkable changes (e.g.Anonymous,2001).

Consequently,academic interest in e-HRM has increased,as several special issues of HR-related journals demonstrate (Stanton &Coovert,2004;Townsend &Bennett,2003;Viswesvaran,2003).In the interim,there is an initial body of empirical research in e-HRM.However,since this research stems from several disciplines and is scattered throughout numerous journals and since initial reviews are not encompassing (Anderson,2003;Lievens &Harris 2003;Welsh,Wanberg,Brown,&Simmering,2003),the results of these studies remain unclear at present.

The purpose of this paper is therefore to provide a review of this literature and to identify implications for future research that can enhance the understanding of e-HRM.Since it is beyond the scope of this paper,research in adjacent fields,especially in virtual teams (Hertel,Geister,&Konrad,2005)and e-leadership (Avolio,Kahai,&Dodge,2000)is not considered.

After presenting a definition of e-HRM and discussing related concepts in brief,a first framework for systematizing e-HRM related topics is introduced.Subsequently,current empirical research is reviewed.In particular,the

review Human Resource Management Review 17(2007)19–

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doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2006.11.002

20S.Strohmeier/Human Resource Management Review17(2007)19–37

analyzes the theories used,empirical methods employed,the chosen levels of analysis,the examined topics and the findings determined.Based on the review,some initial theoretical,methodical and topical implications are discussed in order to support a future research program in e-HRM.

2.Definition and framework

2.1.Definition

Even though the e-HRM concept is widely used today,1there are hardly any explicit definitions.The few detectable definitions(Lengnick-Hall&Moritz,2003;Ru?l,Bondarouk,&Looise,2004)are rather general and emphasize the Internet-supported way of performing HR policies and/or activities.Leaning on these intensions,the following definition of e-HRM can be specified:

e-HRM is the(planning,implementation and)application of information technology for both networking and supporting at least two individual or collective actors in their shared performing of HR activities.This concept highlights several crucial aspects of e-HRM.At the outset,e-HRM utilizes information technology in a twofold manner:First,technology is necessary to connect usually spatially segregated actors and enable interactions between them irrespective of their working in the same room or on different continents,i.e.technology serves as a medium with the aim of connection and integration.Second,technology supports actors by partially–and sometimes even completely–substituting for them in executing HR activities.Hence,information technology serves additionally as a tool for task fulfillment.The planning aspect accentuates the systematic and anticipated way of applying information technology.The shared performing of tasks through at least two actors'points out that the sharing of HR activities is an additional feature and underlines the aspect of interaction and networking.The consideration of individual and collective actors takes into account that e-HRM is a multilevel phenomenon;besides individual actors,there are collective actors like groups,organizational units and even whole organizations that interact in order to perform HR activities.

Beside e-HR(M),there are some further concepts which obviously refer to the same phenomenon.Widely accepted are such terms as virtual HR(M)(e.g.,Lepak&Snell,1998),web-based HR(M)(e.g.,Ru?l et al.,2004),or business-to-employee(“B2E”)(e.g.,Huang,Jin,&Yang,2004).“Virtual HRM”refers to technological mediated networks of different internal and external actors providing the firm with the HR services needed without the further existence of a conventional HR department which therefore becomes“virtual”.e-HRM is additionally open to less developed varieties of technology application,e.g.the shared performing of an application process by a conventional HR department and an applicant via the Internet.“Web-based HRM”couples the concept to Internet technologies.e-HRM, as well,is particularly web-orientated,but also comprises additional technologies like networked ERP-Systems. Finally,“business-to-employee”reduces the concept to the internal actor categories of“business”(presumably line managers and HR professionals)and“employees”.In contrast,e-HRM is open to further relevant actor categories like applicants or consultants.To sum up,these further terms undoubtedly direct attention to main characteristics of the same phenomenon but are of somewhat narrower intensions.Thus,in order to comprehensively embrace relevant aspects,the e-HRM term is used.

2.2.Framework

At the current stage of research,a general framework matching the above definition and based on insights from previous conceptual work is considered as most appropriate to structure the relevant topics of e-HRM research.In short,the framework distinguishes between context,configuration and consequences of e-HRM,proposing that the configuration will determine the consequences of e-HRM,while both configuration and consequences may be preceded and moderated by contextual factors(see Fig.1).

Any framework should accommodate the fact that e-HRM is a multilevel phenomenon by its very nature.Individual actors are interacting in groups within organizations that interact with other organizations.As the most relevant levels,

1The consultancy Watson Wyatt Worldwide has gained legal protection of the term“eHR”as a trademark.The term“e-HRM”is used within this paper irrespective of possible rights on the part of Watson Wyatt.

the framework generally distinguishes the individual or micro-level and the macro-level of context,configuration and consequences.

At first,contextual factors are obviously of relevance for e-HRM.For instance,on the individual level computer availability,or attitudes of peer groups may constitute relevant contextual factors,while the organizational level may be affected by contextual factors like culture or legal conditions,etc.Since there is no single and standardized version of e-HRM but a variety of practical applications,any framework should be able to capture the range of different configurations.As a minimal model able to map different configurations on different levels,actors,strategy,activities and technology of e-HRM are considered.Actors of e-HRM are all those who (plan,implement and)perform e-HRM,and hence are of vital importance,as e.g.HR professionals,line managers,employees,consultants,applicants,etc.;therefore different actors constitute a configurational component.Besides individual actors on the micro-level,collective actors like groups,organizational units and even whole organization are incorporated on the macro level.e-HRM strategy –as a component of a functional HRM strategy –refers to the establishing of constitutive objectives and the implementation of e-HRM.It therefore builds a central topic to understanding decision processes that lead to certain arrangements.e-HRM activities encompass the single HR functions,like recruiting and selection,training and development,compensation and benefits,etc.that are performed in order to provide and deploy the needed human resources.Though HRM is a non-technical discipline,the technology of e-HRM like portals,self-service systems,etc.should be of interest.In particular,the HR-related properties and functionalities of the employed technology are of interest.Taken together,an analysis of these components and their interactions allows a systematic depiction of any existent e-HRM configuration.

Having mapped the e-HRM context and configuration,the actual consequences of e-HRM,whether helpful or harmful,delineate a crucial aspect.Consequences again occur on the micro-and the macro-level.Micro-level consequences refer to individual impacts like user satisfaction or acceptance.Leaning on previous conceptual work,macro-level consequences can be structured into operational,relational and/or transformational (Snell,Stueber,&Lepak,2002).Operational consequences refer to efficiency and effectiveness outcomes of e-HRM (Lengnick-Hall &Moritz,2003),such as reducing costs or alleviating administrative burdens.Relational consequences emphasize phenomena of interacting and networking of different actors.The transformational consequences aim at fundamental transformations concerning the general scope and the function of HRM,comprising the ability to contribute to overall organizational performance.

In addition,the framework assumes multiple relations within and between context,configuration and consequences as well as between macro-and micro-level.Thus,the existence,kind,direction,etc.of such relationships should clearly be subject to research,too.

3.Review

3.1.Identification of studies

In order to identify empirical studies with e-HRM as main focus,we used a scholarly Internet search engine (https://www.wendangku.net/doc/715906061.html,)and several online data bases (ABI/Inform,Business Source Premier and INFODATA),that cover

all Fig.1.Framework.

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leading journals not only in the fields of human resource and general management but also in information systems,the recently developing field of e-business,as well as industrial and organizational psychology.In total,we used47search terms,beside the main term e-HRM and its variations,mainly activity-oriented terms like e-recruiting,e-learning,etc., and technology oriented terms like HR-portal,employee self service,etc.In addition,reference sections of articles found were searched.

To keep the task manageable and to provide some guarantee of quality research,only studies published in refereed international journals were considered.Work published in books,conference or working papers,etc.was excluded.As the beginnings of e-HRM actually date back a decade,research published since1995was regarded.

Using this procedure,57relevant studies could be identified(a synopsis of the studies can be obtained by contacting the author).Nearly half of the studies found stem from human resource management journals followed by organizational and industrial psychology journals,(management)information systems and general management journals.Thus,as anticipated,there are several disciplines that contribute to e-HRM research.Underlining that e-HRM is a rather new and growing academic field,the vast majority of the studies was published within the last four years.

3.2.Theoretical perspectives

Given different interpretations and assessments of theory,there is an ambiguity concerning theories,frameworks and other phenomenological conceptualizations.Even acknowledging a broad intension of theory,only one-fifth of the studies rest on theoretical bases.Corresponding to the diverse disciplines and topics,the theories employed are also quite diverse.Often,several perspectives are employed in an eclectic manner.

Predominantly,micro-level theories of psychological and behavioral provenance are adopted.Attribution theory and correspondence inference theory(Elgin&Clapham,2004),the attraction–selection–attrition and the similarity–attraction paradigm(Dineen,Ash,&Noe,2002),change management theories(Ruta,2005),organizational citizenship behavior (Huang,Jin,et al.,2004),privacy theories(Harris,van Hoye,&Lievens,2003),procedural justice theory(Dineen,Noe,& Wang,2004),signaling theory(Cober,Brown Levy,&Cober2003),as well as social cognitive theory(Williamson,Lepak, &King,2003)are adopted in order to explain individual perceptions and reactions arising from e-HRM.Additionally,a learning theory is adopted to compare instructor-led and web-based learning(Coppola&Myre,2002).

In addition,some theories stemming from information systems research are used.The technology acceptance model (Huang,Yang,Jin,&Chiu,2004),the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology(Ruta,2005),and the theory of usability(Williamson,Lipak,&King,2003)are used to frame again problems of individual reactions and usage.Also,a conceptual IT-framework is used to structure e-HRM impacts on HR-professionals(Gardner,Lepak,&Bartol,2003).

One single study pursues a microeconomic approach to explain e-employment markets(Nissen&Gates,2004). In brief,current empirical research in e-HRM is mainly non theoretical.The theories applied are micro-level oriented, diverse in nature and often eclectic in application.Interestingly,recognized macro-level theories of HRM(Wright& McMahan,1992)were not considered.The field lacks any leading paradigm.

3.3.Methodological approaches

More than a third of the studies use a survey approach(n=21).All of them are cross sectional.In addition,most of the studies are primary surveys,while one study rests on an already existing population survey(Kuhn&Skuterud, 2000).Besides conventional data collection designs,there are also innovative approaches.For instance,the possibility of polling applicants within an Internet job board was used for collecting data electronically(Jattuso&Sinar,2003). Presumably due to the recency of the field,surveys often are rather descriptive orientated(e.g.,West&Berman,2001), while empirical tests of clearly articulated theories or models are scarce(e.g.,Wiechmann&Ryan,2003).As a rule, studies rely on single source respondents and frequently use perceptual measures.Besides studies that are based on samples of“real”actors such as HR professionals(e.g.,Chapman&Webster,2003),applicants(e.g.,Dineen et al., 2004)or employees(e.g.,Huang,Jin,et al.,2004),there is a larger subset of surveys based on student respondents (e.g.,Harris et al.,2003).These“surrogate samples”elicit critique concerning the external validity of findings (Anderson,2003)and lead to some problems of properly delimitating surveys from experiments.

Next to surveys,a second major approach is case studies(n=16)within one(e.g.,Vaughan&MacVicar,2004)or several organizations(e.g.,Welle-Strand&Thune,2003).As intended by this approach,these studies are mostly exploratory in nature.Since e-HRM constitutes a rather new and unknown field,case studies yield valuable and

deepened insights that again might lack external validity.A single study also combines an initial case study with a final survey (Kinnie &Arthurs,1996).

Third,nearly a quarter of the studies use an experimental approach (n =13).As already mentioned,there are some intersections to the survey approach.Thus,studies are counted as experiments if test persons first use some technical equipment while afterwards completing a survey (e.g.,Braddy,Thompson,Wuensch,&Grossnickle,2003).Since only one experiment does not employ student experimentees (Coppola and Myre,2002),some restrictions concerning external validity remain.

Studies using an action research approach could not be identified.However,by means of prototyping (n =3),i.e.developing exemplary software that demonstrates innovative possibilities of technology,two studies were identified as using an approach adjacent to action research (e.g.,Konradt,Hertel,&Joder,2003).

Besides this,the empirical examination of technical applications via content analysis (n =4)is also employed several times (e.g.,Türetken &Demir?rs,2004).In summary,current studies make ample use of the inventory of empirical methods.Due to the recency of the field,studies are descriptive or explorative rather than focused on testing clearly stated hypothesis or cumulatively contributing to the state of knowledge.

3.4.Levels of analysis

Necessarily,the studies found refer to one or more level(s)of analysis.However,level issues are regularly not specified.Therefore,the implicit level(s)of analysis have to be reconstructed on the basis of topics examined,the theories employed and,mainly the constructs in https://www.wendangku.net/doc/715906061.html,ing the micro-macro-dichotomy as proposed by the framework,both levels are equally addressed by current research.One-fifth also attends to both levels simultaneously.

Firstly,it comes as no surprise that studies of psychological provenance predominately address the individual level by examining psychological issues like privacy concerns (e.g.,Harris et al.,2003)or user satisfaction (e.g.,Huang,Yang et al.,2004).Macro-level research often leans on constructs referring to HRM performance like general learning effectiveness (e.g.,Coppola &Myre,2002)or HR costs (Buckley,Minette,Joy,&Michaelis,2004).Mixed level studies use micro-and macro-level constructs simultaneously,for instance employee satisfaction and quantity of HR staff (Hawking,Stein,&Foster,2004).However,mixed level studies seem to occur rather incidentally or at least with no clear announcement of explicit multi-level research.

To sum up,despite past calls for more accurate addressing of level issues (Klein,Dansereau,&Hall,1994),current research in e-HRM generally demonstrates a low degree of level awareness.Though there are studies that refer to several levels,explicit multi-level studies are missing.

3.5.Topics and findings

With respect to the proposed framework,current research concentrates on specific rather than on general topics.Studies that aim at the complete picture of e-HRM,i.e.intend to consider context,configuration and consequences in a comprehensive manner,are rare (e.g.,Ru?l et al.,2004).Most studies focus on subsets of the framework that are often quite specific,quite diverse and non-cumulative.In order to systematize the rather scattered topics and the related findings,the following review draws on the proposed framework.

3.5.1.Context

Contextual aspects do not constitute central topics of current research.Rather,contextual aspects are occasionally incorporated as variables that explain or moderate configuration and consequences.In addition,contextual aspects mostly concern the macro-level.

At the outset,the cultural and (inter-)national context is considered within some studies.A specific cross-cultural study investigating privacy attitudes concerning e-selection of US and Belgian applicants reveals only non-significant cultural differences on the individual level (Harris et al.,2003).On the other hand,a case study of HR portal implementation indicates that one should be aware of national cultures and underscores the necessity of culture congruent,local implementation plans,even if there is a strong corporate culture (Ruta,2005).In addition,findings of a survey emphasize that global and mere domestic HR applications show different requirements due to cultural and national differences.While domestic applications have to deal with one culture and nation only,global applications have to balance local particularities against requirements of global coordination (Hannon,Jelf,&Brandes,1996).In 23

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contrast to an obviously wide spread international adoption of e-HRM,little is known concerning national and cultural differences or similarities.

Concerning the sectoral context,a private/public sector comparison showed more similarities than differences in IT usage since both sectors use the same general software applications and support the same tasks with special HR software(Elliott&Tevavichulada,1999).Accordingly,a UK based study of the usage of human resource information systems could not identify sectoral differences(Ball,2001).

A few studies also consider the organizational context.As expected,firm size is a variable that indicates scope and intensity of e-HRM as this relationship is reported for general applications of information technology in HR(Ball, 2001;Teo,Soon,&Fedric,2001),as well as for e-recruiting(Hausdorf&Duncan,2004).In addition,the state of conventional HRM seems to influence the application of e-HRM,since a lack of international harmonization and orientation of HR practices and policies seems to promote and encourage e-HRM(Ru?l et al.,2004).Other contextual factors are not considered,though obviously relevant contextual influences are only fragmentary addressed.

3.5.2.Actors

With respect to individual actors,especially reactions of actors to e-HRM,comprising for instance preferences, perceptions of image,perception of attractiveness,acceptance,or satisfaction,constitute a main topic of current research.Since such reactions constitute micro-level consequences of e-HRM,the related findings are discussed subsequently.

Collective actors as proposed by the framework are also frequently considered,however,mostly without explicitly viewing them as collective acting entities.Recurrently,macro-level research refers to unit or organization related topics as, for instance,quality of applicants(McManus&Ferguson,2003)or general cost savings(Buckley et al.,2004).Since such topics constitute macro-level consequences of e-HRM,the related findings are again presented subsequently.

As a commonality of both levels,not all relevant actor categories are considered equally.Applicants,HR professionals resp.units,and employees are frequent subject of research.Other also obviously relevant categories,such as line managers,resp.units,and Internet-based consultants,are repeatedly neglected.

3.5.3.Strategy

Findings concerning the e-HRM strategy at first hint at a lack of strategic considerations in general IT application (Liff,1997;West&Berman,2001)in e-recruiting(Cober,Brown,Blumental,Doverspike,&Levy,2000)and in e-learning(Beamish,Armistead,Watkinson,&Armfield,2002;Welle-Strand&Thune,2003).Somewhat differing,a case study shows that two out of five major organizations do have a clearly defined e-HRM strategy while the other organizations at least had ideas about general objectives,but the link to e-HRM and the overall HRM strategy was less clear.Within the same study,the crucial role of strategy for success is accentuated(Ru?l et al.,2004).Another case study again reports the incorporation of HR portal implementation into an overall e-business strategy,emphasizing the crucial role of comprehensive and carefully planned change management activities to gain acceptance of employees and promote the actual usage of the portal(Ruta,2005).Though there are some further hints that additionally point out the importance of thorough implementation(e.g.,Chapman&Webster,2003;Tansley&Watson,2000;Tansley, Newell,&Williams,2001)the process of strategy implementation has not been thoroughly investigated at present.

To sum up,current knowledge concerning the mere existence of e-HRM strategies and their implementation is scarce and somewhat ambiguous.Other central aspects of strategy like types,contents or consequences are currently simply not addressed.

3.5.

4.Activities

Activity oriented research firstly refers to the question whether and to what extent HRM is carried out electronically, i.e.addresses the diffusion of e-HRM.Besides studies that examine the diffusion within single HR activities or functions like e-recruiting or e-selection,there are also studies that address the diffusion of e-HRM as a whole.

Two UK based studies reveal that the general application of IT in HR has spread but remains on an administrative level.Mainly administrative tasks like payroll are supported,while advanced strategic or decision support orientated applications are lacking(Kinnie&Arthurs,1996;Lin,1997;Ball,2001;Teo et al.,2001).Yet,there were also signs for the beginning of non-administrative applications of IT(Ball,2001;Teo et al.,2001).

Besides this,there is broader empirical evidence for a wide spread use of e-recruiting in North America where the Internet has become an ordinary recruiting source,however,without displacing conventional media(Elliott&

Tevavichulada,1999;Hausdorf &Duncan,2004;Kuhn &Skuterud,2000;Pearce &Tuten,2001).Besides corporate web sites,primarily Internet job boards are utilized in order to realize e-recruiting (Hausdorf &Duncan,2004).The prevalent use of e-recruiting is also revealed for the public sector,however at a more moderate level since the full range of available options is not realized (West and Berman,2001).In addition,a further survey depicts the frequent use of employee résumémanagement systems within fortune 500companies (Baker,DeTienne,&Smart,1998).

Compared to e-recruiting,e-selection seems to be in an earlier and developing stage since findings reveal a rather limited application (Chapman &Webster,2003;Elliott &Tevavichulada,1999;West &Berman,2001).However,concerning the role of initial screening,e-selection seems to be a growing field since organizations anticipate an increasing application using technologies like key word search,web-based tests,or videoconferencing for all kinds of employees (Chapman &Webster,2003).

e-Training and-development,or as often labeled e-learning,comprises the (planning,implementation and)application of all kinds of learning that use IT for distributing of learning content and/or for communication.Studies concerning the diffusion show that approximately four out of ten organizations apply e-learning,accordantly in private and public organizations (Elliott &Tevavichulada,1999;West and Berman,2001).

These activities are followed by other HR activities,(in descending order:compensation management,performance appraisal,affirmative action,HR planning,labor relations,and job analysis)which are electronically performed (Elliot &Tevavichulada,1999).

In brief,there is an initial body of research concerning the diffusion of e-HRM.However,the internationally wide spread use of e-HRM commonly agreed upon in the literature is only partly confirmed by current studies.This may be due to a lack of actual diffusion studies.The findings presented may be out of date due to the ever-changing state of technology application.

Besides the diffusion,there are other topics examined in current research that can be identified as consequences of performing HR activities electronically;these topics and findings are discussed as consequences in the following.

3.5.5.Technology

The respective technological applications are usually considered on a very general level.As indicated by the usage of generic concepts like “information technology ”(e.g.,Gardner et al.,2003),current research regularly refers to the information technology in question as an integral whole.

There are few studies which refer to more concrete categories of technology.Earlier studies from the nineties especially refer to “Human Resource Information Systems ”(e.g.,Hannon et al.,1996)as a yet still rather broad category.Other categories examined are employee résumémanagement systems (Baker et al.,1998),HR portals (Ruta,2005)or general systems like word processing,spreadsheet,and statistic systems (Elliot &Tevavichulada,1999).

Even fewer studies refer to single systems.Sometimes case studies explicitly depict the system(s)in question (e.g.,Hawking et al.,2004).In addition,it comes as no surprise that prototyping (e.g.,Li,Roesler,&Meszlery,2004)as well as content analysis approaches (e.g.,Türetken &Demir?rs,2004)refer in depth to single systems.

Thus,it is mainly content analysis and prototyping which lead to some technology oriented findings.An analysis of Internet job boards shows a rather premature state with large differences in functionality (Koong,Liu,&Williams,2002).Two studies examining recruiting websites report that the recruiting websites of public sector organizations are highly text-based,have low usability and show a lack of attention-attracting mechanisms,like multimedia,while providing good job previews (Cober et al.,2000).Recent recruiting websites of private sector organizations show increased functionality and usability and interactive tools (Cober et al.,2004).A further content analysis shows that a single ERP-System provides functionalities in most of the key process areas of the so called people capability maturity model (Türetken &Demir?rs,2004).Prototyping approaches generate insights into the possibilities of new systems like web-based testing system (Konradt et al.,2003),web mining systems in e-recruiting (Li et al.,2004),or personalization technologies in retrieving recruiting information (Smyth,Bradley,&Rafter,2002).

To summarize,even though there are studies with specific technology related findings,the technology in question is often treated in a rather general and sometimes even vague manner.A systematic categorization and consideration of relevant technologies is missing.

3.5.6.Consequences

While there are studies,that are restricted to the mere description of specific configurations,various papers aim at the elicitation of certain consequences.Besides studies that specify the consequences under consideration in 25

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advance,there are also studies that do not do so but rather aim generally at“results”or“outcomes”in an exploratory manner(e.g.,Hawking et al.,2004).In both kinds of studies the consequences examined are quite specific and diverse.Thus,in order to categorize findings concerning consequences,individual consequences on the micro-level and operational,relational and transformational consequences on the macro-level,are distinguished as proposed by the framework.

3.5.6.1.Individual consequences.Individual consequences refer to e-HRM impacts on the micro-level.As already mentioned,reactions of individual actors are regularly subject to research.Overall findings of two case studies concerning HR Portals(Ruta,2005)and employee self service systems(Hawking et al.,2004)reveal increased employee acceptance and satisfaction due to added value like time savings or increased accuracy of results.However, overall findings concerning human resource information systems also show that privacy and fairness perceptions of employees depend on their ability to authorize content and targets of the information disclosed(Eddy,Stone,&Stone-Romero,1999).

In accordance with this,findings regarding e-recruiting show that e-recruiting does not lead to lower applicant satisfaction(Rozelle&Landis,2002).Correspondingly,another study demonstrates that applicant perceptions of electronic job search were even more positive owing to a clearly greater number of jobs found and an improved quality of information(Van Rooy,Alonso,&Fairchild,2003).Somewhat differing,however,are findings that conventional (paper-based)job postings were preferred to web-based postings(Zusman&Landis,2002).Complementing these general findings,there are studies concerning the question of what kind of special configuration does lead to positive applicant attitudes in e-recruiting.Not surprisingly,ease of navigation,systems speed,and user friendliness of the technologies considered lead to better image and attraction of applicants(Braddy et al.,2003;Cober et al.2003;Sinar, Reynolds,&Paquet,2003).Also,useful content concerning e.g.,compensation and career development(Cober et al. 2003),as well as feedback concerning the person-organization fit of applicants(Dineen et al.,2002)lead to positive attitudes and attraction of applicants.Contrary findings concern the reactions to aesthetical aspects of recruiting website design:While one study reveals positive attraction effects due to aesthetic design(Zusman&Landis,2002), another study could not replicate this effect(Cober et al.,2003).Besides applicant reactions,attitudes of recruiters were also examined.Interestingly,paper-résuméapplicants are viewed as more friendly,while electronic-résuméapplicants were viewed as more intelligent,technologically advanced,and possessing better overall qualifications(Elgin& Clapham,2004).

At the intersection of e-recruiting and e-selection,findings reveal that applicants react more positively to recruiting-oriented as opposed to screening-oriented websites since recruiting-oriented websites provide more positive and detail-oriented information than screening oriented websites(Williamson et al.,2003).

Studies concerning reactions to e-selection refer rather to pre-selection than to final selection decisions.Findings show that attitudes of test takers do not differ as a result of electronic testing(Wiechmann&Ryan,2003).Another study even reveals that electronic versions of tests are more positively perceived by test-takers than conventional testing(Salgado&Moscoso,2003).In addition,privacy concerns do not seem to constitute major impediments,since respondents showed no reluctance to submit even quite intimate data over the Internet with higher levels of Internet literacy even correlating with less privacy concerns(Harris et al.,2003).Again,efforts to investigate what special kind of configuration does lead to positive applicant reactions reveal that perceived fairness of e-selection procedures is influenced by a hierarchy of justice factors of which the consistency of the screening system,the opportunity to perform,the ability to provide additional information,and the ability to appeal are important(Dineen et al.,2004).

One study examines reactions to a special variety of e-compensation and e-benefits.Findings concerning a web site that offers certain products as additional benefits show that convenience,delivery,interface,accuracy,price,and security are factors that influence satisfaction of employees with satisfaction significantly related to organizational citizenship behavior(Huang,Jin et al.,2004,resp.Huang,Yang et al.2004).

Similarly,employees appreciated an e-health care application due to the realization of employee-defined features (Payton,2003).

To sum up,so far e-HRM obviously seems to be generally accepted and sometimes even preferred to conventional HRM.Attitudes of individual actors then seem to pose at least no general problem for e-HRM.However,current research concerning actors mainly refers to applicants,employees and HR professionals,while research concerning the activities focuses on recruiting and selection.Since actor reactions constitute a main topic of current research,there is a need for further exploration.

3.5.6.2.Operational consequences.Another common topic of current research concerns operational consequences comprising both efficiency and effectiveness related macro-level consequences of e-HRM.A few studies address the efficiency of e-HRM.First,there are hints from case studies that support the assertion of increased productivity due to e-HRM.These studies generally indicate a reduction of HR staff,faster-processes,cost reduction,and a release from administrative burdens resulting from automation (Hawking et al.,2004;Ru?l et al.,2004;Ruta,2005).On the other hand,savings within the HR department are also an effect of simply shifting responsibilities from HR to line managers and employees (Ru?l et al.,2004).Accordingly,considerable cost savings are reported for e-recruiting and e-selection,due to reduced employee turnover,reduced staffing costs,and increased hiring efficiency (Buckley et al.,2004).Not surprisingly,e-learning is also able to save costs if used for larger groups of learners (Beamish et al.,2002;MacPherson et al.,2004).In contrast,findings also reveal that special recruiting systems only partially meet the expectations of saving time and work (Baker et al.,1998).

In addition,there are survey based findings showing HR professionals spent less time on routine tasks but had to spend additional time on information technology related activities and on developing information technology related qualifications (Gardner et al.,2003).In line with this,two case studies examining self service applications also reveal changing roles for line managers and employees since these systems constitute central parts of every day work that cause considerable extra time (Hawking et al.,2004;Ru?l et al.,2004).

Besides mere efficiency,general improvements of effectiveness,i.e.an increase in quality of HR activities,constitute a topic of several studies.Firstly,research in general effectiveness of information technology indicates positive consequences since information technology enables HR professionals to provide increased information responsiveness to their customers and to have more information autonomy and more external professional links.Technology then serves as an “enabler ”that empowers HR professionals to provide more value to their organizations (Gardner et al.,2003).

Next,there are mixed findings concerning the effectiveness of e-recruiting.Respondents of two surveys report rather moderate success of e-recruiting since,while the applicant pool increased,the applicant quality decreased (Chapman &Webster,2003;Pearce &Tuten,2001).Two other surveys convey quite the contrary:The Internet is less effective than personal networking in yielding appropriate applicants but is far superior to other formal recruiting sources (Feldmann &Klaas,2002;McManus &Ferguson,2003).An examination of recruitment quality of Internet job boards yields that quality of recruiting,as measured in applicant qualification and job fit,was associated with a moderate level of interim applicant-employer contacts.Also,the job board specificity is associated with recruitment quality since specialized job boards showed better results (Jattuso &Sinar,2004).Interestingly,an experimental comparison of several different recruiting technologies reveals differences in recruiting appropriate applicants:Non-technically supported and decision-support-system supported varieties performed better in terms of employer satisfaction.Matching algorithms and intelligent-agents supported search performed better in terms of general performance (Nissen &Gates,2004).Finally,the frequently mentioned concerns regarding the “digital divide ”in e-recruiting (e.g.,Capelli,2001;Hogler,Henle,&Bemus 1998),i.e.the discrimination of minorities,could not be confirmed.Though there are findings that substantiate some socio-economic and demographic differences (Kuhn &Skuterud,2000;McManus &Ferguson,2003),compared to other formal sources e-recruiting yields even a higher number of minority applicants (Chapman &Webster,2003;McManus &Ferguson,2003)and is therefore able to support diversity programs (Pearce &Tuten,2001).

Research concerning the effectiveness of e-selection firstly points out that the transition from conventional to electronic testing does not lead to a loss of quality since Internet versions of tests seem to be equivalent to conventional paper-and-pencil tests (Salgado &Moscoso,2003).In addition,a case study suggests that web-based screening and selection leads to reduced employee turnover (Buckley et al.,2004).

Research on the effectiveness of e-learning shows little differences between web-based and instructor led training,with web-based training even being slightly more advantageous (Coppola &Myre,2002)and showing a delivery advantage that offers more flexibility to learners (Coppola &Myre,2002;MacPherson et al.,2004).Several studies also provide details concerning aspects that lead to performance.Yet,these aspects are quite different:Active participation of trainers,quality content,control mechanisms,interaction features among trainers and learners (Gascó,Llopis,&González,2004),evaluation,consideration of individual needs,management support,self-motivation and self-direction (MacPherson et al.,2004),or organizational commitment,communication,and time resources (Vaughan &MacVicar,2004)are identified as factors of qualitative performance in e-learning.

In summary,findings concerning the efficiency consequences are limited and mixed.While there is some support for productivity gains especially due to the automation of routine activities,overall gains and losses of efficiency seem 27

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to be difficult to measure and balance.Additionally,it remains unclear to what extent efficiency gains are illusory due to a simple shifting of activities to managers and employees and/or a swapping of HR tasks with IT tasks.Similarly, findings concerning the effectiveness of e-HRM are limited and mixed.While findings on the general level show improvements in effectiveness,findings concerning different activities,especially e-recruiting,are diverse and there are also hints of shortcomings.In addition,there are clear gaps in effectiveness research concerning specific HR activities beyond e-recruiting.

3.5.6.3.Relational consequences.Relational consequences refer to the new and extended possibilities of interactions between actors,leading to heterogeneous networks and,therefore,represent a crucial topic.

Firstly,findings of a survey reveal increasing relations between HR professionals since they were able to connect to more professional sources outside the organization,as e.g.,to external professional associations(Gardner et al.2003). Also,there are several confirmations of far reaching integrative potentials of information technology resulting from relating different https://www.wendangku.net/doc/715906061.html,rmation technology leads to,or at least possesses the potential for,(global)integration and harmonization of HR activities.Since spatially separated actors can be networked,e-HRM seems to be a means to standardize HR and to overcome hurdles of different cultures and languages(Hannon et al.,1996;Ru?l et al.,2004; Tixier,2004).In addition,one case study reveals an extensive decentralization of executing HR activities by shifting responsibilities to line management and employees.Thus,a combination of centralization of policies on the one hand, and decentralization of executing these policies on the other,seems to be a major relational consequence of e-HRM (Ru?l et al.,2004).Relational consequences,though a crucial aspect of e-HRM,are for the most part unexamined at present.

3.5.6.

4.Transformational consequences.Transformational consequences concern the overall changes of the HRM-function that centrally aim at the role the HRM plays in company performance and strategy support(e.g.,Barney& Wright,1998).However,the decisive question whether e-HRM is able to transform HR into an appreciated business partner that provides value to the organization is only parenthetically addressed.

Earlier findings of case studies reveal that IT has not provided a strategy-supporting role of HR despite potentials to do so(Liff,1997;Tansley et al.,2001).Somewhat opposed,other studies demonstrate the potential of IT to move HR towards global integration and to support international strategy(Hannon et al.,1996)and at least partially emphasize the role of HR as a business partner(Teo et al.,2001).Findings of case studies also expose clearly increased relevance of the HR-department as a flexible and proactive business partner(Ruta,2005)or at least report an improvement of HR status comprising a clearer profile and a better image(Ru?l et al.,2004).This is supported by the finding that HR professionals can focus on more meaningful tasks and are empowered to provide more value to their organizations (Gardner et al.,2003).

In brief,while robust results that unambiguously evidence persistent transformations are missing,there are mixed findings and some isolated hints that e-HRM may contribute to a more strategic role of HRM.

4.Implications for research

To address the challenges of e-HRM,empirical research should identify the key research topics,produce viable theoretical perspectives to frame these topics,collect meaningful data,and transfer the findings into useful recommendations for practitioners(Stanton&Coovert,2004).The following section tries to elaborate on these demands by discussing some initial implications concerning crucial theoretical perspectives,methodical approaches, and levels of analysis,as well as topics of a future research program in e-HRM.

4.1.Theoretical perspectives

The main and most detrimental inadequacy of current research is its primarily non-theoretical character.Without good theory,research in the field of e-HRM will produce a plenitude of statements regarding some observed relationships and/or prescriptions for practice that fail to explain why such relationships exist and/or when,if ever,and why such prescriptions will work.Therefore,the explanation of the relationships between context,configurations and consequences is a basic task.However,a grand or integrative multi-level theory of e-HRM currently does not exist;as an alternative,the possible application of three groups of existing theories can and should be checked:First,the further

adoption of common micro-level theories that provide explanations for individual phenomena (Lievens &Harris,2003)should be fruitful.Second,since analogous issues of performance impacts are to be explained,research should especially profit from applying recognized macro-level theories of HRM (e.g.,Wright &McMahan,1992).Third,theoretical perspectives of information systems research concerning such crucial topics as information systems acceptance and usage (e.g.,Venkatesh,Morris,Davis,&Davis,2003)or information systems success (e.g.,DeLone &McLean,2003)are promising in the e-HRM field,as well.Since it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss these three groups comprehensively,the potentials of three selected macro-level theories of HRM are exemplarily discussed in the following.

First,new institutional theory (e.g.,DiMaggio &Powell,1983)offers advanced possibilities to explain relationships between the context and the configuration of e-HRM.Following institutional argumentations,in order to survive organizations must not only respond to market pressures but also accommodate institutional expectations of their environment,even though these expectations may have little to do with actual performance accomplishment.Changes of organizations then originate in pressures from public agencies,social expectations,and the actions of leading organizations.e-HRM may well be seen as such a change.Given that the value and efficiency of IT is generally taken for granted by surrounding institutions,this will create a pressure on organizations to adopt practices like e-recruiting or e-learning,even though previous conventional recruiting and development practices may fully satisfy organizational needs.For HR and the entire organization,e-HRM then mainly is a means of gaining legitimacy.Institutional explanations then also serve as a caveat not to precipitately agree to the positive potentials of e-HRM,but to have a deeper look at its actual performance contributions.Besides this,institutional theory also predicts the isomorphism of resulting configurations,since coercive and normative and mimetic mechanisms will lead to isomorphic configurations.Generally,institutionalism offers explanations of the relation between institutional context and configurations of e-HRM and promotes a critical view on its factual consequences.

Second,transaction cost theory (e.g.,Williamson,1994)offers explanations concerning the configuration and its relationship with the economic consequences of e-HRM.As depicted,e-HRM implies a major reorganization with new assignments of HR tasks to heterogeneous networks.Transaction cost theory explains institutional arrangements due to their cost effectiveness.Hence,the complex,partially outsourced,partially decentralized,and partially delegated structures of e-HRM can be explained by their ability to save costs.This holds true e.g.,for the outsourcing of administrative tasks to external consultants (Lepak &Snell,1998).At least from an HR-perspective this also holds true for delegating tasks to line managers,applicants,employees as well as to IT itself.However,this decrease in production costs is accompanied by massive integration requirements within such complex networks of distributed actors.While conventional integration mechanisms like managers,meetings,etc.would have produced considerably increased transaction costs,IT now provides HR with a powerful and cost effective integration mechanism (Lepak &Snell 1998).Hence,transaction cost theory portrays IT not only as the technological but also as the economical enabler of e-HRM.Besides this explanation of the occurrence of complex technologically mediated and supported networks of actors,transaction and production costs also constitute a criterion for the design of e-HRM configurations or “architectures ”as suggested by previous conceptual work (Lepak &Snell,1998).

As a third example,the resourced based theory of the firm (e.g.,Barney,1991)may also contribute to the theoretical foundation of e-HRM by explaining relationships between the configuration and consequences of e-HRM.Generally,the resource-based view enlightens how corporations can gain competitive advantage and high performance.It substantiates that HR can be a powerful means to these ends if human resources are valuable,rare,inimitable and their exploitation is supported by the corresponding organization (Barney &Wright,1998).e-HRM,and its sub-functions like e-recruiting,e-learning etc.,then can be explained as contributing activities that provides the firm with human resources that fit to these characteristics.In doing this,the resource-based view also indicates how HR may become a business partner (Barney &Wright,1998),and hence,is able to explain possible transformational consequences of e-HRM.The highlighted characteristics of resources that yield advantages also provide some practical guidance for planning and implementing e-HRM.For instance,the criteria of rareness and inimitability of human resources postulate that corresponding adequate e-HRM activities should not be easily imitable by competitors, e.g.,by simply buying and implementing the same software-packages.

Hence as exemplarily illustrated by recognized macro-level theories of HRM,there are several directly suitable theories at the disposal of future research in e-HRM.

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4.2.Methodological approaches

Current research uses a broad range of different qualitative and quantitative approaches.Since e-HRM is a

developing field with diverse topics,such methodological pluralism seems to be continually necessary.Since previous

applications were largely exploratory,a first and obvious requirement is to relate any method employed closely to

theory so as to contribute to explanatory and,hence,also cumulative research.

Second,currently both major methodological approaches,case studies,and surveys are cross sectional in nature.

Thus,particularly for the examination of consequences,longitudinal approaches seem to be more adequate due to

possible time lags between application and results and also in order to map long(er)term consequences(e.g.,Lievens&

Harris,2003).

Third,current research frequently relies on single source respondents.Due to proven concerns about awareness

levels,and,thus,the reliability of single source research,future studies should profit from multiple respondents,

especially if respondents originate from different actor categories that represent different perspectives.In addition,“surrogate samples”of students should be restricted to cases where clear similarities to“real actors”exist and external validity can be substantiated(e.g.,Rozelle&Landis,2002).

Fourth,as hidden contributions of the field,there are additional opportunities of data collection.As demonstrated by

pioneers(e.g.,Jattuso&Sinar,2003),existing applications like self-service systems and portals of consultants,

constitute new platforms for web-based data collection(e.g.Hewson,Yule,Laurent,&V ogel,2003).In addition,by

using technology,actors leave valuable“data traces”like web-logfiles and usage protocols as well data input into

various applications.Such data indicate central facts,like occurred interactions,time spent with technology,functions

used,decisions made,etc.,and constitute helpful additional data sources for e-HRM research.

Finally,the appropriate sequence of research and practice should be reconsidered.Currently,empirical research is

often a methodologically determined laggard of practice,i.e.the gathering of meaningful data research relies on

preceding practical e-HRM applications.Even case studies that address the latest developments in e-HRM need at least

one preceding pioneer in practice.As a consequence,empirical research may often not be able to give innovative

impulses.Therefore,the valuable but rather reactive approaches of surveys and case studies should be complemented

by proactive methods.As already partially practiced in current research,experiments are a first suitable approach to test

innovative ideas developed by theoretical or conceptual work.In addition,action research presents the opportunity to

develop innovative solutions for numerous applied questions conjointly with practice and,additionally,then assures

practical relevance of research(Robey&Markus,1998).Finally,though unusual in HRM the prototyping of

innovative technical applications offers further possibilities for offering innovative stimuli.

4.3.Level of analysis

Since level issues create particular problems when the levels of topic,theory,data collection and/or analysis are

incongruent(Klein et al.,1994),future work would profit from explicitly addressing level issues.As a general measure,

the levels of topics,theories,data collection,and analysis should be specified and coordinated.Furthermore,since e-

HRM is a multi-level phenomenon,research would profit from studies that address several levels including the

corresponding inter-level relationships(Markus&Robey,1988).With reference to this,the proposed dichotomy of

micro-and macro-level research serves as a minimal model that can be expanded by following suggestions of

conceptual work if necessary(Klein et al.,1994).Since the clarification of level issues is first and foremost a duty of the

applied theory(Klein et al.,1994)and,since there are only few multi-level approaches(e.g.the framework of

Anderson,2003),future multi-level research may be theoretically thwarted.

Related to the level of analysis,future research should also profit from explicitly distinguishing different levels of

information technology(Seddon,Staples,Patnayakuni,&Bowtell,1999).At the generic level,information technology

can be examined as a whole as prevailing in current studies.This level addresses the overall and general aspects of

information technology.In order to identify potential differences,this general level research should be accompanied by

studies that explicitly consider different categories of systems,as ERP-Systems,HR-portals,etc.Besides such

categories,single systems,e.g.a concrete ERP-system or a concrete HR-portal,also constitute a further layer,while

subsystems,i.e.particular modules or algorithms of single systems,constitute the most detailed level of technology.

Thus,dependent on the desired level(s)of organizational analysis the appropriate level(s)of technological analysis

should also be designated.Obviously macro-level research may tend to more aggregated levels of information

technology while micro-level research may additionally be occupied with disaggregated levels,although there are no fixed rules for combining organizational and technological levels.

4.4.Topics

As already pointed out,a central limitation of current research lies in the patchiness of topics covered.With respect to the proposed framework,current topics mainly refer to quite specific and diverse subsets of context,configuration and consequences.As a result,we possess knowledge concerning several focal points and facets of e-HRM,but have only a vague hint at the “complete picture ”.Consequently,three kinds of studies seem to promise advancement:First,specific studies that address a new subset of the framework are necessary to break fresh ground in-depth.Second,specific studies that address already examined subsets of the framework are appropriate since they can lend robustness to previous findings by replication and may dissolve looming contradictions (e.g.Dineen et al.,2002;Li et al.,2004;Sinar et al.,2003).Third,since they can lend an integrative overview,general studies that synoptically embrace contextual,configurational,and consequential aspects are crucial.

All studies,whether specific or general,should systematically relate contextual,and especially configurational,to consequential aspects of e-HRM.Systematic knowledge concerning the manner and strength of such relationships should be useful for deriving guidelines for designing future configurations that avoid harmful and obtain helpful results.Based on the gaps identified above,the following sections recommend interesting future issues and aspects.

4.4.1.Context

Concerning the national macro-context,current research shows a strong national focus on the U.S.,with only scattered results from other countries.Though demanding and laborious,future research would profit from international comparative studies that reveal (inter-)national influences in e-HRM.The same holds true for the intertwined cultural context.

Closely related to national contexts,legal contexts and their restraining or encouraging influences on e-HRM should be considered.Additionally,depending on differing national regulations,co-determination legislation may also vitally affect e-HRM.

Finally,the organizational context constitutes the most promising contextual subset,referring to both the macro-and micro-context.Again only occasionally addressed,it seems to offer a rich reservoir of factors that may influence certain e-HRM configurations and consequences.Besides general organizational features like size,organizational culture,computer orientation,etc.first findings indicate that especially the narrow HRM context seems to be of relevance.Hence,a systematic investigation of HR strategies and policies,tasks,or status may constitute a further fruitful contribution in understanding e-HRM.

4.4.2.Actors

As a main innovation,e-HRM inaugurates new internal and external actors to HRM (e.g.Lengnick-Hall &Moritz,2003).Current research focuses on certain actor categories,especially the novel category of applicants,and,besides this,also HR professionals and employees.At the outset,research should benefit from systematically and simultaneously considering all relevant actors.First,due to the idea of decentralization,e-HRM line managers constitute a crucial,however barely regarded category of actors (e.g.Hawking et al.,2004;Ru?l et al.,2004).In addition,conceptual work demonstrates that external consultants,i.e.web-based HR content and service provider,are of central importance to e-HRM (Lepak &Snell,1998).Also,it seems to be necessary to consider the manifold HR relevant external “administrative institutions ”such as banks,labor exchanges,labor courts,etc.Such external actors again interact electronically with internal actors in order to perform various HR tasks.As a collective category term,administration could be recommended.Finally,since conceptual work emphasizes the phenomenon of “e-voice ”(e.g.Taras &Bennett,2003),shop-councils and unions also can gain relevance as actors of e-HRM.

Furthermore,besides individual actors there are crucial macro-level phenomena that are not addressed at present.First,as opposed to a “conventional ”HR department,fragmented and changeable networks of actors mediated and supported by information technology are the beneficiaries of e-HRM,thereby also constituting virtual HR departments 31

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(Snell et al.,2002).Such virtual HR departments should then be an appealing future topic.Second,so-called virtual communities of actors(Rheingold,1993)constitute a further prospective macro-level topic since there is first evidence of such communities.The idea of initiating internal employee communities by using portal technology to provide means for interaction–such as chats,forums and newsgroups,as well as additional content,such as health,leisure,or sports–aims at improvements of communication,knowledge transfer,commitment,etc.(e.g.Fandray,2000). Additionally,there are external communities initiated and controlled by employees and other external stakeholders in order to effectively represent their interests(see for an intriguing example the case of“greedy-associates”as depicted by Taras&Gesser,2003).Thus,such virtual interactions,units,communities and networks constitute crucial macro-level topics.

4.4.3.Strategy

The formulation and implementation of a functional e-HRM strategy seem to be a central,yet largely neglected topic of e-HRM.Besides general aspects of e-HRM strategy formulation,particularly the integration with business strategy (Lengnick-Hall&Moritz,2003),the pursued operational,relational and transformational goals should constitute promising future topics.The succeeding strategy implementation encompasses various topics like need analyses, software selection and customization,user training,change management,etc.In order to detect the role and importance of strategy formulation and implementation,both processes should be incorporated in future inquiries of e-HRM configurations.

4.4.4.Activities

Due to their role as pioneering activities,current research has concentrated mainly on e-recruiting,e-learning and,in the interim,e-selection.Since there is clear evidence of further electronically performed HR activities–also substantiated by conceptual work concerning https://www.wendangku.net/doc/715906061.html,pensation,benefits and pensions and performance appraisal–a first task is the ascertainment of a systematic empirical overview(Lengnick-Hall&Moritz,2003).Besides single HR activities,it is of special interest if and which“bundles”of HR activities are electronically performed as well as if and how these activities are interrelated.

In addition,the relationship of electronic and conventional HR activities constitutes a topic of special concern.At first glance,the displacement of conventionally performed activities seems to be an obvious consequence of e-HRM. However,borrowing from e-learning,blended approaches that explicitly combine electronic and conventional activities become known.Therefore,research should detect where conventional HR activities are actually displaced and where electronic and conventional activities are combined,thereby constituting varieties of“blended HRM”.

With respect to the corresponding actors,the distribution of these activities to a portfolio of internal and external actors constitutes a further interesting topic comprising characteristic questions of HR outsourcing research(Lepak&Snell,1998).

4.4.

5.Technology

Presumably based on the implicit assumption that there are no relevant differences,current research frequently refers to the generic level of information technology.Since rare studies that explicitly examine different technologies reveal factual differences,e.g.concerning the related consequences(Nissen&Gates,2004),a systematic consideration of different relevant technologies below the generic level is a further essential step.

On the systems category level,research should discern the meanwhile broad range of different relevant technological categories,while also regarding the fact that several of these categories are commonly used concurrently to provide the technological basis of e-HRM.As a first and rough distinction,front-end and back-end systems of e-HRM can be distinguished.Front-end systems usually are web-based and primarily support the task of connecting different actors.Central categories of front-end systems are HR portals,self-service systems,or interactive voice response systems.Such front-end applications represent technical catalysts of e-HRM and are therefore core categories.Such front ends are reliant on the support of diverse back-end systems.Not necessarily web-based,these systems support actors in task fulfillment by means of storing,processing and retrieving data of various front-end systems.Though sometimes conceived as outmoded,human resource information systems constitute a“backbone”category of e-HRM(Hendrickson,2003).The same holds true for(HR-modules of)ERP-systems,or HR data warehouses,among others.To complicate things,empirical delimitations between such categories are challenging since real applications increasingly combine the properties of different categories,as e.g. an ERP-system also offers a manager self service module.This distinction of several categories can be extended by

considering single systems or even sub-systems.In brief,due to evident differences,research should detect which actual patterns of technology are utilized while heeding several levels of technology.

4.4.6.Consequences

Since consequences are again only partly examined,manifold individual,operational,relational,and transformational consequences await future analysis.A few crucial consequences of each category should be mentioned.

Besides the primarily studied actor reactions,on the individual level,the changing requirements and working conditions should also be critically examined,as for instance changes of qualification profiles,work contents,work and information load.Additionally,the consequences of empowering employees for the first time to decide on HR services by themselves should be of interest (Lengnick-Hall &Moritz,2003).Third,given the ubiquity of employed technology,e-HRM seems to hold new potentials for telecommuting.Future research then should examine whether e-HRM actually leads to new varieties of HR telecommuting.

Though already a frequent topic of current research,operational consequences of e-HRM still constitute a crucial issue.First and foremost,the cardinal question of e-HRM efficiency is whether there are real efficiency gains beyond a mere shifting of HR activities to other actors (Snell et al.,2002),and beyond a mere replacement of HR-related activities by IT-related activities (Gardner et al.,2003).Second,if there are real efficiency potentials as indicated by some studies,a crucial subsequent question relates to the consequences for HR staff.On the one hand,the release of administrative burdens may result in more time for “strategic ”activities as frequently imagined in literature (e.g.Lengnick-Hall &Moritz,2003).On the other hand,investments in technology may result in pressures to simply downsize HR staff in order to actually realize efficiency potentials (Lepak &Snell,1998).Thus,the factual exploitation of efficiency gains now as before is a vital topic.Effectiveness topics,then,relate to manifold quality aspects concerning all HR activities.Building on current research,it is an intriguing question whether the results of the single HR activities can be improved.In particular,comparative work that concurrently elicits results of conventional,electronic,and also “blended ”approaches,promises advancement and further insights.Corresponding with this topic,the general effects on employee productivity and performance –beyond the allocation of tasks via self-service –constitute a topic a central concern.

Relational consequences directly refer to the topics of virtual interactions,networks,communities,and units that emerge due to increased possibilities of relating spatio-temporally separated actors.A central issue should refer to the consequences for organizing,i.e.differentiating and integrating,HR activities within such virtual entities (Lepak &Snell,1998).For instance,it should be of interest which new patterns of task assignment emerge within such heterogeneous networks of HR professionals,line managers,employees,consultants,etc.Subsequently,a critical question is whether IT alone is actually sufficient to satisfy the extensive integration and coordination needs of such networks,or whether additional activities are necessary.

Still,the transformational consequences wait for further investigation.Actually,all topics concerning consequential details seem to condense in the crucial question whether e-HRM contributes to redefine scope and function of HR towards a strategy supporting and value adding unit or whether it is just another declaiming of the “being a strategic partner ”-mantra (Lepak &Snell,1998).

Given this wide set of consequences,the intra-level and inter-level relationships between consequences are of further interest.For instance,user acceptance on the individual level seems to be a necessary condition for operational effectiveness on the macro level.Also,a variety of operational performance consequences may constitute an antecedent of the transformational changes like redefining scope and function of HR.

Just as current research in consequences draws a rather optimistic picture of e-HRM,future research also should explicitly heed possible downsides.This will provide a balanced picture of e-HRM and will prevent research from the b pro-innovation bias",i.e.taking for granted,that innovative electronic solutions are principally better than existing conventional activities (Anderson,2003).

As performance related consequences constitute a core obligation of future research,an alignment with the field of HRM performance research seems to be an obvious step.To date HRM performance research has not picked up e-HRM as a topic of any https://www.wendangku.net/doc/715906061.html,rmation technology is neither even mentioned in a recent comprehensive review of empirical studies (Boselie,Dietz,&Boon,2005),nor treated as a relevant topic in an agenda for future research in this area (Paauwe &Boselie,2005).Given the wide spread application of IT,empiric HRM performance studies necessarily have also referred to electronic HR activities,unfortunately without distinguishing electronic,conventional and blended activities and their performance impacts.Since IT does matter,the overall effects on firm performance then should constitute a major topic of future research.

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5.Conclusion

This paper aimed at a review of current research on e-HRM and the derivation of implications for future approaches.Based on a definition and a first framework,it was possible to identify and summarize various empirical studies from different disciplines.Without repeating single findings,the outlined body of knowledge concentrates on several focal points and is patchy at present.It is sufficient,however,to recognize e-HRM as an innovative,lasting and substantial development in HRM that results in new phenomena and major changes.Based on the review,some major implications for future advancement in e-HRM research could be derived.First, theoretical grounding is the central condition of any progress in the field.In order to avoid proliferation,a moderate theoretical pluralism,i.e.the concentration on a smaller number of well-established theories from HRM and IS research,seems to constitute an appropriate future approach.Second,referring to the empirical methods, pluralism again seems to be appropriate.Only a combination of different methods seems to comply with the often conflicting requirements concerning findings that are concurrently in-depth,proactive,longer-term,reliable and generalizable.Third,future research should explicitly address level issues in a twofold manner:The general level(s) of organizational analysis should be coordinated with appropriate level(s)of technology so as to avoid any drawbacks of level unawareness.Fourth,given the patchiness of current topics,future work using further specific and synoptic studies will benefit from systematically covering context,configuration,and consequences.

There are also limitations of this paper.First,the review is restricted to work published in international peer-reviewed journals.Thus,further valuable empirical work published in books,unpublished research papers,etc.may be available. Second,the review is narrative and non-statistical.However,since comparable single studies are missing,a meta-analytical application of statistical methods is not practicable at present.Third,the framework used for systematizing current and future topics is normative,since not based on proper theoretical foundations.However,an appropriate theory for comprehensively framing e-HRM is missing at present.By means of a general and plain outline,the framework is able to capture at least the basic issues of e-HRM and can be refined for future work.

Clearly,e-HRM is a new and intriguing field of research at the intersection of human resource management and information systems.By reviewing the initial research and discussing major implications,this article hopes to stimulate further debate and research in e-HRM.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank the editors and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier version of the paper. References

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