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minimizing CAN response-time jitter by message manipulation

minimizing CAN response-time jitter by message manipulation
minimizing CAN response-time jitter by message manipulation

Minimizing CAN response-time jitter by message manipulation Thomas Nolte,Hans Hansson and Christer Norstr¨o m

M¨a lardalen Real-Time Research Centre

Department of Computer Engineering

M¨a lardalen University,V¨a ster?a s,SWEDEN

http://www.mrtc.mdh.se

Abstract

Delay variations(jitter)in computations and communi-cations cause degradation of performance in e.g.control applications.There are many sources of jitter,including variations in execution time and bus contention.

This paper presents methods to reduce the variation of frame(message)transmission time caused by the bit-stuf?ng mechanism in the Controller Area Network(CAN). By introducing some restrictions,such as a small reduction of available frame priorities,we are able to reduce the num-ber of stuff-bits in the worst case.We also combine this with some of our previous work that reduces the number of stuff-bits in the data part of the frame.We show the actual penalty introduced by forbidding priorities,and we show the overall improvement by using these techniques together in a small case study.

1.Introduction

During the last decade real-time researchers have ex-tended schedulability analysis to a mature technique which for non-trivial systems can be used to determine whether a set of tasks executing on a single CPU or in a distributed system will meet their deadlines or not[1][3][16][21].The essence of this analysis is to investigate if deadlines are met in a worst case scenario.Whether this worst case actually will occur during execution,or if it is likely to occur,is not normally considered.

In contrast with schedulability analysis,reliability mod-elling involves study of fault models,characterisation of distribution functions of faults and development of meth-ods and tools for composing these distributions and models in estimating an overall reliability?gure for the system.

This separation of deterministic(0/1)schedulability analysis and stochastic reliability analysis is a natural sim-pli?cation of the total analysis.This is because the deter-ministic schedulability analysis unfortunately is quite pes-simistic,since it only considers the worst case,i.e.,it does not distinguish the case when the deadline is only missed in the(possibly very rare)worst case from the case when the deadline is always missed.

There are many other sources of pessimism in the anal-ysis,including considering worst-case execution times and worst-case phasings of executions,as well as the usage of pessimistic fault models.

In our previous work[14],we have proposed a model for calculating worst-case latencies of Controller Area Network (CAN)[15]frames under error assumptions.This model is pessimistic,in the sense that there are systems that the anal-ysis determines unschedulable,even though deadlines will only be missed in extremely rare situations with patholog-ical combinations of errors.In[10][11]we have reduced the level of pessimism by introducing a better fault model, and in[9]we also consider variable phasings between mes-sage queuings,in order to make the model more realistic. In[13]we reduced the pessimism introduced by the worst-case analysis of CAN message response-times,by using bit-stuf?ng distributions instead of the traditional worst-case frame sizes.

In this paper we provide a method that will minimise the variations of frame lengths caused by bit-stuf?ng.The number of stuff-bits in a CAN frame can vary between0and 29,depending on the CAN format(standard or extended), the frame length(the number of data bytes in the frame) and the frame bit pattern.This variation of frame length is problematic for e.g.control applications based on event-triggered architectures.Problems and degradation of per-formance caused by jitter in control applications have been shown in[5][12][17].

Hence,it is desirable to minimize this variation of frame lengths,as shown in[8].To do this,we make use of our previous work[13]where we presented a method to reduce the number of stuff-bits in the data part of the CAN frame. We will here extend this work by also considering the con-trol part of the CAN frame.We show how bit-stuf?ng can be eliminated in the header part of the CAN frame and we

Known bit-values(standard format data frame)

Figure1.CAN frame layout(standard format data frame).

show how to combine this with our previous work,in or-der to have a method that minimizes the variations in frame length for the whole CAN frame.

There has been work done to reduce jitter caused by vari-ations in queuing times for CAN frames[2][6][7]using genetic algorithms.This is done by giving periodic mes-sages initial phasings,found by using genetic algorithms. These phasings can be set both of?ine and online,although the technique requires a relatively high computational over-head.Our method,on the other hand,focuses on the jitter caused by variations of frame lengths.Our approach is done mostly of?ine,and the online part requires very little CPU-time.

Outline:Section2speci?cally discusses the scheduling of frame sets in Controller Area Networks under a general fault model,and describes the theory behind bit-stuf?ng.In Section3we show how we can eliminate the occurrence of stuff-bits in the header part of the CAN frame and in Sec-tion4we present our independent bit-stuf?ng model along with a method for data transformation which signi?cantly reduces the number of stuff-bits in the data part of the CAN frame.In Section5we combine the techniques described in Section3and Section4,and in Section6we show the result of using our methods and models in a case-study.Fi-nally Section7presents our conclusions and outlines future work.

2.Traditional schedulability analysis of CAN

frames

The Controller Area Network(CAN)[15]is a broadcast bus designed to operate at speeds of up to1Mbps.CAN is extensively used in automotive systems,as well as in other applications.CAN transmits data in frames containing be-tween0and8bytes of data and47control bits,as shown in Figure1.(There is also an extended format,which contains 20more control bits.The main difference is that the ex-tended format has29identi?er bits instead of11bits.Please consult[4]for more details.)

Among the control bits there is an11-bit identi?er as-sociated with each frame(plus another18when using the extended format).The identi?er is required to be unique,in the sense that two simultaneously active frames originating from different sources must have distinct identi?ers.The identi?er serves two purposes:(1)assigning a priority to the frame,and(2)enabling receivers to?lter frames.For a more detailed explanation of the different?elds in the CAN frame,please consult[15]or[4].

CAN is a collision-detect broadcast bus,which uses de-terministic collision resolution to control access to the bus. The basis for the access mechanism is the electrical charac-teristics of a CAN bus:if multiple stations are transmitting concurrently and one station transmits a‘0’then all stations monitoring the bus will see a‘0’.Conversely,only if all stations transmit a‘1’will all processors monitoring the bus see a‘1’.During arbitration,competing stations are simul-taneously putting their identi?ers,one bit at the time,on the bus.By monitoring the resulting bus value,a station detects if there is a competing higher priority frame and stops trans-mission if this is the case.Because identi?ers are required to be unique within the system,a station transmitting the last bit of the identi?er without detecting a higher priority frame must be transmitting the highest priority queued frame,and hence can start transmitting the body of the frame.

2.1.Classical CAN bus analysis

Tindell et al.[18][19][20]present analysis to calculate the worst-case latencies of CAN frames.This analysis is based on the standard?xed priority response time analysis for CPU scheduling[1].

Calculating the response times requires a bounded worst case queuing pattern of frames.The standard way of ex-pressing this is to assume a set of traf?c streams,each gen-erating frames with a?xed priority.The worst-case be-haviour of each stream,in terms of network load,is to send as many frames as they are allowed,i.e.,to periodically queue frames.In analogue with CPU scheduling,we ob-tain a model with a set of streams(corresponding to CPU tasks).Each is a triple,where

is the priority(de?ned by the frame identi?er),is the pe-riod and the worst-case transmission time of frames sent on stream.The worst-case latency of a CAN frame sent on stream is,if we assume the minimum variation

in queuing time relative to be0,de?ned by

(1) where is the queuing jitter of the frame,i.e.,the maxi-mum variation in queuing time relative,inherited from the sender task which queues the frame,and represents the effective queuing time,given by:

(2) where the term is the worst-case blocking time of frames sent on,is the set of streams with priority higher than,(the bit-time)caters for the difference in arbi-tration start times at the different nodes due to propagation delays and protocol tolerances,and is an er-ror term denoting the time required for error signalling and

recovery.The reason for the blocking factor is that trans-missions are non-preemptive,i.e.,after a bus arbitration has started the frame with the highest priority among compet-ing frames will be transmitted until completion,even if a frame with higher priority gets queued before the transmis-sion is completed.However,in case of errors a frame can be interrupted/preempted during transmission,requiring a complete retransmission of the entire frame.The extra cost for this is catered for in the error term above.

Note that(2)is a recurrence relation,where the approx-imation to the value of is found in terms of the n th approximation,with the?rst approximation set to zero.A solution is reached when.

2.2.Effects of bit-stuf?ng,worst case

In CAN,six consecutive bits of the same polarity (or)are used for error and protocol control signalling.To avoid these special bit patterns in transmit-ted frames,a bit of opposite polarity is inserted after?ve consecutive bits of the same polarity.By reversing the pro-cedure,these bits are then removed at the receiver side.This technique,which is called bit-stuf?ng,implies that the ac-tual number of transmitted bits may be larger than the size of the original frame,corresponding to an additional trans-mission delay which needs to be considered in the analysis.

According to the CAN standard[15],the total number of bits in a CAN frame before bit-stuf?ng is:

(3) where is the number of bytes of payload data() and is the number of bits in the control part of the CAN frame.The frame layout is de?ned such that only of these bits are subject to bit-stuf?ng(see Figure1). In the standard format and in the extended format

.Therefore the total number of bits after bit-stuf?ng can be no more than:

(4)

Intuitively the above formula captures the number of stuff-bits in the worst case scenario,shown in Figure2.

111110000111100001111....

before stuffing

stuffed bits

11111000001111100000111110....

after stuffing

Figure2.The worst-case scenario when stuff-

ing bits.

Let be the worst-case time taken to transmit a bit on the bus–the so-called bit time(including the inter-frame space).The worst-case time taken to transmit a given frame is therefore:

(5) 3.Careful priority usage

In this section we will investigate how it is possible to avoid/minimize stuff-bits in the header part of the CAN frame.For simplicity we will focus on the standard for-mat,but the same reasoning holds for the extended format. The obtained data for the extended format is shown in the end of this section.

Known bit-values(standard

format data frame)

Figure3.CAN frame header,the?rst6?elds

of the CAN frame(standard format).

The priority of the standard format CAN frame,which is also the arbitration?eld,consists of11bits(as can be seen in Figure3),which are subject to bit-stuf?ng before the frame is actually transmitted.

Number of Number of bytes of data in the CAN message frame

stuff-bits

1

2

3

4

Table1.Amount of remaining priorities for various data lengths and their corresponding number of stuff-bits(standard format).

Number of Number of bytes of data in the CAN message frame

stuff-bits

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Table2.Amount of remaining priorities for various data lengths and their corresponding number of stuff-bits(extended format).Due to large numbers,only percentages are shown(percentages of ).

By carefully selecting priorities we can avoid the effect of stuff-bits in the frame header,i.e.,by excluding the iden-ti?ers that lead to bit-stuf?ng we can`a priori make sure that there will be no stuff-bits in any of the?elds shown in Fig-ure3.The drawback of this is that we have forbidden the usage of some selected priorities,which obviously comes at a cost,since originally we could use all11bits to repre-sent the priority and identity of the CAN frame,which gave us(2048)different priorities,and after the removal of selected priorities,it turns out that we have either of the fol-lowing two scenarios:(1)we can eliminate the number of stuff-bits in the CAN header,or(2)we can minimize the number of stuff-bits in the CAN header to1.

The actual numbers of stuff-bits,by forbidding priori-ties,are described in Table1.Worth noticing is that the number of stuff-bits depends on the number of data bytes in the frame.This since the DLC?eld,see Figure3,con-sists of4bits describing the number of bytes of data in the frame.Thus,this bit pattern will affect the number of stuff-bits generated in the frame header(all frame?elds before the data part of the CAN frame,as shown in Figure3).

What we can see in Table1is that we have3different groups of scenarios:1.The?rst group is when we have0-3bytes of data.Here

it is impossible to eliminate the occurrence of stuff-bits in the CAN header,but we can make sure that we will only have at most one stuff-bit.However,by for-bidding priorities,the number of priorities that we can use decrease to1332(0bytes of data),1436(1byte of data)or1490(for2-3bytes of data).

2.The second scenario is when we have4-7bytes of data.

Here we can eliminate the number of stuff-bits in the CAN header by forbidding priorities,leaving745us-able priorities.One can argue that forbidding prior-ities would be the same as to use redundant bits as “virtual stuff-bits”(since the number of usable prior-ities require less bits for representation compared to the number of bits that are allocated for describing the priority;some bits are left“unused”).Although there is some truth in this reasoning,the CAN header has a?xed number of bits.Hence,even if we are using fewer priorities,the number of bits in the CAN header stays the same.

3.The third and?nal scenario is when we have8bytes

of data.Also here we can eliminate the stuff-bits by

original frame

bit mask encoded frame

transmitted frame

encoded frame

bit-mask original frame 1111100001101010

01010010110000010

XOR operation

Figure 4.Encoding/decoding process for the proposed method.

forbidding priorities.The number of usable priorities is then 1131.

Conclusions of what is presented in Table 1is that we can eliminate the occurrences of stuff-bits in the CAN header (when the message contains 4-8bytes of data)by forbidding priorities,and the cost for this is a reduction of the num-ber of available priorities.Therefore we believe that this method can be used,depending on the application’s need of priorities,to eliminate the effect of bit-stuf?ng in the header part of the CAN message frame.

Corresponding values for the extended format are shown in Table 2.

4.Independent bit-stuf?ng model and a

method for data transformation

In our previous paper [13]we propose a method to re-duce the effect of bit-stuf?ng in the data part of the CAN frame.The motivation is to investigate the level of pes-simism of traditional schedulability analysis for the Con-troller Area Network (CAN).

The method,show in Figure 4,reduces the actual num-ber of stuff-bits in the CAN data frame by transforming the message using an XOR operation on the data together with a bit-mask.By doing this,we showed with a case-study that the actual number of stuff-bits was signi?cantly reduced,as can be seen in Figure 5.Here we can see (Real traf?c)the number of stuff-bits in an industrial application (samples taken from one of our automotive partners).In relation to this,we also see the number of stuff-bits in arti?cial data generated by assuming independent and equal probability of a ’1’and ’0’in each bit position (50/50),and the number of stuff-bits in the same industrial data,but after using the method described above (Real traf?c using XOR).

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/787189445.html,bination of techniques

The methods described in Section 3and Section 4can be combined in order to signi?cantly reduce the variation of CAN message frame lengths,i.e.,reducing the jitter.We will in this section additionally integrate the last ?eld in the CAN frame,the CRC ?eld,in the jitter reduction.

With the ?rst method,we reduced the worst-case number of stuff-bits in the frame header to 0or 1(depending on the number of data bytes in the CAN frame)from 4,which is the theoretical value that we have to use in a safe worst-case analysis.

Combining this with the second method we further re-duce the number of stuff-bits.As can be seen in Figure 5we have reduced the number of stuff-bits in an 8byte data part of a frame to 3from 13(analytically 15).

Finally,the last part of the CAN frame to investigate is the CRC ?eld at the end of the frame,shown in Figure 1.We believe,since CRC-generation essentially coincides with pseudo random binary sequence generation,that the 50/50model described in [13]and in Section 4is suitable for de-scribing these bits,i.e.,we assume that the CRC essentially is a sequence of bits with equal and independent probabil-ity for bit value 0and 1,respectively.The model assumes independence among bits and equal probability for having bit-value 0or 1.What we do then is that we use our model for both the data part and the CRC ?eld of the CAN frame.According to the model,the number of stuff-bits and their corresponding probabilities for the data and the CRC part of the frame are described in Table 3.

By using our model we can see,when for example us-ing 8bytes of data,that the number of stuff-bits is reduced from,analytically 24to 11when the acceptable probabil-ity of exceeding the maximum frame size is in the order of

,since where probabil-ity of having exactly stuff-bits.Therefore,we have sig-

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Number of stuffed bits

P r o b a b i l i t y (%)

Figure 5.Probability density functions,PDF:s,showing the number of stuff-bits in a 64bit frame.We show here our independent 50/50model,the real CAN traf ?c and the manipulated real CAN traf ?c.

Nof bytes of data 012345678Nof bits

0816243240485664Total (CRC+data)

1523313947556371796.76E-01 4.85E-01 3.61E-01 2.69E-01 2.00E-01 1.49E-01 1.11E-018.25E-02 6.14E-022.29E-01 3.88E-01 4.07E-01 3.91E-01 3.57E-01 3.15E-01 2.71E-01 2.29E-01 1.90E-013.23E-02 1.12E-01 1.84E-01 2.41E-01 2.78E-01 2.96E-01 2.99E-01 2.90E-01 2.73E-016.10E-04

1.41E-02 4.23E-028.10E-02 1.24E-01 1.64E-01 1.98E-01

2.23E-01 2.40E-016.93E-04

5.18E-03 1.62E-02 3.46E-02 5.90E-028.73E-02 1.17E-01 1.45E-013.20E-04 1.96E-03

6.31E-03 1.45E-02 2.70E-02 4.37E-02 6.35E-028.27E-06 1.38E-04

7.54E-04 2.48E-03 6.04E-03 1.21E-02 2.09E-024.94E-08

5.11E-06 5.76E-05 2.94E-049.82E-04 2.50E-03 5.29E-038.01E-08 2.65E-06 2.38E-05 1.16E-04 3.91E-04 1.03E-032.27E-10

6.54E-08 1.27E-069.80E-06 4.60E-05 1.57E-046.76E-10 4.11E-08 5.77E-07 4.02E-06 1.84E-051.46E-12

7.16E-10 2.26E-08 2.56E-07 1.65E-065.17E-12 5.43E-10 1.15E-08 1.12E-077.44E-15

7.00E-12 3.45E-10 5.56E-093.68E-14 6.36E-12 1.96E-103.66E-17

6.25E-14 4.64E-122.46E-16 6.75E-141.76E-19

5.19E-161.57E-188.30E-22

Table 3.Number of stuff-bits,with corresponding probability of occurrence (

equals

).

ni?cantly reduced the maximum number of stuff-bits and thus,the interval between maximum and minimum number of stuff-bits is smaller,i.e.,we have reduced the considered jitter.

We must also remember that these values are based on

our model.When using our method to decrease the number of stuff-bits in a real system the actual number of stuff-bits can be even smaller,as shown in Figure 5.

Nof bits Head Data CRC Entire frame Entire w prio.Data XOR New CRC Entire XOR Entire w XOR+prio 0000.36618000.786050.8783400.69409 1000.41301000.147860.1197300.21820

20.5955000.22081000.014490.001930.514570.02668

30.389620.000200000.0516000.230320.06047

40.004690.00341000.00225000.173380.00056

50.010190.01505000.00678000.019420

600.0161300.002250.02291000.062110

700.0405700.003250.01677000.000200

800.2298400.008630.090200000

900.2297200.034190.116080000

1000.1868200.023870.306440000

1100.0038900.180760.164190000

1200.2155100.224100.115560000

1300.0588600.077000.076960000

140000.260210.056220000

150000.078240.025640000

160000.0513200000

170000.0561800000

Table4.Number of stuff-bits in the samples,with corresponding probability of occurrence.

6.Case-study

In order to validate our method and model,we make use of samples taken from one of our industrial partners.Firstly, we investigate the actual number of stuff-bits in some25 000CAN frames(extended format).This result is then compared with the same CAN frames,both with and with-out the usage of the methods described in this paper.

The number of stuff-bits in the CAN frame,both with the XOR manipulation as described in Section4,and with-out manipulation,are shown in Figure6.What we can read from the?gure is that the actual worst-case number of stuff-

Our independent model is also shown with respect to the careful priority select.

bits has dropped from17to7,this as a result of remov-ing patterns of consecutive bits in the data part of the CAN frame.We used the same bit-pattern for the mask,as shown in Figure4.Note that we have not used the method for se-lecting priorities yet.

In order to further reduce the number of stuff-bits in the CAN frame we also make use of the method based on for-bidding some priorities,as described in Section3The re-sult of this is shown in Figure7along with the indepen-dent model described in Section4(also shown as the right most column of Table3).Note here that with the knowl-edge of elimination of stuff-bits in the CAN header,we use the50/50model only for the data part and the CRC part of the CAN frame.The result of carefully selecting priorities gives us even less stuff-bits.We have now reduced the ac-tual worst-case number of stuff-bits from17to4,as can be seen in Figure7.

The results from all experiments within the case-study are shown in Table4.Here we can see the number of stuff-bits in the header,data and CRC part of the original frame as well as the number of stuff-bits in the whole CAN frame. Furthermore,the number of stuff-bits in the data and CRC part of the frame after the XOR method are shown.Finally, the number of stuff-bits in the whole CAN frame,after ap-plying both the XOR method and the priority selection,is shown.

This case-study shows that we can,by using the methods described in this paper,substantially reduce the worst-case number of stuff-bits in a message;in our case from17to 4.This should be compared to the analytical value of29, which is the theoretical value that we must use in a worst-case analysis.Also worth noticing is that the variation of frame length has decreased a lot,i.e.,the jitter is substan-tially reduced.

7.Conclusions

In dimensioning safety critical systems,a central activ-ity is to validate that suf?cient resources are allocated to provide required behavioural,timing,and reliability guar-antees.Reducing utilisation is essential,since it may allow the use of cheaper solutions in applications.Since the vali-dation of a system or a product typically is based on a model of a system,it is important to reduce the modelled utilisa-

tion,i.e.,the utilisation given by the model.This can be achieved either by more accurate modelling,or by reducing the actual utilisation of the system.Focusing on bit-stuf?ng in CAN,we have in this paper presented a method that both increases the accuracy of the modeling,and reduces the ac-tual bus utilisation.What we achieve by doing this is an improvement in terms of reducing jitter.By lowering the maximum number of stuff-bits that can occur in a frame, we have signi?cantly reduced the jitter caused by the vary-ing number of stuff-bits in a CAN frame.

We achieved increased accuracy in the modelling by tak-ing bit-stuf?ng distributions into consideration.This al-lowed us to reduce the frame size used when performing timing analysis of the CAN bus.This may have dramatic effects on the calculated response time,e.g.,a system that with traditional worst-case analysis is deemed unschedula-ble may be shown to with a very high probability meet its deadlines.

We have also carefully selected a number of valid pri-orities,among all possible priorities,in order to eliminate the number of stuff-bits in the frame header.The combi-nation of these two methods gives us a method to decrease the number of stuff-bits in the whole CAN frame.The true effects of our methods have been shown in a case-study.

From a strict hard real-time perspective,our contribution is that we illustrate the level of inherent pessimism in such analysis.From a more pragmatic industrial perspective,our results indicate the feasibility of suf?ciently safe analysis methods,which at the penalty of just a slight and control-lable optimism has a potential to substantially reduce the system resource requirements,compared to the resource re-quirements suggested by the hard real-time analysis.

In our future work we plan to investigate this further,by examining if it is possible to completely eliminate the oc-currence of stuff-bits in the data part of the frame.Further-more,it would be interesting to see the result by combining this method with the work done in[2][6][7]in order to re-duce the jitter caused by the blocking of other messages.

We also want to set up a real system to test the methods with respect to latency.

Our ultimate goal is to combine all of this into a complete engineering method for making well founded trade offs be-tween levels of timing guarantees and reliability.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the anony-mous reviewers for their helpful comments.The work presented in this paper was supported by the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research(SSF)via the research programme ARTES,the Swedish Foundation for Knowl-edge and Competence Development(KK-stiftelsen),and M¨a lardalen University.References

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PSS仿真原理

PSS仿真的原理是什么 Q:我一直没有弄明白PSS仿真的原理是什么,只知道他叫做周期稳态仿真,貌似仿那种非线性很强的电路会遇到不收敛的问题。 很想知道这种仿真原理是什么,为什么一般是PSS加上另外一个一起仿真????? A1:我是这么理解的: PSS先假设你的信号是周期性的(1/beat frequency),它寻找这个周期内的信号是否重复出现,如果电路非线性很强,可能导致周期性不强(两个周期内信号不完全重合),如果精度设定比较高,就会出现不收敛。一般向相位噪声,jitter 这种周期信号特有的特性,可以先做PSS找到周期信号,然后再分析每个周期内的相位差别,从而找到pnoise结果。 望高人指点。 A2:pss是针对时钟控制电路的稳定性分析,spectre使用一种overshooting 的算法持续计算n个(例如5个)时钟的电路dc工作点,然后比较,如果这n个周期算下来的结构都一致,说明电路稳定 A3:我认为PSS是一种比较精确的仿真方式。 我对他的理解是这样的: PSS,Periodic steady-state,其译名是稳态谐波仿真,就是电路以一个周期为节点,先仿第一个周期,然后第二个周期,进行比较,看电路是否进入稳态,否则,再仿真一个周期,与第二个周期作比较,看电路是否进入稳态。有点类似数值分析里面的迭代算法,看两次迭代的结果是否在误差允许范围内,通过这样的一种方式得到一个稳态的电路状态,然后进行时域到频域的变换,得到一些频域的电路状态。 A4:至于和其他的如PSP一起仿真,是因为别的仿真是基于PSS的。 至于设置问题,一般是设置它的仿真算法和误差容忍范围,即判决何时到达稳态。 A5:一般AC的是先DC找到DC工作点,再AC小信号, 同理,PSS是先找到周期性工作点,取决于大信号,然后做PAC等等是在PSS工作点上的小信号处理

电子分频器要注意的几点问题及故障排除

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4、低音模式: 有些电子分频器后面板有一个低音模式的选择,它可以把2路立体声信号混合成1路单声道信号,这样可以减少低音音箱之间的声干涉。大家可以适当利用下。 当然要是低音分频点分的较高,那么低音音箱发出的声音就会有一定的指向性了,此时还是要在2路立体声信号的状态下工作较好。 5、立体声工作模式和单声道工作模式: 目前我们使用的大多数电子分频器都是2分频的居多,考虑到灵活性和多功能性,这些电子分频器的后面板一般会有一个立体声和单声道的工作模式转换开关,如果把此开关放在单声道工作模式下,那么此时这台电子分频器就从一台双通道2分频的电子分频器变成了一台单通道3分频的电子分频器了。因此除非必要,否则不要轻易转换此工作开关,要不然电子分频器后面信号输出口所输出的频率信号就会大不一样了!轻者恶化了音质,重者还会损坏设备! 6、系统中低音信号的输出和中高音信号的输出一定不要搞混了,否则高音信号给了低音音箱,低音信号给了高音音箱,那样南辕北辙的做法音响系统中就真的没有声音出来了,因为频率不对呀!搞不好还会烧坏音箱呢! 电子分频器故障例子: 1、05年朋友在长沙做了一个大型的酒吧,音响系统中共使用了单12寸全频主音箱16只,双18寸重低音音箱22只,还有其它20多只辅助音箱。但开业几天后发现主音箱的单12寸的喇叭坏了2只,开始那里的技术人员以为是正常损坏,更换了2只新的喇叭了事,但后来一个星期内陆陆续续的又坏了6只12寸的全频喇叭,这样就很不正常了,而且除了12寸主音箱发生故障外别的音箱都没有问题。后来我去帮忙检查了下系统,发现那里的电子分频器分的频率太低,我把分频器的分频点从130Hz调高到了230Hz,这样问题就解决了,而且低音效果也比以前好了很多。其实道理很简单: 这个系统中由于要兼顾人声演出,所以采用了对人声表现较好的12寸全频主音箱,开始时电子分频器的分频点在130Hz,这是什么概念呢?就是说系统中

相位噪声和Jitter概念

相位噪声和抖动jitter的概念及估算方法 时钟频率的不断提高使和在系统时序上占据日益重要的位置。本文介其概念及其对系统性能的影响,并在电路板级、芯片级和单元模块级分别提供了减小相位噪声和抖动的有效方法。 随着通信系统中的时钟速度迈入GHz级,相位噪声和抖动这两个在模拟设计中十分关键的因素,也开始在数字芯片和电路板的性能中占据日益重要的位置。在高速系统中,时钟或振荡器波形的时序误差会限制一个数字I/O接口的最大速率,不仅如此,它还会增大通信链路的误码率,甚至限制A/D转换器的动态范围。 在此趋势下,高速数字设备的设计师们也开始更多地关注时序因素。本文向数字设计师们介绍了相位噪声和抖动的基本概念,分析了它们对系统性能的影响,并给出了能够将相位抖动和噪声降至最低的常用电路技术。 什么是相位噪声和抖动? 相位噪声和抖动是对同一种现象的两种不同的定量方式。在理想情况下,一个频率固定的完美的脉冲信号(以1 MHz为例)的持续时间应该恰好是1微秒,每500ns有一个跳变沿。 但不幸的是,这种信号并不存在。如图1所示,信号周期的长度总会有一定变化,从而导致下一个沿的到来时间不确定。这种不确定就是相位噪声,或者说抖动。 抖动是一个时域概念 抖动是对信号时域变化的测量结果,它从本质上描述了信号周期距离其理想值偏离了多少。通常,10 MHz以下信号的周期变动并不归入抖动一类,而是归入偏移或者漂移。抖动有两种主要类型:确定性抖动和随机性抖动。确定性抖动是由可识别的干扰信号造成的,这种抖动通常幅度有限,具备特定的(而非随机的)产生原因,而且不能进行统计分析。造成确定性抖动的来源主要有4种: 1. 相邻信号走线之间的串扰:当一根导线的自感增大后,会将其相邻信号线周围的感应磁场转化为感应电流,而感应电流会使电压增大或减小,从而造成抖动。 2. 敏感信号通路上的EMI辐射:电源、AC电源线和RF信号源都属于EMI源。与串扰类似,当附近存在EMI辐射时,时序信号通路上感应到的噪声电流会调制时序信号的电压值。 3. 多层基底中电源层的噪声:这种噪声可能改变逻辑门的阈值电压,或者改变阈值电压的参考地电平,从而改变开关门电路所需的电压值。

ns-3网络仿真

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NodeContainer nodes; nodes.Create (2); 创建两个节点; PointToPointHelper pointToPoint; pointToPoint.SetDeviceAttribute ("DataRate", StringValue ("5Mbps")); pointToPoint.SetChannelAttribute ("Delay", StringValue ("2ms")); 设置链路的传输速率为5Mbps,时延为2ms; NetDeviceContainer devices; devices = pointToPoint.Install (nodes); 为每个节点添加网络设备 Ptrem=CreateObject (); em->SetAttribute("ErrorRate",DoubleValue(0.00001)); devices.Get(1)->SetAttribute("ReceiveErrorModel",PointerValue (em)); 创建一个错误模型,讲错误率设置为0.00001,仿真TCP协议的重传机制。 InternetStackHelper stack; stack.Install (nodes); 为每个节点安装协议栈; Ipv4AddressHelper address; address.SetBase ("10.1.1.0", "255.255.255.252"); Ipv4InterfaceContainer interfaces = address.Assign (devices); 为每个节点的网络设备添加IP地址; 这样一个简单的网络拓扑就建立完成。 接下来就是为这个网络节点添加应用程序,让他们在这个网络中模拟传输数据,具体代

专业电子分频器的使用技巧

专业电子分频器的使用技巧 在一套音响系统中提到分频器一般来说是指能将:20Hz--20000Hz频段的音频信号分成合适的、不同的几个频率段,然后分别送给相应功放,用来推动相应音箱的一种音响周边设备。由于它是一种用来处理、分配音频频率信号的电子设备,所以我们通常也叫它:电子分频器。电子分频器的详细功能和工作原理我就不多说了,这里我只是侧重于对一些大家比较重视或经常感到困惑的方面做一些通俗易懂的介绍,希望能对大家有所帮助! 一、我们为什么要使用电子分频器 我们音响师研究电声和现在电声设备与技术的不断发展都是为了一个目的:就是要尽量忠实的再现各种音源,当然要把自然界里千奇百怪、各种各样的声音完全利用现在的电声技术再现是不太现实几乎做不到的。大家知道,声音的频率范围是在20Hz—20000Hz之间,现在大多数前级音频处理设备的频率范围是可以达到这样宽度的,但目前的扬声器却成了一个瓶颈部分,我们奢想使用一种或简单几只扬声器就能放送出接近20Hz--20000Hz这样宽频率的声音是很难做到的,因为现在单只喇叭的有效工作频率范围都不是很宽。鉴于此电声工程师们就设计出了在不同频率段内工作的音箱,如: 1、重低音音箱:让它在大约30-200Hz的频率范围内工作。 2、低中音音箱:让它在大约200-2000Hz的频率范围内工作。 3、高音音箱:让它在大约2000-20000Hz的频率范围内工作。 如此以来我们就可以利用在不同频率段工作的不同种类的音箱配置一套能最大限度接近声音真实频率(20Hz--20000Hz)的音响系统了。当然不同音箱设备的构成和参数是不同的,我上面说的是以一个三分频的系统为例,实际使用上还有其它诸如:2分频或4分频等系统,而且不同音响系统中由于采用的音箱会有区别,因此这些音箱的工作频率也不可能是固定相同的,但大体的原理和思路是一样的。 那么有一个问题就是: 我们如何给这些在不同频率段工作的、不同种类的音箱灵活分配音频频率呢?为了解决这个问题,电子分频器就应运而生了,它可以根据不同音箱工作频率的需要提供合适的频率段,例如: 1、我们可以用电子分频器将高频信号通过功放送到高音扬声器中. 2、可以用电子分频器将中频信号通过功放送到中音扬声器中。 3、可以用电子分频器将低频信号通过功放送到低音扬声器中。

超低相位噪声基于频梳的微波产生和性能

超低相位噪声基于频梳的微波产生和性能 摘要——我们通过光电检测锁定于1.5um超窄线宽超稳定激光的基于铒掺杂光纤频梳相位的脉冲串来报告12GHz超低相位噪声微波信号的产生。拥有先进的光电检测技术和自制相位噪声计量器具,我们的实验证明了微波源的产生,具有10KHz以上且低于170dBc/Hz,源自一个12 GHz 载体的1Hz且低于100dBc/Hz的全相噪声,这将极大推进目前最好的记录结果。 关键字——光纤频梳,光电微波源,超低相位噪声 前言 诸如无线通讯,雷达,深空航行系统,精密微波光谱学的许多应用都需要超稳定微波信号。这种光纤信号通过光纤频梳产生是特别有趣的,因为它允许把无法超越的超稳定连续波激光的光谱纯度转变成微波领域(同光纤和太赫兹辐射波领域),潜在的引导记录低相位噪声微波源。 光纤到微波的转变由拥有超稳定光纤参考频率的飞秒激光器的重复率同步完成。通过光纤脉冲串的快速光电探测对微波信号进行更深入的提取。然而,光电产生微波信号的光谱纯度同时受到频梳重复率性能以及光电探测过程自身的限制。光电探测进程收到了影响,特别是振幅

相位转变(APC)的影响,它转变了微波信号相位噪声中飞秒激光的强烈噪声,同时,它还受到光电探测器的约翰逊·奈奎斯特定理和冲击的影响。 我们通过增加产生在重复率相关谐波的微波功率来克服后来基本原理的限制,并运用基于光纤的梳状滤波器,该滤波器增加脉冲串的有效重复率,并与高线性高处理功率的光电探测器结合。我们也发展了一套自动测量伺服装置来降低APC的水平,这种状态下就不会对我们生产的微波信号的相位噪声产生重大的影响。 对其自身而言,超低相位噪声微波的特性达到这种水平状态是一项有趣的挑战。我们已经发明了一套基于3光纤频梳的特殊装置(给基础参考频率额外加上一个作为参考),3超稳定激光,一个高质量微波电路以及一个基于现场可编程门阵列自制的外差法振荡器,在源自具有极低的振幅噪声敏感度的12Ghz载体的傅里叶频率大于1KHz的条件下,该振荡器与达到低于-180dBc/Hzd的测量噪声水平互相关。 II 实验装置 我们的实验装置由一些光纤频梳和超稳定连续波激光器。这些超稳定连续波激光器由波长为1.5um的半导体二极管激光器组成,激光器被超高精细度(典型~6 10)的超高真空法布里-珀罗空腔的调制技术伺服。

Cadence仿真简介

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图2是信号由CPU 向SDRAM 驱动时的时序图,也就是数据与时钟的传输方向相同时 的情况。 Tsetup ’ Thold ’ CPU CLK OUT SDRAM CLK IN CPU Signals OUT SDRAM Signals IN Tco_min Tco_max T ft_clk T ft_data T cycle SDRAM ’S inputs Setup time SDRAM ’S inputs Hold time 图2 图中参数解释如下: ■ Tft_clk :时钟信号在PCB 板上的传输时间; ■ Tft_data :数据信号在PCB 板上的传输时间; ■ Tcycle :时钟周期 ■ Tsetup’:数据到达接收缓冲器端口时实际的建立时间; ■ Thold’:数据到达接收缓冲器端口时实际的保持时间; ■ Tco_max/Tco_min :时钟到数据的输出有效时间。 由图2的时序图,我们可以推导出,为了满足接收芯片的Tsetup 和Thold 时序要求,即 Tsetup’>Tsetup 和Thold’>Thold ,所以Tft_clk 和Tft_data 应满足如下等式: Tft_data_min > Thold – Tco_min + Tft_clk (公式1) Tft_data_max < Tcycle - Tsetup – Tco_max + Tft_clk (公式2) 当信号与时钟传输方向相反时,也就是图1中数据由SDRAM 向CPU 芯片驱动时,可 以推导出类似的公式: Tft_data_min > Thold – Tco_min - Tft_clk (公式3) Tft_data_max < Tcycle - Tsetup – Tco_max - Tft_clk (公式4) 如果我们把时钟的传输延时Tft_clk 看成是一个带符号的数,当时钟的驱动方向与数据 驱动方向相同时,定义Tft_clk 为正数,当时钟驱动方向与数据驱动方向相反时,定义Tft_clk 为负数,则公式3和公式4可以统一到公式1和公式2中。 三.Cadence 的时序仿真 在上面推导出了时序的计算公式,在公式中用到了器件手册中的Tco 参数,器件手册中 Tco 参数的获得,实际上是在某一种测试条件下的测量值,而在实际使用上,驱动器的实际 负载并不是手册上给出的负载条件,因此,我们有必要使用一种工具仿真在实际负载条件下 的信号延时。Cadence 提供了这种工具,它通过仿真提供了实际负载条件下和测试负载条件 下的延时相对值。 我们先来回顾一下CADENCE 的仿真报告形式。仿真报告中涉及到三个参数:FTSmode 、

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功率分频器是家庭HiFi音响中最常见的分频器,它处于功放之后、喇叭之前。正是因为它需要承受功放输出的巨大功率,所以称为功率分频器。功率分频器都是无源滤波器。 电子分频器则用来构成另一种音响系统。它处于音源之后,功放之前。经过它的音频信号较弱,所以通常用有源滤波器来实现。因此电子分频器也常被成为:有源分频器、主动分频器等。

功率分频器由于受元器件所限,所以在阻抗匹配、相位特性、插入损耗等方面和电子分频相比都不具优势。更重要的是,电子分频系统中,以多台功放分工合作的方式代替了功率分频系统中一台功放全力工作的方式,使得对功放的要求明显下降,但表现却能大大提升。 其实在专业音响上,电子分频系统早就被成熟运用。不过略有不同的是,专业音响中更多使用的电子分频器是DSP(数字信号处理器),它的最大特别是集成度高,功能强大,可以对曲线等进行各种调整。而在家用HiFi音响中,特别是对普通用户来说,笔者更推荐使用模拟的电子分频器。模拟的电子分频器没有很多功能和可调整的部分,但也因此能拥有更自然更优质的声音。 当然,不可否认,无论哪种音响系统如果设计合理,都可能发出好声音。 一家之言,仅供参考。

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航天器在轨运行的三维可视化仿真 空间科学与物理学院空间科学与技术专业林凡庆 指导教师许国昌杜玉军摘要:航天器在轨运行的三维可视化程序设计是建立卫星仿真系统最基础的工作。航天器在轨运行的三维可视化仿真有着重要的意义:它既可以使用户对卫星在轨运行情况形成生动直观、全面具体的视觉印象,又可以大大简化卫星轨道的设计过程。本文首先构建了航天器在轨运行的三维可视化仿真程序的基本框架,然后对涉及到的关键理论与知识,如时间、坐标转换、卫星轨道理论、OpenGL图形开发库等也做了阐述,最后介绍了我们的主要工作和科研成果。我们的主要成果是实现了卫星在轨运行的三维可视化仿真并对原有程序进行了改进。 关键词:航天器在轨运行三维可视化程序设计 OpenGL Abstract:The programmer of three-dimensional visualization on satellite in-orbiting is the utmost foundational work in establishing satellite emulation system. The three-dimensional visual simulation on satellite is of great significance: it assures that users may receive a vivid and direct-viewing and it also can greatly simplify the design process of satellite orbit.The basic frame of three-dimensional visual simulation program on satellite in-orbiting has been set up firstly. then, related essential theory and knowledge such as time system, coordinate conversation, satellite orbit, OpenGL and etc also has been introduced. Lastly, our main work and research results has been introduced. Our main achievement is that we realized the program of three-dimensional visualization on satellite in-orbiting and we improve the original program. Key words:satellite In-orbit movement 3D visualization programming OpenGL 一、引言 当今社会是一个信息的社会,谁掌握了信息的主动权,就意味着掌握了整个世界。而人造卫星是当今人们准确、实时、全面的获取信息的重要手段,卫星的各项应用已经成为信息社会发展的强大动力。而人造卫星的应用是一项高投入、高风险、长周期的活动,仿真技术由于具有可控制、可重复、经济、安全、高效的特点,在人造卫星应用领域以至整个航天领域都起到了重大的作用。目前国际上较常用的卫星仿真软件主要有美国的Winorbit、美国Cybercom System公司研制的CPLAN和AGI公司的STK。其中以STK功能最为强大,界面最为友好,在卫星仿真领域占有绝对领先地位。STK功能虽然强大,但其价格昂贵,源码也不公开,无法自主扩展,并且该软件被限制了对中国的销售,所以中国不得不独立开发适于自己的卫星仿真系统[1]。而且国内目前卫星系统的仿真软件很少,主要有一些大学开发的小型的卫星系统仿真软件,还有北京航天慧海系统仿真科技有限公司开发的Vpp-STK航天卫星仿真开发平台V4.0。总体来说,国内目前在这个方面的技术还相当不成熟,因此研究和自主开发卫星仿真系统意义重大。 仿真可视化,就是把仿真中的数字信息变为直观的,以图形图像形式表示的,随时间和空间变化的仿真过程呈现在研究人员面前,使研究人员能够知道系统中变量之间、变量与参数之间、变量与外部环境之间的关系,直接获得系统的静态和动态特征[2]。 本文首先构建了航天器在轨运行的三维可视化仿真程序的基本框架,然后对涉及到的关键理论与知识,如时间、坐标转换、卫星轨道理论、OpenGL图形开发库等也做了阐述,最后介绍了我们的主要工作和科研成果。

调音经验4、专业电子分频器的使用技巧

4专业电子分频器的使用技巧 在一套音响系统中提到分频器一般来说是指能将:20Hz--20000Hz频段的音频信号分成合适的、不同的几个频率段,然后分别送给相应功放,用来推动相应音箱的一种音响周边设备。由于它是一种用来处理、分配音频频率信号的电子设备,所以我们通常也叫它:电子分频器。电子分频器的详细功能和工作原理我就不多说了,这里我只是侧重于对一些大家比较重视或经常感到困惑的方面做一些通俗易懂的介绍,希望能对大家有所帮助! 一、我们为什么要使用电子分频器 我们音响师研究电声和现在电声设备与技术的不断发展都是为了一个目的:就是要尽量忠实的再现各种音源,当然要把自然界里千奇百怪、各种各样的声音完全利用现在的电声技术再现是不太现实几乎做不到的。大家知道,声音的频率范围是在20Hz—20000Hz之间,现在大多数前级音频处理设备的频率范围是可以达到这样宽度的,但目前的扬声器却成了一个瓶颈部分,我们奢想使用一种或简单几只扬声器就能放送出接近20Hz--20000Hz这样宽频率的声音是很难做到的,因为现在单只喇叭的有效工作频率范围都不是很宽。鉴于此电声工程师们就设计出了在不同频率段内工作的音箱,如: 1、重低音音箱:让它在大约30-200Hz的频率范围内工作。 2、低中音音箱:让它在大约200-2000Hz的频率范围内工作。 3、高音音箱:让它在大约2000-20000Hz的频率范围内工作。 如此以来我们就可以利用在不同频率段工作的不同种类的音箱配置一套能最大限度接近声音真实频率(20Hz--20000Hz)的音响系统了。当然不同音箱设备的构成和参数是不同的,我上面说的是以一个三分频的系统为例,实际使用上还有其它诸如:2分频或4分频等系统,而且不同音响系统中由于采用的音箱会有区别,因此这些音箱的工作频率也不可能是固定相同的,但大体的原理和思路是一样的。 那么有一个问题就是: 我们如何给这些在不同频率段工作的、不同种类的音箱灵活分配音频频率呢?为了解决这个问题,电子分频器就应运而生了,它可以根据不同音箱工作频率的需要提供合适的频率段,例如: 1、我们可以用电子分频器将高频信号通过功放送到高音扬声器中. 2、可以用电子分频器将中频信号通过功放送到中音扬声器中。 3、可以用电子分频器将低频信号通过功放送到低音扬声器中。 这样高、中、低频信号独立输出、互不干涉,因此可以尽可能发挥不同扬声器的工作频段优势,使音响系统中各频段声音重放显得更加均衡一些,使声音更具层次感,使音色更加完美。

乘用车起步抖动仿真建模研究

V ol 38No.4 Aug.2018 噪 声与振动控制NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL 第38卷第4期2018年8月 文章编号:1006-1355(2018)04-0100-06 乘用车起步抖动仿真建模研究 朱鹏,曾玉红,黄海波,丁渭平,杨明亮,姜东明 (西南交通大学机械工程学院,成都610031) 摘要:针对手动挡乘用车起步抖动问题,采用Simulink 建立一套包含动力总成系统、悬架系统及车身的当量整车动力学模型。在模型中同时考虑了离合器的摩擦特性和多级扭转非线性特性。仿真得到汽车起步过程中的整车动力学响应,对车身纵向振动加速度进行时域及频域分析,并通过多辆不同实车试验验证所建立模型的合理性。同时,采用车身纵向振动加速度幅值及标准差作为判断依据,结果表明模型仿真与实车试验误差在8%以内。另外还剖析了模型仿真与实车试验的误差成因,为进一步研究起步抖动问题奠定基础。 关键词:振动与波;起步抖动;当量整车模型;Simulink ;仿真建模中图分类号:TB533+.2文献标志码:A DOI 编码:10.3969/j.issn.1006-1355.2018.04.020 Research on Simulation Modeling of Vehicle Starting Judder ZHU Peng ,ZENG Yuhong ,HUANG Haibo , DING Weiping ,YANG Mingliang ,JIANG Dongming (College of Mechanical Engineering,Southwest Jiaotong University,Chengdu 610031,China ) Abstract :Aiming at the starting judder problem of manual vehicles,an equivalent vehicle dynamic model including powertrain,suspension system and body is established by using Simulink.In this model,the friction characteristics of the clutch and the nonlinear characteristics of the multi-stage torsion are both considered.The dynamic response of the vehicle in the starting process is simulated,and the longitudinal vibration acceleration of the vehicle body is analyzed in time domain and frequency domain.The rationality of the model is verified by different vehicle tests.Meanwhile,with the amplitude and the standard deviation of longitudinal vibration acceleration as the judgment bases,the results show that the error between the simulation results and the experimental results is within 8%.In addition,the error causes between the model simulation and the real car test are also analyzed.This study lays a foundation for further research on starting judder of vehicls Keywords :vibration and wave;judder;equivalent vehicle model;Simulink;simulation modeling 手动挡乘用车在起步过程中,车身有时会产生前后方向的抖动,称之为汽车起步抖动问题,这是一种低频抖动现象,频率大约为5Hz ~18Hz 。离合器摩擦盘间激烈地自激振动及其与动力传动系在扭矩传递突变时产生的扭振综合作用是起步抖动产生的主因[1-2]。起步抖动问题严重地降低了车辆的舒适性,同时加速了传动系统部件的疲劳失效。 现已见诸报端的针对汽车起步抖动问题的文献 收稿日期:2017-12-16基金项目:国家自然科学基金资助项目(51775451); 中央高校基本科研业务费理工类科技创新资助项目(2682016CX032) 作者简介:朱鹏(1993-),男,成都市人,硕士研究生,主要研 究方向为汽车噪声与振动。 通信作者:丁渭平,男,陕西省咸阳市人,工学博士,教授。 E-mail:dwp@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/787189445.html, 大多集中在离合器接合过程中的动力学研究,以及基于实车试验的起步抖动主观感受研究。上官文斌等人[3]建立了离合器接合过程中的传动系动力学特性分析模型,说明离合器从动盘扭转刚度对于起步抖动的影响。陈权瑞[4-5]同时考虑离合器摩擦特性及多级扭转非线性特性建立了离合器接合过程的传动系统动力学模型,研究了离合器设计参数对汽车起步抖动的影响。袁智军等人[6]认为离合器摩擦片的摩擦因数突变会导致所传递的摩擦力矩不稳定,从而引发起步抖动。文献[7]从离合器摩擦片材料、压盘结构等全面分析了离合器部件本身对于起步抖动的相互映射关系。陈玉华、孙涛[8-9]等人通过大量实车试验结合主观评价总结出了一套起步抖动评价方法,但他们的研究仅仅局限于离合器部件本身,对于整车起步抖动的评价效果欠佳。另外,实车试验结合主观评价所涉及的试验车辆较多,试验较为费时 万方数据

分频器

L1与C1组成的低通滤波器将200-54的分频点选在1.5kHz,这里将它的分频点恰当进步,主要是单元特性好,更重要是音频的功率八成都会集在中低频,恰当进步低频单元的截止频率,能够充分发扬单元专长,给出的声响将愈加丰满有力度。若是分频点过低,不光丧失了单元优势,反而还会加剧中频单元的担负,导致振幅过载、失真增大等弊端。 尽管中频单元的有用频响宽达800Hz~10kHz,L2、L3与C2、C 3组成的带通滤波器仅取其 1.5~6kHz的一段频带,这也是它的黄金频段。L4、C4构成的高通滤波器将YDQG5-14的分频点定为6kHz,本单元的下限截止频率也获得较高,将愈加轻松自如地在高频段发扬它的专长。因为合理的挑选分频点,3个单元各自都作业在声功率最高的频带,故体系的归纳灵敏度也要比各单元的均匀特性灵敏度高出1~2dB。 分频器元件少,电路也很简单,关于分频电容器最起码的要求是高频特性好,耗费及容量差错小。当前的聚丙烯CBB无极性电容器的耗费角正切值仅为0.08%~0.1%,高频功能优良,体积小、无感、价廉,完全能担任Hi-Fi体系分频电路的需求。本音箱选用耐压为63V的CBB21、CBB22电容器,9.4 uF的用2只4.7 uF的并联即可。高耐压电容在分频器上无大含义,价钱却成倍上升。不要盲目崇拜那些进口货洋电容,这类电容并不一定能显着改进音质,价钱却高得惊人,有时1只10 uF的电容往往超越一只中低频扬声器单元的价格。 分频线圈L的内阻R0巨细直接关系到传输功率与音质,在胆机中分频器与输出变压器二次侧线圈、扬声器音圈及传输馈线呈串联回

(一)、分频器作用和特点 1、基本分频任务:由于现在音箱的种类很多,系统中要采用什么功病能的、几分频的电子分频器还是要灵活配置的,现在通常用的电子频器有2分频、3分频、4分频等区分,超过4分频就显得太复杂和无实际意义了。当然现在的电声技术日新月异,目前还有一些分频器在分频的同时还可以对音频信号进行一些其它方面的处理,但不管什么类型电子分频器的主要功能和任务当然还是分频 2、保护音箱设备:我们知道不同扬声器的工作频率是不一样的,一般来说口径越大的扬声器其低频特性也越好,频率下潜也越低。就好像在相同情况下,18寸扬声器的低音效果一般会比15寸扬声器的低音效果好些;相反中音部分就要采用较小口径的扬声器了,因为通常情况下现在的纸盆振动式扬声器口径越小发出的声音频率也就越高;以此类推高音部分的振动膜片也应该很小才能发出很高频率的声音来。既然扬声器这么复杂,种类又如此繁多,那么如何保障它们能够安全有效的工作就显得很重要了。电子分频器可以提供不同扬声器各自需要的最佳工作频率,让各种扬声器更合理、更安全的工作。设想一下:假如系统中中高音音箱没有经过电子分频器分频,而是直接使用了全频段的音频信号,那么这些中高音音箱在低频信号的冲击下就会很容易损坏,因此,电子分频器除了分频任务外,正常的使用它更重要的功能还有:保护音箱设备。 3、增加声音的层次感:假如一个音响系统中有很多只不同种类的音箱,的确没有使用电子分频器,不同种类的音箱都使用未经分频的全频信号,那不同音箱之间就会有很多频率叠加、重复的部分,声干涉也会变得很严重,声音就会变得模糊不清,声场也会很差而且话筒还会容易产生声反馈。如果使用了电子分频器进行了合理的分频,让不同音箱处在最佳工作状态下,这样不同音箱之间发出的声音频率范围几乎不会重复了,这样就减少了声波互相干涉的现象,声音就会变得格外清晰,音色也会更好、更具有层次感了! (二)、缺点和不足 1、太多分频选择会导致思想混乱:俗话说有利就有弊,和其它专业音响的周边设备一样,电子分频器也不是十全十美的,有些时候系统中需要分频的音箱多了就会显得很复杂,因为不同的音箱就需要有不同的分频点、不同的工作频率段,对于水平一般的音响师来说,在这样的情况下使用电子分频器分频时会让他们觉得无从下手。因此细心仔细的调整是很重要的,同时我们还可以尽量少用4分频,采用2分频或3分频的方法,这样可以简单些,也会让我们的调整思路变得更加清晰些。 2、使用电子分频器后会导致声效下降:虽然使用电子分频器的优点很多,但由于它硬性的规定了不同音箱的工作频率范围,因此也使得这些音箱的效能受到了限制,没有完全发挥出来,浪费了很大一部分资源。例如:一只双15寸的全频音箱不经过电子分频器时可以发出很正常、较大的声音来,但如果经过了电子分频器分频后在200Hz以上频率工作的话,那这只音箱的丰满度和震撼力就会全没有了,因为此时音箱的低音给电子分频器切掉了。同样情况下我们利用电子分频器也切掉了大部分低音音箱的高音部分,虽然这样音色可能会好听了,但不可否认的是低音音箱也浪费掉了大量的能量。这对于音箱数量较多又注重音色的音响系统来说还无所谓,但如果一套音响系统中音箱数量不多又不注重音色只是要大声些,那此时还是不使用电子分频器现实一些。

相位噪声基础及测试原理和方法

摘要: 相位噪声指标对于当前的射频微波系统、移动通信系统、雷达系统等电子系统影响非常明显,将直接影响系统指标的优劣。该项指标对于系统的研发、设计均具有指导意义。相位噪声指标的测试手段很多,如何能够精准的测量该指标是射频微波领域的一项重要任务。随着当前接收机相位噪声指标越来越高,相应的测试技术和测试手段也有了很大的进步。同时,与相位噪声测试相关的其他测试需求也越来越多,如何准确的进行这些指标的测试也愈发重要。 1、引言 随着电子技术的发展,器件的噪声系数越来越低,放大器的动态范围也越来越大,增益也大有提高,使得电路系统的灵敏度和选择性以及线性度等主要技术指标都得到较好的解决。同时,随着技术的不断提高,对电路系统又提出了更高的要求,这就要求电路系统必须具有较低的相位噪声,在现代技术中,相位噪声已成为限制电路系统的主要因素。低相位噪声对于提高电路系统性能起到重要作用。 相位噪声好坏对通讯系统有很大影响,尤其现代通讯系统中状态很多,频道又很密集,并且不断的变换,所以对相位噪声的要求也愈来愈高。如果本振信号的相位噪声较差,会增加通信中的误码率,影响载频跟踪精度。相位噪声不好,不仅增加误码率、影响载频跟踪精度,还影响通信接收机信道内、外性能测量,相位噪声对邻近频道选择性有影响。如果要求接收机选择性越高,则相位噪声就必须更好,要求接收机灵敏度越高,相位噪声也必须更好。 总之,对于现代通信的各种接收机,相位噪声指标尤为重要,对于该指标的精准测试要求也越来越高,相应的技术手段要求也越来越高。 2、相位噪声基础 2.1、什么是相位噪声 相位噪声是振荡器在短时间内频率稳定度的度量参数。它来源于振荡器输出信号由噪声引起的相位、频率的变化。频率稳定度分为两个方面:长期稳定度和短期稳定度,其中,短期稳定度在时域内用艾伦方差来表示,在频域内用相位噪声来表示。 2.2、相位噪声的定义 以载波的幅度为参考,在偏移一定的频率下的单边带相对噪声功率。这个数值是指在1Hz的带宽下的相对噪声电平,其单位为dBc/Hz。该定义最早是基于频谱仪法测试相位噪声,不区分调幅噪声和调相噪声。 单边带相位噪声L(f)定义为随机相位波动单边带功率谱密度Sφ(f)的一半,其单位为dBc/Hz。其中Sφ(f)为随机相位波动φ(t)的单边带功率谱密度,其物理量纲是rad2/Hz。

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