词汇学名词解释 2
1、英语词汇概述：（8%）
（1）英语词汇的谱系关系及其历史发展：英语的谱系关系；英语的三个发展阶段。
（2）英语词汇的构成：基本词汇与专用词汇；英语词汇中的本族词与外来词。（3）英语词汇的三大特点：数量大、来源广、变化多。
‘Indo-European’印欧语系
With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.
1. Word词--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
2．Vocabulary词汇—— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.
3. basic word stock 基本词汇is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part
of it. These words have obvious characteristics.
（1）All national character全民性. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。They include words relating to the following respects:
Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions
（2）Stability稳定性. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.
（3）Productivity 多产性. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes. （4）Polysemy多义性. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.
（5）Collocability搭配性. Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.
4.nonbasic words stock非基本词汇Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following.
（1）Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas
（2）Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.
（3）Slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and impressive.
（4）Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals.
（5）Dialectal words方言词are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.
（6）Archaisms 古语词are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.
（7）Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-。
5.Content words 实义词denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.
6.Functional words 功能词do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.
7.native words本地词——– are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Anglo-Saxon Words， are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language （1. neutral in style文体中性2.frequent in use使用频繁）
8.borrowed words借词——words taken over from foreign languages are know as loan words, constituting 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. The English language has vast debts .
9.Denizens同化词——are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. Such as port from portus (L).?Denizens‘的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).
10.Translation-loans译借词——Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ? long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
11．Semantic-loans借义词——words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and ?music ‘, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.
12.Aliens 异形– retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Such as décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo
2、英语构词法：（27%）
（1）英语单词的结构：自由语素与非自由语素；构词不达意成份，词根、词干、前缀、后缀；。
（2）构词法：词缀法、合成法、转成法、缩略法、逆成法、混成法、拟声法、元音替换法、重音变换法、短语合成法、双词合成法、专有名词转成法。
1.Morpheme词素：A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.
2. Free morpheme自由语素: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: ―help‖, ―table‖, ―room‖ are all free morphemes.
3.Bound morpheme黏着语素: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes either free or bound, to form a word. For example: ―-er‖, ―dis-―, ―-less‖ are all bound morphemes.
4. Bound root黏着词根：A bound root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root ―geo-―combines with another root ―-ology‖, we get the word ―geology‖.
5. Affix词缀: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as ―-ing‖, ―-est‖, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as ―-ly‖, ―dis-―, ―un-―.
6.Inflectional morpheme or affixes屈折语素或屈折词缀: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
7. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes派生语素或派生词缀：Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
8. Prefix前缀: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
9. Suffix后缀: Suffixes occur at the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
10. Root词根：A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
11. Derivation or Affixation派生法和词缀法：-Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.
12. Prefixation前缀法：is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.
13. Suffixation后缀法--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.
14. Compounding复合法：Compounding: : It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit. For example: sailboat, big-mouth, three-year-old.
15. Conversion转换法：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called
zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.
16. Back-formation逆构词: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. For example: typewrite (typewriter), edit (editor)
17. Abbreviation缩写(shortening)：is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. For example: TV (television), Dr (doctor), hr (hour), Jan (January)
Abbreviation includes four types: I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words省略词--are words created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms首字母缩略—are words created by combining the initials of a number of words. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.
III. Acronyms首字母缩略-- are words created by combining the initials of a number of words.. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
initialism来的词没有办法像念单词那样读出来，譬如FBI,CIA,WTO,UK
而acronym来的词可以读出来，譬如APEC,AIDS，NATO
IV. Blends混合--are words that are combined by parts of other words.
E.g. smoke+fog=smog.
3、词的意义及其演变：（45%）
（1）词的定义；词的词汇意义与语法意义；词义与概念；词的理据。] （2）词的多义性（单义词与多义词）。
（3）词义演变的类型（辐射型；连锁型）
（4）词义历史发展的倾向：词义的扩大；词义的缩小；词义的扬升；词义的
贬降；词义的转移。
（5）词与词之间的语义关系：同义关系；反义关系；同形或同音异义关系；
上下义关系；语义场。
（6）词义的类型：概念意义；内涵意义；风格意义；感情意义；联想意义；
搭配意义；主题意义。
（7）词的比喻意义：隐喻、换喻。
1. Motivation理据--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
2. Onomatopoeic Motivation拟声理据--These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang,
ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.
3. Morphological Motivation形态学理据--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For instance, airmail means to "mail by air", miniskirt is "a small skirt".
4. Semantic Motivation语义理据--refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.
5. Etymological Motivation词源理据--The history of the word explains the meaning of the word.
6. Sense意义: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
7. Reference所指: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
8. Concept概念: 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind . 3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. 4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
9. Conceptual meaning 概念意义: 1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 2) Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language
10.Associative meaning联想意义:(一定要把它的四种分支答上)1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3) It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
11. Morphs语素--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
12. Allomorph语素变体--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context,
e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.
13. Opaque Words隐性词--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analyzed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe斧头, glove手套.
14. Transparent Words透明词--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
15. Polysemy一词多义--The same word may have two or more different meanings. The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc. 16. Homonyms--（同音异义，同形异义）: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
17. Perfect Homonyms完全同形同音异义词--are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
18. Homographs同形异义--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
19. Homophones同音异义--are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. E.g.
dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
20. Synonyms同义词-- refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. E.g. maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
21. Absolute (Complete, Perfect) Synonyms绝对同义词--are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and
associative meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.
22. Relative (near,partial) synonyms相对同义词--are similar or nearly the same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
23. Sources of Synonyms同义词来源
I. Borrowing借词: Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English方言词: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use of words: occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions习语:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
24. Discrimination of Synonyms辨析同义词
I. Difference in denotation外延的差异: differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation内涵的差异: differ in the stylistic and emotive colouring. E.g.
ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)
III. Difference in application应用的差异: in usage. E.g.
empty box ; vacant seat
25. Antonymy反义关系--is concerned with semantic opposition.
26. Antonyms反义词--are words which are opposite in meaning.
27. Types of Antonyms反义词的种类
I. Contradictory terms矛盾反义词: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no possibility between them; E.g.
alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms相反词: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms相对反义词: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles语义不兼容: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,autumn,winter.
28. Hyponymy下义关系-- Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general is called a superordinate（上坐标词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.
29. Extension of meaning 广义(generalization) refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. For example, the word ―holiday‖ was originally used to mean a day of religious
signi ficance because it was a ―holy day‖. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not.
30. Narrowing of meaning狭义(specialization)-- refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word ―liquor‖ in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with ―liquid‖, be it alcoholic or not.
31. Elevation or amelioration改善--refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
32. Degradation or pejoration of meaning降格--It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
33. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has fallen.
34. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something
by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is boiling. (Kettle for water in the kettle)
35. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man
36. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created
in imitation of other words.
For example, telethon and talkathon are created on the model of marathon.
最后再给大家一个图表，清晰的表示出上面十几个概念的相互联系。
native word s: __________________________________________________________
borrowed words: __________________________________________________
homographs: ___________________________________________________
homophones: ___________________________________________________ synonyms
4、英语习语：（15%）
（1）习语的定义。
（2）英语习语的分类：从语义角度；从来源角度；从功能角度分类。
（3）习语的运用。
27. Idiom习语--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
28. Characteristics of Idioms: 习语的特点
I. Long use
II. Unitary单一meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
29. Figurative idioms比喻习语--are idioms that include metaphor
隐喻. Strictly speaking, they are true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.
30. Sources of Figurative idioms比喻习语的来源:
I. Colloquialisms白话俗语: big wheel (an influential or important person)
II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf宰杀那头小肥牛（热情款待）III. Slang俚语: in the soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms外来习语: sour grapes.
1. A Dictionary of the English Language by Sam Johnson was published in ______.
A. 1721.
B. 1735.
C. 1775.
D. 1828.
2. The American Dictionary of the English language by Noah Webster was published in ____.
A. 1775.
B. 1785.
C. 1800.
D. 1828.
3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____.
A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation.
B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation.
C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation.
D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation.
4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____.
A. synecdoche.
B. metonymy.
C. substitution.
D. metaphor.
5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____.
A. adjectives.
B. attributes.
C. modifiers.
D. words.
6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used.
A. vocabulary
B. grammar
C. semantic pattern
D. syntactic structure
7. In the idiom in good feather, we change good into high, full without changing meaning.
This change of constituent is known as _____.
A. addition.
B. replacement
C. position-shifting
D. variation
8. The word laconic is _____.
A. onomatopoeically motivated.
B. morphologically motivated.
C. semantically motivated.
D. etymologically motivated.
9. CCELD is distinctive for its _____.
A. clear grammar codes.
B. language notes.
C. usage notes.
D. extra columns.
10.Which of the following words is NOT formed through clipping?
A. Dorm.
B. motel.
C. Gent.
D. Zoo.
11.Old English has a vocabulary of about _____ words.
A. 30,000 to 40,000
B. 50,000 to 60,000
C. 70,000 to 80,000
D. 80,000 to 90,000
12. _____ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.
A. Roots
B. Stems
C. Affixes
D. Compounds
13. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of _____ in
the Middle English period.
A. Dutch origin
B. Danish origin
C. Latin origin
D. Greek origin
14. A word is a symbol that _____.
A. is used by the same speech community.
B. represents something else in the world.
C. is both simple and complex in nature.
D. shows different ideas in different sounds.
15. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because they _____.
A. are complex words.
B. are technical words.
C. refer to the commonest things in life.
D. denote the most important concepts.
管理学名词解释及简答题
第一章 名词解释 管理管理就是界定组织的使命，并激励和组织人力资源及其他资源去实现这个使命的过程 管理职能管理职能是管理过程中各项行为的概括，是人们对管理工作应有的一般过程和基本内容所作的理论概括 技术技能指使用某一专业领域内有关的工作程序，技术和知识完成组织任务的能力 人际技能指与处理人事关系有关的技术，即理解，激励他人并与他人共事的能力 概念技能指综观全局，认清为什么要做某事的能力，也就是洞察企业与环境相互影响之间复杂性的能力 简答题 简述管理的本质 管理的本质是一种追求组织使命的实践活动 管理人员是如何分类的 （1）根据管理者在组织中所处的不同层次可以将管理者划分为高层，中层和基层管理者 （2）根据管理者所负责的领域差异，可以将管理者划分为综合管理者和专业管理者 高层管理者同基层管理者在执行管理职能上有何区别？ 高层管理者是对整个组织管理负有全面责任的人，他们的主要职能是制定组织的总目标，总战略，掌握组织的大政方针并评价整个组织的绩效 基层管理者的主要职责是给下属作业人员分配具体任务，直接指挥和监督现场作业活动，保证各项任务的有效完成 管理人员应具备什么样的管理技能 技术技能人际技能概念技能 第二章 名词解释 企业环境企业环境是指影响组织生存与发展的各种内外因素的结合 企业文化企业文化是企业内部环境的一种重要表现形式 学习组织学习型组织不存在单一的模型，它是关于组织的概念和雇员作用的一种态度或理念，是用一种新的思维方式对组织的思考 柔性组织柔性组织是指与动态竞争条件相适应的具有不断适应环境和自我调整能力的组织
企业社会责任企业社会责任是指企业在其商业运作时对其利益相关者应负的责任 简答题 简述企业环境的构成 企业环境由宏观环境，中观环境及微观环境构成 简述企业文化的结构 核心的精神层中间的行为层外在的形象层 简述企业文化的功能 积极功能：导向功能激励功能凝聚功能规范功能创新功能辐射功能 消极功能：组织变革的障碍文化多样化的障碍兼并和收购的障碍 试述企业环境的新变化 全球一体化信息技术化的发展知识经济及企业社会责任意识的兴起 试述企业如何管理环境 （1）树立正确的环境管理观念 （2）选择合适的环境管理分析方法 （3）遵循科学的环境管理程序 （4）对不同的环境采用不同的管理方法 试述企业管理环境的一般方法 广告舆论联合或联盟制定战略 第三章 名词解释 程序化决策指那些例行的，按照一定的频率或间隔重复进行的决策 非程序化决策指那些非例行的，很少重复出现的决策 德尔菲法这是一种对方案进行评估和选择的方法，通过综合专家们各自的意见来对方案作出评估和选择 简答题 什么是决策？决策的特征有哪些？ 决策是为了实现某一目的而从若干个可行方案中选择一个相对满意方案的分析判断过程 特征（1）决策要有明确目标，没有目标就不存在决策 （2）决策方案要考虑可行性 (3) 决策的关键和实质是比较和选择
国开(中央电大)法学专科《民法学2》期末考试名词解释题库
国开(中央电大)法学专科《民法学2》期末考试名词解释题库 (电大期末纸质考试必备资料) 说明：试卷号码：2098； 资料整理于2019年12月3日，涵盖了2007年1月至2019年7月中央电大期末考试的全部试题及答案。 按份共有：[补充资料]是指两个或两个以上的共有人按照各自的分额分别对共有财产享有权利和承担义务的一种共有关系。 不安抗辩权：[2007年7月试题]是指在应当先履行债务的当事人一方有确切证据证明后履行义务的一方有丧失或者可能丧失履行能力的情形时，得中止履行自己的义务的权利。 不安抗辩权：[2010年1月试题]指在应当履行债务的当事人一方有确切证据证明后履行义务的一方有丧失或者可能丧失履行能力的情形时，得中止履行自己的义务的权利。 不安抗辩权：[2017年1月试题]是指在应当先履行债务的当事人一方有确切证据证明后履行义务的一方有丧失或者可能丧失履行能力的情形时，得中止履行自己的义务的权利。 不安抗辩权：[补充资料]是指在应当先履行债务的当事人一方有确切证据证明后履行义务的一方有丧失或者可能丧失履行能力的情形时，得中止履行自己的义务的权利。 不动产：[补充资料]是指不能移动或如经移动即会损害和降低其经济价值的物。 不可抗力：[2009年7月试题]是指人力所不可抗拒的力量，指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。 不可抗力：[2012年1月试题]即人力所不可抗拒的力量，指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。不可抗力：[2019年1月试题]即人力所不可抗拒的力量，指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。不可抗力：[2019年7月试题]即人力所不可抗拒的力量，指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。不可抗力：[补充资料]是指人力所不可抗拒的力量，指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。 不正当竞争：[2010年1月试题]是指经营者违反《反不正当竞争法》的规定，’损害其他经营者的合法权益，扰乱社会经济秩序的行为。 财产关系：[补充资料]是指人们在产品的生产、分配、交换和消费过程中形成的具有经济内容的关系。财产继承：[2007年7月试题]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。 财产继承：[2012年1月试题]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。 财产继承：[2017年1月试题]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。 财产继承：[2019年1月试题]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。 财产继承：[2019年7月试题]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。 财产继承：[补充资料]是根据法律规定把公民死亡时遗留的个人合法财产转移给他人承受的法律制度。财产所有权：[补充资料]是指所有人依法对自己的财产享有的占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。 承诺：[2009年1月试题]是受要约人向要约人作出的同意要约的意思表示。 承诺：[2013年7月试题]是受要约人向要约人作出的同意要约的意思表示。 承诺：[2014年1月试题]是受要约人向要约人作出的同意要约的意思表示。 承诺：[2015年7月试题]是受要约人向要约人作出的同意要约的意思表示。 承诺：[2017年1月试题]是受要约人向要约人作出的同意要约的意思表示。 代理：[补充资料]是指代理人在代理权范围内以被代理人名义与第三人实施的、法律效果直接归属于被代理人的行为及相应的法律制度。 代位继承：[2009年7月试题]是指被继承人的子女先于被继承人死亡时，由被继承人子女的血亲代先死亡的长辈直系血亲继承被继承人遗产的一种法定继承制度。
生理学重点名词解释
第一章绪论 1. 内环境指机体细胞生存的液体环境，由细胞外液构成，如血浆、组织液、脑脊液、房水、淋巴等。 2. 稳态指内环境的理化性质及各组织器官系统功能在神经体液因素的调节下保持相对的恒定状态。 3. 反射指机体在中枢神经系统的参与下对环境变化作出的规律性反应,是神经活动的基本方式。 4. 负反馈反馈信息与控制信息的作用（方向）相反，即负反馈，是使机体生理功能保持稳态的重要调节方式 5. 正反馈反馈信息与控制信息作用（方向）一致，以加强控制部分的活动，即正反馈；典型的正反馈有分娩、血液凝固、排便等。 第二章细胞的基本功能 1．液态镶嵌模型是关于细胞膜结构的学说,认为膜的结构是以液态的脂质双分子层为基架，其中镶嵌着具有不同生理功能的蛋白质。 2. 易化扩散指水溶性小分子物质或离子借助膜上的特殊蛋白质(载体或通道)的帮助而进行的顺电-化学梯度的跨膜转运。有载体介导和通道介导两种 3. 主动转运需要细胞膜消耗能量、将分子或离子逆电-化学梯度的跨膜转运。 4. 静息电位指静息状态下细胞膜两侧的电位差，同类型细胞的静息电位数值常不相等。 5. 极化指细胞保持稳定的内负外正的状态。此时，细胞处于静息电位水平。 6. 去极化指膜内电位朝着正电荷增加的方向变化，去极化后的膜电位的绝对值小于静息电位的绝对值。 7. 超极化指在静息电位的基础上，膜内电位朝着正电荷减少的方向变化，超极化后的膜电位的绝对值大于静息电位的绝对值。 8. 阈电位使再生性Na+内流足以抵消K+外流而爆发动作电位，膜去极化所必须达到的临界水平；也可以说是能引起动作电位的临界膜电位。 9. 动作电位指可兴奋细胞受刺激时，在静息电位基础上产生的短暂而可逆的，可扩布的膜电位倒转。动作电位是兴奋的标志。 10. 复极化去极完毕后膜内电位朝着正电荷减少，即静息电位的方向变化。 11. 绝对不应期组织接受一次刺激而兴奋的一个较短时间内，无论接受多强的刺激也不能再产生动作电位，这一时期称为绝对不应期。在绝对不应期内兴奋性为零。 12. 局部兴奋阈下刺激引起的膜部分去极化的状态称为局部兴奋。 13. 量子式释放神经末梢囊泡内所含递质的量大致相等，而递质释放又是以囊泡为最小单位，成批地释放，故称量子式释放。 14. 终板电位指终板膜上N2胆碱能受体与ACh结合后，化学门控的Na+、K+通道开放，Na+内流、K+外流，尤其是以Na+内流为主，使终板膜局部产生去极化电位。终板电位属局部电位 15. 兴奋-收缩耦联将肌膜动作电位为标志的电兴奋与以肌丝滑行为基础的机械收缩衔接起来的中介过程。耦联因子是Ca2+。 16. 等长收缩肌肉长度不变而张力增加的收缩形式。 17. 等张收缩肌肉收缩时表现为张力不变而只有长度缩短的收缩形式。 第三章血液 1. 等渗溶液指渗透压与血浆渗透压相等的溶液，约为313m Osm／L，例如0. 9%的NaCl溶液。
词汇学相关的一些名词解释 (1)
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
管理学名词解释
名词解释 1、管理：所谓管理，就是在特定的环境下，对组织所拥有的资源(人力、物力、财力、技术、时间、信息等)进行有效的计划、组织、人员配备、领导、控制、决策、激励与创新，以便达成既定的组织目标的过程。 2、组织：组织是由两个或两个以上的个人为了实现共同的目标组合而成的有机整体，是一群人的集合，是对完成特定使命的人们的系统性安排，以完成单独个人力量的简单总和所不能完成的各项任务。 3、管理职能：管理作为一个工作过程，管理者在其中要发挥的作用就是管理者的职能，也即通常所说的管理者的职能。 4、环境复杂性程度：环境复杂性程度是指组织环境中的要素数量及组织所拥有的与这些要素相关的知识广度。 5、经济环境：经济环境是指构成组织生存和发展的社会经济状况及国家经济政策，它是一个多元的动态的系统，主要是由社会经济结构、经济发展水平、经济体制和宏观经济政策等4个要素构成。 6、战略性计划：战略性计划是指应用于整体组织的、为组织未来较长时期（通常为5 年以上）设立总体目标和寻求组织在环境中的地位的计划。 7、决策：决策是决策者为达到某种预订目标，运用科学的理论、方法和手段，制定出若干行动法案，对此作出一种具有判断性的选择，予以实施，直到目标实现。 决策的简单定义就是从两个以上的备选方案中选择一个的过程。 8、5W1H：What—做什么？目标与内容 Who—谁去做？人员 When—何时做？时间 Why—为什么做？原因 Where—何地做？地点 How—怎样做？达到目标的方式、手段 9、程序：程序是处理未来活动的一种必需方法的计划，它详细列出必须完成某类活动的方式，并按时间顺序对活动进行排序。 10、目标管理：实行目标管理就是要通过企业目标体系的制定、实施和评估过程把企业各个方面的工作合理地组织起来，把上下左右的力量充分调动起来，把每个人的潜力全部挖掘出来，形成一个为实现企业总目标而相互紧密协作地有机整体。通过这个有机整体的运转，就能把整个企业的人、财、物和供、产、销等各项管理工作协调起来，朝着企业总目标健康地发展，不断提高经济效益。
(2015年)民法学2形成性考核册参考答案解析
《民法学（2）》形成性考核册作业参考答案 作业1参考答案 一、名词解释： １、债是按照合同的约定或者依照法律的规定，在特定当事人之间产生的特定的权利和义务关系，享有权利的人是债权人，负有义务的人是债务人。２、按份之债是指债的多数人主体一方的当事人各自按照一定份额享受权利或者负担义务的债，包括按份债权和按份债务。 ３、质押指债务人或第三人将其财产移交给债权人占有，以该财产作为债权的担保，债务人不履行债务时，债权人有权以该财产卖得价款优先受偿。４、合同是指平等主体的自然人、法人，其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。 ５、要约是希望和他人订立合同的意思表示，发生要约的一方为要约人，另一方为受要约人或相对人。 ６、不安抗辩权：指双务合同成立后，应当先履行的当事人有证据证明对方不能履行义务，或者有不能履行合同义务的可能性时，在对方没有履行或者提供担保之前，有权中止履行合同的义务。 ` 二、填空： 1、招标投标开标和决标 2、无权要求双倍
3、保证抵押质权定金留置权 4、委托人 5、债务人 6、运输合同保管合同委托合同信托合同居间合同 7、法定义务公益义务 三、问答题： １、答： ⑴债的主体的特定性。即债的主体即债权人和债务人只能是特定的人，而不能是不特定的人。 ⑵债权是一种请求权，债务具有特定性。债权是债权人请求债务人为一定行为或不为一定行为的权利，因而是请求权。债务具有特定性，即债务表现为特定人的特定行为。 ⑶债的客体的多样性。债的客体是指债权债务共同指向的对象。它可以是物、行为，也可以是智力成果等。 ⑷债可因不法行为而发生。 ２、答： ⑴合同是一种民事法律行为。 ⑵合同是由两个以上的意思表示相一致的民事法律行为。 ⑶合同是以发生民事法律后果为目的的协议。
生理学重点名词解释
名词解释: 1.内环境：细胞直接接触和赖以生存的液体环境 2.稳态：细胞外液的理化性质保持相对稳定动态平衡 3.易化扩散：在膜蛋白的帮助下，非极性分子和小离子顺浓度或顺电子梯度的跨膜转运， 包括经通道的易化扩散和经载体的易化扩散 4.原发性主动转运：在膜蛋白的帮助下，细胞代谢供能的逆浓度梯度或逆电子梯度跨膜转 运 5.去极化：细胞膜的极化状态减弱，静息电位降低的过程 6.超计划;细胞膜的极化状态增强，静息电位增强的过程 7.静息电位：在安静状态下细胞膜两侧存在外正内负且相对稳定的电位差 8.动作电位：细胞在静息电位的前体下接受刺激产生一次迅速、可逆的、可向两侧传播的 电位变化 9.“全”或”无”的现象：要使细胞产生动作电位，必须一定的刺激。当刺激不够时，无 法引起动作电位的形成，若达到一定刺激时，便会产生动作电位且幅度达到最高值不会随刺激强度增强而增强 10.阈电位：触发动作电位的膜电位临界值 11.兴奋-收缩偶联：将横纹肌产生动作的电兴奋过程与肌丝滑动的机械收缩联系起来的中 心机制 12.等长收缩：肌肉收缩时长度不变张力增加的过程 13.前负荷：肌肉收缩前所受到的负荷，决定肌节的初长度，在一定范围内，随肌节长度的 增加，肌肉收缩的张力越大 14.血细胞比容：血细胞在血液中的所占的容积之比
15.血浆胶体渗透压:由血浆中蛋白质所决定的渗透压，影响血液与组织液之间的水平衡和 维持血浆的容量 16.血沉：将抗凝血放入血沉管中垂直静置，红细胞由于密度较大而下沉。通常以红细胞在 第一小时末下沉的距离表示红细胞的沉降速度，称为红细胞沉降率，即血沉 17.生理性止血：正常情况下，小血管损伤后出血一段时间便会自行停止的过程。包括血管 收缩、.血小板止血栓的形成、血液凝固 18.心动周期：心脏的一次收缩和舒张构成一个机械活动周期，包括舒张期和收缩期。由于 心室在心脏泵血起主要作用，又成心室活动周期 19.射血分数：博出量与心室收缩末期容积的比值，能明显体现心脏的泵血功能 20.心指数：心输出量与机体表面积的比值，放映心功能的重要指数 21.异长自身调节：通过改变心肌的初长度而引起的心肌收缩力改变的调节 22.期前损伤：在心室肌有效不应期后到下一次窦房结兴奋到来之前额外使心肌受到一次刺 激，产生的兴奋和收缩 23.房室延搁：兴奋由心房经房室结至心室的过程中出现的一个时间间隔：此处兴奋传导速 度仅有s 24.自动节律性：心肌在无外界刺激条件下自动产生节律性兴奋的能力 25.正常起搏点：窦房结是心传导系统中自律性最高的部分，故窦房结称为正常起搏点，其 他的称为潜在起搏点 26.中心静脉压：右心房和胸腔内大静脉的血压，其高低取决于心脏的射血能力和经脉回血 血量。 27.收缩压：心室收缩中期血压达到最高值时的血压 28.平均动脉压：一个心动周期每一瞬间血压的平均值
完全版英语词汇学名词解释_共6页
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
民法学名词解释
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生理学重要名词解释
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词汇学 名词解释(部分)
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管理学名词解释
名词解释 1、社会人假设：“社会人”假设认为，人除了有经济上的需求外，还有友谊、受人尊重等社会因素方面的需求，社会性需求的满足比经济报酬更能激励人们。 2、网络组织结构：是一种“外部化”的组织结构，它只有很小的中心组织，并依靠其他组织以合同为基础进行制造、销售等等业务。 3、学习型组织：所谓学习型组织，就是充分发挥每个员工的创造性的能力，努力形成一种弥漫于群体与组织的学习气氛，凭借着学习，个体价值得到体现，组织绩效得以大幅度提高。 4、影响力：领导是一种影响力，是对人们施加影响的艺术或过程，从而使人们情愿地，真心地为实现组织或群体的目标而努力。 5、决策方式：决策者在决策制定过程中组合运用各种资源的方式。 6、结构性维度：描述组织的内部特征状态的参数。 7、决策树：是用二叉树形图来表示处理逻辑的一种工具。 8、网络计划方法：网络计划方法，是把一个工程项目分解成若干作业（或称活动），然后根据作业的先后顺序、逻辑关系进行统筹安排，合理规划，分别轻重缓急，从而对项目整体进行控制和调节，更好地监控项目的进度，发现可能的瓶颈环节，以及必要时调度资源确保项目按计划进行。 9、前馈控制：是指通过观察情况、收集整理信息、掌握规律、预测趋势，正确预计未来可能出现的问题，提前采取措施，将可能发生的偏差消除在萌芽状态中，为避免在未来不同发展阶段可能出现的问题而事先采取的措施。 10、决策方式体系：决策方式体是由以下三方面构成：1）明确区分组织运行过程中的决策问题类型；2）指明各种问题的具体决策责任人；3）规定决策责任人在进行决策时所采用的决策方式。 11、管理人假设：遵循令人满意准则进行经济活动的主体。 12、事业部结构组织：称为产品部式结构或战略经营单位。即按产品或地区设立事业部或大的子公司，每个事业部都有自己较完整的职能机构。 13、管理幅度：又称管理宽度，是指在一个组织结构中，管理人员所能直接管理或控制的部属数目。 14、职权：职权是由于处于更高层次的管理者的授权而获得的（需要一定的程序）——权力链。 15、经济人假设：“经济人”假设把人的一切行为都看成是为了最大限度地满足自己的经济利益，工作就是为了获得报酬。
最新国家开放大学电大《民法学(2)》期末题库及答案
最新国家开放大学电大《民法学(2)》期末题库及答案 考试说明：本人针对该科精心汇总了历年题库及答案，形成一个完整的题库，并且每年都在更新。该题库对考生的复习、作业和考试起着非常重要的作用，会给您节省大量的时间。做考题时，利用本文档中的查找工具，把考题中的关键字输到查找工具的查找内容框内，就可迅速查找到该题答案。本文库还有其他网核及教学考一体化答案，敬请查看。 《民法学(2)》题库及答案一 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共10分） 1．根据两个债之间的关系，债可分为( )。 A．按份之债和连带之债 B．特定之债和种类之债 C．主债和从债 D．简单之债与选择之债 2．根据合同的成立是否以交付标的物为要件，合同可分为( )。 A．要式合同与不要式合同 B．诺成合同与实践合同C．双务合同与单务合同D．有偿合同与无偿合同 3．甲为了不让乙当上先进工作者，在单位布置评选工作后，到处散布谣言，说乙生活作风有问题，从而使乙在评选先进工作者时受到影响，乙因受刺激生病住院，甲侵犯了乙的( )。 A．荣誉权 B．隐私权 C．名誉权 D．身体健康权 4．张某欠王某二千元债务，同时张为王修理汽车，王应向张支付修理费三千元，在此情况下，张和王之间的债务可以适用( )。 A．混合 B．抵销C．提存 D．免除 5．受害人对于损害的发生也有过错的( )。 A．可以免除侵害人的民事责任 B．可以减轻侵害人的民事责任 C．可以分担侵害人的民事责任 D．不能免除、减轻或分担侵害人的民事责任 二、多项选择题（每小题2分，共10分，每小题备选答案中，有2个或2个以上的正确答案，请将正确答案的序号填在括号内。多选、少选或错选均不给分） 6．债的发生根据除了合同外，主要还有( )。 A.侵权行为 B．不当得利
生理学名词解释 (3)
第一章绪论 1.内环境（internal environment）：细胞外液是细胞直接接触和赖以生存的环境，称为机体的内环境。 2.稳态（homeostasis）:细胞外液理化性质和化学成分相对恒定的状态。 3.负反馈（negative feedback）：受控部分发出的反馈信息调整控制部分的活动，最终使受控部分的活动向相反的方向改变，以减弱或抑制过强的功能活动。 4.正反馈（positive feedback）：受控部分发出的反馈信息促进和加强控制部分的活动，最终使受控部分的活动逐渐加强，使某种功能活动不断加强。 5.反射（reflex）：在中枢神经系统的参与下，机体对内、外环境的变化所作出的规律性应答。 6.自身调节（autoregulation）:组织细胞不依赖神经或体液因素，自身对环境刺激发生的一种适应性反应。 7.神经调节（neuroregulation）:通过反射而影响生理功能的一种调节方式，是人体生理功能调节中最主要的形式。 8.体液调节( humoral regulation ) 第二章细胞的基本功能 1.钠泵（sodium pump）：又称钠-钾泵（sodium-potassium pump），由α和β两个亚单位组成的二聚体蛋白质，具有ATP酶的活性。每分解一分子ATP将3个Na+移出胞外，将2个K+移入胞内，保持膜内高钾
膜外高钠的不均匀离子分布。作用：细胞内高钾是许多代谢反应进行的必需条件；防止细胞水肿；势能贮备。 2.静息电位（resting potential， RP）：细胞在静息状态下（即未受到刺激时），存在于细胞膜内外两侧的电位差，称为静息电位。表现为膜外带正电，膜内带负电。 3.极化（polarization）：平稳的静息电位存在时，细胞跨膜电位为内负外正的状态。 4.去极化（depolarization）:静息电位减小的过程或状态。 5.复极化（repolarization）：膜电位去极化后再向静息电位方向恢复的过程。 6.超极化（hyperpolarization）:静息电位增大的过程或状态。 7.动作电位(action potential，AP)：可兴奋细胞受到适当的刺激时，细胞膜在静息电位的基础上产生一个迅速的、可逆的、可传导的电位变化。 8.阈电位(threshold potential, TP):能引起Na+通道大量开放，形成正反馈性Na+内流，并引发动作电位的临界膜电位。 9.阈强度（threshold intensity）：是刺激的持续时间和强度-时间变化率不变，引起组织兴奋所需要的最小刺激强度。 10.局部电位（local potential）: 由少量钠通道激活而产生的去极化膜电位波动。 第三章血液 1.血细胞比容(hematocrit):血细胞在全血中所占的容积百分比，称为血