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《英语词汇学》串讲笔记3


Chapter 7
Changes in Word Meaning
一、【考情分析】
本章主要考核的知识点为:词义变化的种类,词义变化的原因。通过对本章的学习考生
应该了解词义变化的必然性,词义变化的主要方式和原因。在历年考试中:常常以选择题,
填空题,搭配题和名词解释题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】
重点知识锦集:
1. Extension(词义扩大) of meaning is also known as generalization.
2. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.
3. Of the modes of word-meaning change, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.
4. Degradation(降格) or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.
5. The degraded meaning “sexual desire ”of the word “lust ”comes from its old meaning
“ pleasure”.
6. The name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo is extension.
7. There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning: Extra-linguistic Factors
and Linguistic Factors.(非语言因素和语言因素)
8. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or
degradation.
9. The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the Language system.
10. The meanings of “lip” and “tongue”in “the lip of a wound”and “the tongue of a bell”
have experienced associated transfer.(联想转移)
11. The so-called “King’s English” serves as a class reason(阶级原因) in word-meaning
change.
12. The change of word-meaning is brought about by following internal factors: the influx of
borrowing, shortening, analogy.
13. Generalization is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now
become generalized.
14. The four major modes of semantic change are: extension(扩大), narrowing(缩小), elevation
(升华) and degradation(降格).
名词解释:
1.extension(词义的扩大): It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized
meaning has now become generalized. In other words,the term has extended to cover a broader
and often less definite concept.
2.narrowing(词义的缩小): it is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a
word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which
used to have a more general meaning becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special
meaning in present-day English.
3.elevation(升华): Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from
humble beginnings to positions of importance.
4. degradation(降格): Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.
It’s a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to
be used in

derogatory sense. 5. transfer(转移): Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean
something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
论述问答题:
1.What are the linguistic factors(语言因素) that have caused the changing of meaning? Try to
explain it.
答:Linguistic Factors that have caused the changing of meaning cover four:
1) One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the
meaning of the whole。E.g. gold is used for ‘gold medal’
2) The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
E.g. Deer, Animal (L), Beast (F)
3) In addition, the competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.E.g.
bird/fowl dog/hound
4) Finally, the change of meaning is brought about by analogy.
E.g. fruition: fruit
a pleasure obtained from using or possessing something
the bearing of fruit
2. Analyze and comment on the three causes of meaning change within the scope of
extra-linguistic factors(非语言因素). Each with example word(s) given below.
pen, atom; churl; copperhead
答:The three causes of meaning change within the scope of the extra-linguistic factors are:
Historical reason, Class reason, Psychological reason.
1) Historical reason(历史原因):language is more conservative than civilization, material as
well as moral. Objects, institutions, ideas, scientific concepts change in the course of time; yet in
many cases the name is retained and thus helps to ensure a sense of tradition and continuity.
Indeed, it often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed
because the referent has changed. Take “pen”for example. Originally, it denoted ‘feather’, which
was used in the West as pen in old times, hence the present meaning. Now, the time when ‘feather’
served as pen is long gone, and people are using ball-point pens and fountain pens, yet the name is
still kept. Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors that account for
the change of word meaning. For instance, the concept of “atom” has changed with the increase of
scientific knowledge. The word is derived from the Greek form atomos, which means ‘any of the
indivisible particles’. Now science has proved that atom is not the smallest and can be divided into
even smaller particles, hence the abandonment of the original meaning.
2) Class reason(阶级原因): Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in
human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social classes. As a result,
different social varieties of Language have come into being, the word “Churl” as we already
know was originally neutral in colour(中性词) but has down-graded as ‘ill-mannered or bad


people’
3) Psychological reason(心理原因): the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of
words, etc.are often due to psychological factors. Take Copperhead for example. This words
designates a venomous snake in North America. During the American Civil War(美国内战) it was
employed to refer to those northerners(北方佬) who were secretly aiding and abetting the South.
It’s said that people in the North had a deep hatred and contempt for such people. The editor of
one country newspaper was trying to find a suitable word. First he thought of ‘rattlesnake’as it was the most poisonous but rejected the word because it makes noise by the rattle in its tail, unlike
those informers. Consequently, copperhead was chosen and endowed with a new meaning.
3. What makes Shakespeare particularly difficult to read, old form of spelling, old ways of
pronunciation or change of word meaning? How do you account for the semantic change in living
Languages?
答:Because many of the words used in Shakespeare’s time had different senses from what
they have now in contemporary dictionaries. Change of word-meaning makes Shakespeare
particularly difficult to read. Take Hamlet(哈姆雷特) for example. “Rival”means “partner”as
in “the rivals of my watch, bid them make haste”; “jump” means “just”as in “the twice before, and
jump at this dead hour”; “fond”designates “foolish” as in “I will wipe away all trivial fond
records”, and so on. Changing in word-meaning has never ceased since the Language came into
being and will continue in the future. Semantic change occurs as society changes. People use the
same word form to mean different things, which is a typical linguistic law.
4. What are the causes of semantic change? Illustrate your point.
答:There are many causes of semantic change. The main causes include extra-linguistic factors
and linguistic factors. In extra-linguistic factors. There are historical reasons, class reasons, and
psychological reasons. In linguistic factors, there are shortening of phrases, influx of borrowings
and analogy.
5. How do the historical and social causes account for changes in the meanings of words?
答:It often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed
because the referent has changed.
Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society.
Naturally it records the speech and attitude of diferent social classes. As a result, different social
varieties of language have come into being. The attitudes of classes have also made inroads into
lexical meaning in the case of elevation ordegradation.
Chapter 8
Meaning and Context
一、【考情分析】
本章主要考核的知识点为:语境的种类,语境的作用。通过对本章的学习,考生应该
了解两种不同

的语境,语境对词义的重要作用,并且能运用语境线索正确理解词义和猜测新
词。在历年考试中:常常以选择题,填空题,简答题和问答题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】
重点知识锦集:
1. Meaning lives in context (语境)and context defines meaning.
2. The extra-linguistic context (非语言语境)may extend to embrace the entire cultural
background, which may also affect the meaning of words.
3. Linguistic context (语言语境)can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.
(词汇语境和语法语境)
4. Context has three major functions: elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义), indication of referents
(限定所指), provision of clues for inferring word-meaning(提供线索以猜测词义).
5. Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy.
6. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it crests ambiguity(歧义).
7. Homonymy(同形同音异义) is another cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the
same form. 8. Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.
9. Context(语境) may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words.
10.Linguistic context is also known as verbal context.
11.When a word with more than one meaning is used in unclear context, it creates ambiguity.
12. Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning.
13. “Do”in “do a museum” means visit.
14. Hints given in a context are known as clues.
15. “I like Mary better than Jean”. In this sentence, grammatical structure(语法结构) leads to
ambiguity.
16. Grammatical context refers to syntactic structure in which a word is used.
17. Physical situation or environment relating to the use of words is non-linguistic(非语言)
context.
名词解释:
1. linguistic context(语言语境): Context is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to
the words, clauses, sentences, in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context, which
may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter, and even the entire book.
2. extra-linguistic context(非语言语境): in a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as
well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time,
place, and even the whole cultural background.
3. lexical context(词汇语境): This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in
question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
4. grammatical context(语法语境): In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by
the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.
论述问答题:
1. What are the three major roles or functions of context?
答:1). Elimination

of Ambiguity(消除歧义): Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and
homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, lt creats
ambiguity.
2). Indication of referents(限定所指): English has a large number of words, which are
often used to refer directly to people, time, place, etc. without clear context, the reference can be
very confusing.
3). Provision of clues for inferring Word-meaning(提供线索以猜测词义): Context
may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases, when a
new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help
the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea.
2. How does context provide clues for inferring word-meaning? Try to explain them.
Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:
1). Definition. Often we find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the
new term.
2). Explaination. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its
definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is,he might make a restatement
in known words.
3). Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explaination, the
author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term. 4). Synonymy. Synonymy or synonymous expressions are freguently employed by authors
to explain new words.
5). Antonymy. Contrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain
unknown words.
6). Hyponymy. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus
forming an important context clue.
7). Relevant details(相关细节). In some contexts, the author provides details relating to
the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, and nature, etc, of the referent.
8). Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived
words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words.
3. Study the following sentences. If you find anything wrong, please explain why and then
improve the sentence.
The boy ran after the girl with the flowers.
答:1). It’s ambiguous
2). Ambiguity caused by the structure.
3). This sentence can be understood as:
① The boy who carried the flowers ran after the girl.
② The boy ran after the girl who carried the flowers.
4).improvement:
① After he bought some flowers, the boy ran after the girl with the flowers.
② The boy ran after the girl with the flowers, because she had stolen his flowers.
Chapter 9
English Idioms
一、【考情分析】
本章主要考核的知识点为:英语习语的特点,英语习语的分类以及使用英语习语应注
意的问题。通过对本

章的学习考生应该了解英语习语的概念,范畴,特点及其分类原则;领
会英语习语在词汇中的重要作用,并能较好地运用习语。在历年考试中:常常以选择题,填
空题和简答题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】
重点知识锦集:
1. Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences, which are peculiar to the Language in
question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.
2. Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal
meaning of individual elements.
3. Being phrases or sentences, idioms each consist of more than one word, but each is a semantic
unity(语义的整体性).
4. Quite often the idiom functions as one word.
5. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal
meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom.
6. Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable.
7. Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable(不可分析的).
8. The idiomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of a scale, with the true
idioms established at the upper end and regular combinations at the bottom. In between are the
semi-idioms. 9. The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms, the more fixed
the structure.
10. By the criterion of grammatical functions,(语法功能) idioms can be classified into five
groups.
11. “Brain trust” is an idiom nominal(名词性) in nature.
12. Idioms verbal in nature(动词性习语) is the largest group of all.
13. Idioms verbal in nature can be subdivided into phrasal verbs(短语性动词) and other verb
phrases(动词短语).
14. In terms of complexity sentence idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and
complex sentences.
15. It should be pointed out that forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical.
16. The study of idioms is to understand them correctly in actual context and use them properly in
production.
17. Idioms are generally felt to be informal(非正式) and some are colloquialisms and slang,
therefore inappropriate for formal style.
18. The stylistic features of idioms include: coloquialisms, slang, literary expressions.
19. Idioms in the course book are used in a broad sense.
20. Idioms verbal in nature are verb phrases, phrasal verbs, verb idioms
21. The idiom “new brooms sweep clean” was created probably by housewives.
22. The idiom “Jack of all trades” results from shortening(缩略法).
23. Metonymy(换喻) is used in the idiom “live by one’s pen”.
24. If two main constituents of an idiom share the initial sound, it’s called alliteration(头韵法).
25. Rhetorical features(修辞特征) are shown in such respects of phonetic and

lexical
manipulation as well as figures of speech(修辞手法).
26. The advantage of classifying idioms according to grammatical functions is to use idioms
correctly and appropriately.
27. The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is used in different meanings include
affective meaning.
名词解释:
1. metonymy(换喻): This refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of
another associated with it.
2. dismembering(肢解): It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces, an unusual case
of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve special effect.
3. English idioms(英语习语): Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily
understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idioms may
include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions, proverbs, etc. they form an important part
of the English vocabulary.
4. idioms nominal in nature(名词性习语): Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in
each and function as a noun in sentences.
5. synecdoche(替代): Synecdoche involves substituting part for the whole.
论述问答题:
1. What are the characteristics of Idioms? Try to explain it.
答:1). Semantic unity(语义的整体性):being phrases or sentences, idioms each consists of
mora than one word, but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity.
2). Structural stability(结构的稳定性): Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is
to a large extent unchangeable. First, the constituents of idioms can not be replaced. Secondly, the
word order can not be inverted or changed. Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom can not be deleted
or added to, not even an article. Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.
2. According to the criterion of grammatical functions, how many types are idioms can be
classified into, and what are they? Try to explain them.
答:By the criterion of grammatical functions, idioms may be classified into five groups.
1). Idioms nominal in nature(名词性习语): idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in
each and function as a noun in sentences.
2). Idioms adjectival in nature(形容词性习语): they function as an adjective in sentences, but the
constituents are not necessarily adjectives.
3) Idioms verbal in nature(动词性习语): this is the largest group of all. The structures of such
idioms are quite complex and thus can be subdivided into phrasal verbs and other verbal phrases.
4) Idioms adverbial in nature(副词性习语)This class contains numerous prepositional phrases.
5) Sentence idioms(句式习语)as the term suggests, all idioms of this category

are complete
sentences. They are mainly proverbs and sayings.
3. What are the differences between phrasal verbs and verb phrases?
答:A phrasal verb is a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a article such as “bring up”,
“get down”, “come up with”. A verb phrase is any phrase functioning as a verb, for example
“call it a day”, “make both ends meet” “look after”. Verb phrase include pfrasal verbs.
4. What are the points that we must pay attention to in order to use idiomantic expression
appropriately?
答:In using English idioms exactly and rightly, we need to pay attention to the following
points:
1). Stylistic features of idioms. Idioms are created by people in their different work, thus
acquiring a lot of stylistic features. They are colloquialisms, slangs and literary expressions. That
is to say, idioms of different stylistic features are used on different occasions. You should not
misuse or abuse them.
2). Rhetorical features of idioms. We use idioms to achieve vividness of description, for
idioms can create alliteration, rhyme, reiteration, repetition and juxtaposition of antonyms.
Besides, there are also simile, metaphor, metonym, synecdoche, personification and euphemism in
idioms.
5. Pick out the idioms used in the following sentences and explain its origin and the effect of using
this form.
“well, it’s the old story of the stitch in time,” he said.
答:The idiom: “the stitch in time”.
Its origin: “a stitch in time saves nine”.
The effect of using this form:
1). Proverbs are concise, forcible and thought-provoking.
2). Using an old saying is more persuasive.
3). The short form saves time, more colloquial.
4). It indicates intimancy or close relationship.
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries
一、【考情分析】
本章主要考核的知识点为:词典的种类,使用词典应注意的问题以及三本常用字典的特
色。通过对本章的学习,考生应该了解各种不同类型词典的形式,内容,范围及特点。知道
如何选用词典,并能推荐一两本常用的好词典。在历年考试中:常常以选择题,填空题,名
词解释的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】
重点知识锦集:
1. Monolingual(单语的)dictionaries are written in one language.
2. Linguistic dictionaries(语言词典) aim at defining words and explaining their usage in the
language.
3. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be further divided into encyclopedia(百科全书) and
encyclopedic dictionaries(百科词典).
4. The best-known unabridged dictionary is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary.
5. Some of the most known American desk dictionaries are Webster’s New World Dictionary.
6. The advantages of pocket dictionaries(袖珍词典) are being inex

pensive and easy to carry.
7. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English belongs to the Specialized dictionaries.
8. For beginners, and elementary and lower-intermediate learners, a bilingual dictionary(双语词
典)is essential.
9. For the post intermediate and advanced learners, it’s advisable to use more of a monolingual
one.
10. Specialized dictionaries(专门词典) are particularly good for language teachers and
researchers.
11. New dictionaries keep appearing in order to keep up with the time.
12. A latest dictionary is supposed to include the latest changes and developments in terms of new
words and new meanings.
14. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English(朗文当代英语词典)was noted for its wide
coverage of new words, new meanings and new new usages, for its simple and clear definitions.
15. The unique features of CCELD(科林斯英语词典) include definition, extra colum, usage
examples.
16. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English is a specialized dictionary.
17.The headword or entries are defined in the same language in a monolingual dictionary.
18. LDCE is distinctive for its clear grammar codes,usage notes,language notes.
19. Both LDCE and CCELD are general dictionaries and monolingual dictionary.
名词解释:
1. monolingual dictionaries(单语词典): Monolingual dictionaries are written in one language,
that is the headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same Language.
2. bilingual dictionaries(双语词典): Bilingual dictionaries involve two Languages. The main
entries are generally defined or explained in the same language with translation .
3. linguistic dictionaries(语言词典): Linguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining
their usages and in the language. They usually cover such areas as spelling, pronunciation,
meaning, grammatical function, usage and etymology, etc. these dictionaries can be monolingual
and bilingual.
4. encyclopedic dictionaries(百科词典): Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both linguistic dictionaries and encyclopedia. In such dictionaries one can find the general
information as in a linguistic dictionary and limited encyclopedic information as well.
5. unabridged dictionaries(大型词典): As the name indicates, an unabridged dictionary is an
unshortened one. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use. Such a dictionary is
the most complete description of words available to us.
6. desk dictionaries(案头词典): Desk dictionaries are medium-sized ones containing words
ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.
7. pocket dictionaries(袖珍词典): These dictionaries have about 50,000 entries or fewer. Such a
dictionary provides only the spelling and pronunciation of each word with a few most common
meanings.
8. specialized dictionaries(专用词典): Special dictiona

ries concentrate on a particular area of
language or konwledge. These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much
more detailed information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one.
9. General dictionaries(普通词典):general dictionaries are meant for ordinary users for spelling,
pronunciation, meaning and grammer.
10. dictionary(词典): Dictionary is a book which presents in an alphabetical order the words of
English with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar,
and in some, their etymology.
论述问答题:
1. What is the general difference between British and American Dictionaries?
答:The general difference between British and American dictionaries are as follows:
American dictionaries contain more encyclopedic information in the main body than
the British, whereas the British Dictionaries, especially learner’s dictionaries, include more
grammatical information. Generally speaking, one may find British usages in an American
dictionary. But as for American usages, users are advised to consult American dictionaries because
chances are that such words are excluded from a general British one.
2. What is the content of the Dictionary? Illustrate it.
答:1). Spelling. It gives the accepted spelling for all words.
2). Pronunciation. Just like spelling, British and American Dictionaries present their
respective standard pronunciation.
3). Definition. The main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words.
4). Usage. Most desk dictionaries provide usage information.
5). Grammar. Apart from the usual coverage of word classes and inflections,
dictionaries include various amounts of grammar information.
6). Usage notes and language notes.
7). Etymological information. Most American desk dictionaries and some British ones
give information concerning the origins of words.
8). Supplementary matter.
3. What are the features for which A Chinese-English Dictionary(英汉词典) was noted? Try to
explain it.
答:1). It included catchphrases, sayings and proverbs.
2). The new edition revised some old entries.
3). The new edition keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the
dictionary easy to use. 4). The dictionary boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its
Chinese items.
4. What are the unique features of CCELD(科林斯英语词典)?
答:1). Definition(定义), the definitions in this dictionary are all in full sentences.
2). Extra column(额外专栏), the use of extra column to deal with grammar
information.
3). Usage examples(用法举例), in this dictionary, almost every meaning of a word
has an example to s

how its meaning and usage, most in sentence form.
5. What factors should be taken into consideration in choosing a dictionary?
答:Generally speaking, we should consider whether the dictionary is monolingual or
bilingual, general or specialized, British or American, early edition or late edition as well as their
content in accordance with our own needs.
6. What are the advantages of using monolingual dictionary(单语词典)?
答:1). The use of a monolingual dictionary can increase exposure of language and avoid
misunderstanding by translation.
2). Users think in English, understand meanings in terms of other English words, thus enlarging
vocabulary and learn the precise meanings of words and usages through definition and examples.
3). The effective use of a monolingual dictionary will give learners a sense of satisfaction and
self-sufficiency and greater confidence in their ability to solve language problems.


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