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生理学英文资料-->英文摘要Summary

（来自海南医学院生理教研室）

INRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

Physiology is to study the living phenomena and the function activities of living organs, to explain how they are regulated and integrated. Physiological studies provide an important basis for modern medical sciences. Physiology is composed of studying on three levels of function: cell and molecule level ，organ and system level and a general level. Methods used in physiological research include both animal and human experiments. Animal studies can be divided into acute and chronic experiments. Acute experiments consist of manipulations in vivo and in vitro. Chronic experiments shoud be performed on a conscious subject for a long period of time.

Metabolism, excitability, adaptability and reproduction are the basic characteristics of life activity.

All cells of the body are surrounded by extracellular fluid and so extracellular fluid forms the internal environment of the body. A stable internal environment is necessary for normal cell function and survival of the living organs. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a steady states in the body by coordinated physiological mechanism.

Many control systems work to maintain homeostasis. The regulation systems of human body can be divided into nerve regulation, humoral regulation and autoregulation , Many physiological activities are regulated by the nervous system. This is called nervous regulation. A reflex is the basic model of nervous regulation and the reflex arc is the pathway in a reflex. Chemical substances secreted by some tissues arrive at target organs through body fluids and regulate physiological activity of the target organ. This is called humoral regulation. In certain cases, a tissue or organ can respond directly to the environmental change, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called autoregulation . Feedback is a flow of information along a closed loop. Usually, a constancy of physiological variable requires a feedback mechanism that feeds the output information back to the control system so as to modify the nature of control. Negative feedback system work to restore the normal value of a variable and thus exert a stabilizing influence; while positive feedback amplifies the changes in order to finish the certain physiological process. Feedforward control mechanisms often sense a disturbance and can therefore take corrective action that anticipates changes.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Physiology is to study the living phenomena and the function activities of living organs, to explain how they are regulated and integrated. Physiological studies provide an important basis for modern medical sciences. Physiology is composed of studying on three levels of function: cell and molecule level，organ and system level and a general level. Methods used in physiological research include both animal and human experiments. Animal studies can be divided into acute and chronic experiments. Acute experiments consist of manipulations in vivo and in vitro. Chronic experiments shoud be performed on a conscious subject for a long period of

time.

Metabolism, excitability, adaptability and reproduction are the basic characteristics of life activity.

Many control systems work to maintain homeostasis. The regulation systems of human body can be divided into nerve regulation, humoral regulation and autoregulation, Many physiological activities are regulated by the nervous system. This is called nervous regulation. A reflex is the basic model of nervous regulation and the reflex arc is the pathway in a reflex. Chemical substances secreted by some tissues arrive at target organs through body fluids and regulate physiological activity of the target organ. This is called humoral regulation. In certain cases, a tissue or organ can respond directly to the environmental change, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called autoregulation. Feedback is a flow of information along a closed loop. Usually, a constancy of physiological variable requires a feedback mechanism that feeds the output information back to the control system so as to modify the nature of control. Negative feedback system work to restore the normal value of a variable and thus exert a stabilizing influence; while positive feedback amplifies the changes in order to finish the certain physiological process. Feedforward control mechanisms often sense a disturbance and can therefore take corrective action that anticipates changes.

Chapter 2 The basic functions of cells

This chapter describes the basic functions or features of all kinds of tissue cells, and it is an important foundation for understanding physiology. These functions include: ⑴ the structure of cell membrane and transmembrane transport of substances; ⑵transmembrane signal transduction; ⑶electrical phenomena of the cells; ⑷ contraction function of the skeleton muscle .

Protein and lipid are the two major components of the plasma membrane of the mammalian cell. The lipid composition of the cell membrane acts as a barrier, which only permits lipid-solutes cross the membrane down their concentration gradients by simple diffusion. Some of the proteins in the membrane, however, form structures that permit transmembrane movement for certain water-soluble molecules. The membrane is therefore described as semi-permeable, through which different kinds of substances pass across in different ways. Lipid-soluble molecules are capable of moving freely down their concentration gradients across the cell membrane by simple diffusion. Most of the molecules inside and outside of cells, however, cannot cross membrane without assistance. Two kinds of proteins in the cell membrane, called channels and carriers, provide permeability for these water-soluble substances, through which ions and glucose/amino acid can pass across membrane down their concentration/potential gradients. Those two kinds of transmembrane movement are called facilitated diffusion. In some situations, the molecules pass though the membrane against a concentration / potential gradient

and this process is called active transport. The energy derived from ATP is necessary for this process, and the protein involved in active transport is named pump. If the molecules are bigger, they cannot cross the membrane through the channel or carrier, and those substances get into or out of the cell through even more complicated mechanisms called endocytosis and exocytosis, respectively..

Signal transduction refers to the processes by which intercellular messengers (such as neurotransmitters, hormones and cytokines) which bind to specific receptors on or in the target cell, are converted into biochemical and/or electrical signals within that cell. In turn, such signals can modify cellular function in different ways. Three general patterns of signal transduction occur in almost all mammalian cells. One is signal transduction mediated by G-protein coupled receptor. G-protein serve as intermediaries between receptor and the enzymes or ion channels that activated by agonist binding. The second is signal transduction mediated by ion channel-coupled receptors which help regulate the intracellular concentration of specific ions. The third pattern, some membrane receptors are protein kinases called tyrosine protein kinase that are activated directly by agonist binding.

The plasma membranes of all excitable cells exhibit a small difference in electrical charge in the resting state between the inside and the outside of the cell called the membrane potential（or resting potential）. Two characteristics of cells contribute to their ability to maintain this electrical potential. First, the cell membrane is differentially permeable to ions, in the resting state all cells are highly permeable to K+, and relatively impermeable to other ions. Second, different types of ions are unequally distributed across the cell membrane. Generally, there are higher concentrations of K+ and P- and lower concentrations of Na+ and Cl- inside of the cell than there are outside. In the resting state, K+ flows down its concentration gradient from the inside to the outside of the cell. Positive charges in this way accumulate outside of the cell membrane and because the P- cannot cross the membrane in company with the K+, an electrical potential develops across the membrane. The net movement of K+ between inside and outside of the cell membrane stops when the electrical force repelling further flow of K+ out of the cell equals to the force of the concentration gradient. At this point K+ has reached its equilibrium potential (Ek), which can be estimated with the Nernst equation. The action potential is a rapid depolarisation of the membrane potential, which can be propagated over the surface of the cell. At the peak of action potential, the membrane potential becomes positive, quite close to the equilibrium potential for ENa. Before generation of the action potential, membrane potential must first decreases (depolarize) to reach a special value called the threshold potential, at which the permeability of Na+ increases rapidly and in turn triggers the action potential. However, the increase of the Na+ conductance lasts only a short time (1-2ms), and K+ channels open more slowly to repolarise the membrane.. Both these factors contribute to the process of the returning the membrane potential to its resting value. All action potentials (or spikes) in a given cell are the same size regardless of their amplitude of stimulus and this phenomena is called the all-or-none rule. During the time course of a spike, the cell becomes completely inexcitable, or refractory, meaning that the cell will not fire again no matter how large the stimulus.

Muscles can be classified into three categories: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle. skeletal

muscles are characterized by the regular striations seen under the microscope and are responsible for body movement and cardiac muscles that are responsible for the pumping action of the heart. The contractile proteins of muscle are arranged into two overlapping sets of myofilaments,one predominantly myosin-containing(thick), and one predominantly actin-containing (thin). Under the electron microscope, myofibrils can be seen to consist of two kinds of longitudinally oriented filaments called thick and thin filaments. The thick filaments are aggregates of a protein called myosin and contain ATP splitting enzyme activity (ATPase) in a cross-bridge which swings out from the thick filament.. The thin filaments are largely made up of the protein actin. The basic unit of contraction of muscle is sarcomere and it is a special structure between two Z lines. The excitation of a muscle cell results from excitatory transmission through a nerve-muscle junction leading to the generation of an action potential of the muscle cell. This action potential initiates contraction of the muscle cell by the process of excitation-contraction coupling, in which the elevation of Ca2+ is the critical factor to trigger muscle contraction. In the process of contraction, neither the thick or thin filaments change in their length. Rather, shortening occurs because the thick filaments pull the thin filaments past them. These thin filaments slide between thick filaments towards the middle line of the sarcomere. Force developed during the contraction is due to the interaction of thick and thin filaments and can be affected by different factors, including initial length, which is the length before muscle contraction. The maximum force can be produced if the muscle reaches a special length called optimal initial length before contraction. The mechanism underlying this phenomena is the maximum overlap between the thick and thin filaments allowing interaction by all cross-bridges and ultimately leading to the creation of maximum force.

Chapter 3 Blood

Blood is composed of blood cells and plasma. The blood cells comprise red blood cells (erythrocytes) , white blood cells (leukocytes), and the platelets (thrombocytes). Blood cells perform a variety of functions, including delivery of oxygen by red blood cell, formation of blood clots by platelet, host defense against infectious organisms by monocyte or granulocyte, and immune regulation by lymphocyte. The hematocrit is defined as the percentage of blood volume that is occupied by blood cells. The plasma, the liquid portion of the blood, consists of a large number of organic and inorganic substances dissolved in water, which can be expressed by the osmotic pressure (crystalloid substance for crystalloid osmotic pressure and plasma protein for colloid osmotic pressure). The functions of blood are transport, buffer function, regulation of body temperature, physiological hoemostasis and protection against foreign substances and organisms.

Hematopoietic stem cells develop into committed progenitor cells called colony forming units, which generate colonies of specific blood cell type.

The mature red blood cell is a non-nucleated, round biconcave discs having a mean diameter of about 7.8 micrometers, with a average concentration of 4-6×1012/L for human beings. The physiological characteristics of erythrocytes include membrane permeability, plastical deformability, suspension stability, and osmotic fragility. The functions of erythrocytes are the

carriage of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the buffering of pH. Production of normal erythrocytes requires protein, iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12.

The blood of a healthy person contains 4.0~l0×109/L leukocytes. The leukocytes are not a homogeneous population of cells but consist of three major groups: the granulocytes, the monocytes (to form macrophages in tissue), and the lymphocytes (for specific immune responses). These cell types, are distinguished on the basis of morphology, function,and site of origin. According to the staining properties of the granules, the granulocytes are classified as neutropils (for phagocytosis), basophils (for anaphylactic reaction), and eosinophils (to attack parasites and appose anaphylactic reaction). All leukocytes are capable of amoeboid movement, which permits them to emigrate through the walls of blood vessels (this process is also called diapedesis). They are also attracted (chemotaxis) by bacterial toxins, the products of decomposition of bacteria or body cells, and antigen-antibody complexes; they can surround foreign bodies and take them into the cytoplasm (phagocytosis).

Healthy adults are found to have 100-300×109/L platelets in their blood. They are produced in the bone marrow by the shedding of cytoplasmic buds of megakaryocytes. Platelets formation is regulated mainly by a glycoprotein hormone, erythropoietin (EPO). The physiological characteristics of platelets include adhesion, aggregation, secretion reactions, absorption, contraction and repair. The main function of platelets is hemostasis.

The stoppage of bleeding is known as hemostasis Whenever a vessel is severed or ruptured, hemostasis is achieved by several mechanisms: (1) vascular spasm, (2) formation of a platelet plug, and (3) formation of a blood clot as a result of blood coagulation. From the laboratory viewpoint, the coagulation can be brought about by an extrinsic (tissue-based) pathway or intrinsic (plasma-based) pathway, each of which is made up of many steps involving clotting factors. The result of either extrinsic pathway or intrinsic pathway is the formation of a complex of activated substances collectively called prothrombin activator, which catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin. The thrombin acts as an enzyme to convert fibrinogen into fibrin fibers that enmesh blood cells and plasma to form the clot. There are four plasma anti-clotting substances that oppose clot formation to limit this process and prevent it from spreading excessively. They are serine protease inhibitor, heparin , protein C system and tissue factor pathway inhibitor. A fibrin clot is a transitory device until permanent repair of the vessel occurs. The fibrinolytic system is the principal effecter of clot removal. It constitutes a plasma proenzyme, plasminogen, which can be activated to the active enzyme plasmin by plasminogen activators. Once formed, plasmin digests fibrin, thereby dissolving the clot.

Agglutination would occur in the circulatory system following blood transfusion, if two incompatible types of blood came into contact. The cause of agglutination is an antigen-antibody reaction. The erythrocyte membrane includes specific glycolipids which are called agglutinogens. The specific antibodies that react with these agglutinogens of the erythrocyte membrane are dissolved in the plasma and called agglutinins. The ABO and Rh systems are of the greatest significance in clinical medicine. In ABO system, group O blood, although containing no agglutinogens, does contain both anti-A and anti-B agglutinins. Group A blood only contains type A agglutinogens and anti-B agglutinins. Group B blood only contains type B agglutinogens and

anti-A agglutinins. Group AB blood contains both A and B agglutinogens but no agglutinins. Two of the three alleles A, B, O (H) are found in the diploid chromosome complement of each individual (genotype); together they determine the blood-group phenotype. Blood containing D antigen erythrocytes are called Rh-positive, and those lacking the D antigen property are called Rh-negative. One difference between the Rh and the ABO systems is that the agglutinins of the ABO system are always present after the first few months of life, whereas anti-D antibodies do not appear unless the carrier has been exposed to Rh antigens. Another difference between the two systems lies in the fact that most of the antibodies of the Rh system are incomplete IgG antibodies, which, in contrast to the complete IgM antibodies of ABO agglutinins, are small enough to pass the placental barrier. Before giving a transfusion to a person, it is necessary to do tests to determine the blood type including ABO and Rh, and a cross-matched test.

Chapter 4 Blood circulation

Part1

The heart is mainly made up of cardiac muscles. There are two categories of cardiac muscle, the working cardiac muscle (atrium and ventricle) and the specific conduction system of heart (sinoatrial node, A-V junction and His-Purkinje system).

1. Electrical activity of the cardiac muscle cells

The resting membrane potential of working cardiac myocytes as well as the maximal diastolic potential (MDP) of Purkinje fibres are around -80mV to -90mV, close to Ek. In contrast, the MDP of sinoatrial nodal cell is around -60mV, a value between the equilibrium potential of potassium and sodium.

The action potential (AP) of working cardiac muscle and Purkinje fibres belongs to the fast response potential . Their depolarization (phase 0) is induced by the inflow of INa into the cell. The repolarization of these cells is composed of three phases, phase 1 is due to the outflow of Ito, phase 2 is the result from inflow of ICa-L, and the outflow of IK and IK1 accomplishes the final repolarization, phase 3. The phase 4 is to remove excess Na+ from the cell and restore K+ to the cell. At the same time, Na+/Ca2+ exchanger utilizes the energy stored in the inwardly directed Na+ gradient to remove excess Ca2+ from the cell.

The AP of sinoatrial nodal cells belongs to the slow response type. Since their cell membrane is deficiency of IK1, Ito and INa channel, so the inflow of ICa-L induces depolarization and the outflow of IK produces repolarization.

2.Electrophysiological properties of cardiac myocytes

(1) Excitability: The cardiac muscle has a long refractory period which lasts until the relaxation phase of contraction. Thus cardiac muscle has no complete tetanus and after a ventricular premature systole, there is always a compensatory pause.

(2)Conductivity: The conduction velocity varies within the heart. It is very slow in the region of A-V junction (A-V delay). The A-V delay permits optimal ventricular filling during atrial contraction. The conduction velocity is very fast in His-Purkinje system to ensue the synchronous contraction of ventricular muscles.

(3)Autorhythmicity: The sinoatrial node is the dominant pacemaker of the heart to control

the normal rhythmic heartbeat. It suppresses the automaticity of latent pacemaker by a capture and overdrive suppression mechanism.The decay of Ik and the increase of ICa-T and If makes up the automaticity of SAN.

3.Electrocardiogram (ECG)

A normal ECG is composed of P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. The P wave represents the depolarization process of both right and left atriums. The QRS complex is caused by the depolarization of both ventricles and the T wave is generated by the repolarization process of the ventricles. The P-R interval is a measure of the time from the onset of atrial excitation to the onset of ventricular activation. The prolongation of P-R interval always indicates the disturbance in A-V conduction.

THE CARDIAC PUMP MECHANICAL EVENTS OF THE CARDIAC CYCLE

The cardiac events that occur from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of next are called the cardiac cycle. When the heart rate is 75 beats/min, the cardiac cycle lasts 0.8 S. In a cardiac cycle, the atrium acts as the primer pump and the ventricle is the cardiac pump. The diastole of ventricle occupies 0.5s and systole lasts 0.3s. During diastole, after the isovolumic relaxation phase, it is filled rapidly at first and then more slowly until atrial systole. The ventricular systole undergoes an isovolumic contraction phase and ejection phase (rapid and reduced) to pump a certain amount of blood out. The A-V valves and semilunar valves open and close passively to prevent the backflow of blood.

Part2

1.Evaluation of heart pump function

(1) Cardiac output

Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected by ventricle every beat.

Minute volume is the volume of blood ejected by left ventricle per minute, it equals to the stroke volume multiplies heart rate per minute.

(2)Cardiac work

The stroke work of the heart is the amount of energy that the heart converts to work each for pumping blood into the arteries. The minute work is the total amount of energy converted to work in 1 minute. It is equal to the stroke work times the heart rate per minute.

(3)Cardiac efficiency

During cardiac muscle contraction, most of the chemical energy is converted into heat and only a small portion into work output. The maximum efficiency of the normal heart is between 20% and 25%. In heart failure, this may decrease to as low as 5% to 10%.

(4)Cardiac reserve

Cardiac reserve includes reserves of heart rate, systole and diastole. The reserve of heart rate is related to the resting heart rate. A healthy adult，the cardiac output increases with the heart rate up to about 160-180 beats/min. The reserves of stroke volume are determined by the reserves of systole (about 35ml to 40ml) and diastole (around 15ml) .

(5)Regulation of cardiac output

Preload: The initial length before the contraction of ventricular muscle is determined by the end diastolic volume of the ventricle. The energy of contraction of cardiac muscle is

proportional to the initial length of the muscle. It can be expressed by the ventricular function curve (heterometric autoregulation).

Afterload: The afterload of left ventricular ejection is the blood pressure in the aorta. The cardiac output does not change when the aortic blood pressure varies within 80 to 170 mmHg in normal heart.

Contractility: Contractility is defined as a change in developed tension at a giving cardiac myocyte length. Homeometric autoregulation means the change of cardiac contractile strength due to the alteration of contractility.

2.Heart sounds

Closure of the A V valves at the start of ventricular systole generates the first heart sound. The second heart sound is generated when the semilunar valves close. It indicates the beginning of ventricular diastole.

Part 3

The circulatory system consists of two subdivisions: the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels, and the lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissues within the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and lymph nodes.

Blood vessels form a tubular network that permits blood to flow from the heart to all the living cells of the body and then back to the heart. Arteries carry blood away from the heart whereas veins return blood to the heart. Arteries branch extensively to form a "tree" of progressively smaller vessels. The smallest of the arteries are called arterioles. Blood passes from the arterial to the venous system in microscopic capillaries, which are the thinnest and most numerous of the blood vessels. All exchanges of fluid, nutrients, and wastes between the blood and tissues occur across the walls of capillaries. Blood flows through capillaries into microscopic veins called venules, which deliver blood into progressively larger veins that eventually return the blood to the heart.

The walls of arteries and veins are composed of three coats: tunica externa, tunica media and tunica interna, which consist of endothelium and a subendothelial layer. The endothelial cells not only provide a smooth surface for blood flow but also synthesize several substances which, when released, can affect the degree of relaxation or contraction of the arterial wall. The most important of these is a vasodilator substance called nitric oxide (NO). Once formed in the endothelium, NO rapidly diffuses into the vascular smooth muscle, which it causes to relax. The endothelium also releases prostacyclin (a vasodilator) and endothelin (a vasoconstrictor).

The blood flow that passes through a given blood vessel depends directly upon the hydrostatic pressure difference between the two ends of the blood vessel, and indirectly upon the resistance that is offered to the movement of blood. The rate of blood flow to an organ can be calculated according to Poiseuille's law. Blood flow can change from laminar flow to turbulent flow when Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

The pressure of the arterial blood is regulated by the blood volume, total peripheral resistance, and cardiac rate. For each artery, the maximum pressure during systole when blood is being ejected from the heart is known as the systolic pressure. The minimum pressure, that is

reached at the end of diastole and immediately before the valve opens again, is known as the diastolic pressure. The average pressure present in the aorta over systole and diastole is known as mean arterial blood pressure. Blood pressure is measured in units of millimeters of mercury. Hypertension, which is dangerous for a number of reasons, means a person's arterial pressure is greater than the upper range of the accepted normal measure.

Veins have a higher compliance so that they can hold more blood. Approximately two-thirds of the total blood volume is located in the veins. The venous pressure is the highest in the venules (10mmHg) and the lowest in the right atrium (0mmHg). In addition to this pressure difference, the venous return to the heart is assisted by venomotor tone, venous valves, the skeletal muscle pump, the respiratory pump and suction by the heart.

The most purposeful function of the circulation occurs in the microcirculation: transport of nutrients to the tissues and removal of cellular excreta. The capillaries are extremely thin structures with tubular walls of single-layer, highly permeable endothelial cells. Here, interchange of nutrients and cellular excreta occurs between the tissues and the circulating blood. The physical processes that bring about exchange between blood and tissue fluid are mainly diffusion, filtration, absorption and pinocytosis.

The fluid between tissue cells is known as the interstitial fluid. There are four primary forces that determine fluid movement through the capillary membrane. The capillary pressure and the interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure force fluid outward through capillary membrane. On the contrary, the interstitial fluid pressure and the plasma colloid osmotic pressure force fluid inward through the capillary membrane.

The lymphatic system represents an accessory route by which fluid can flow from the interstitial spaces into the blood. Most importantly, the lymphatics can carry proteins and large particulate matter away from the tissue spaces, neither of which can be removed by absorption directly into the blood capillaries.

Part 4

1.Cardiac innervation

Impulses in the noradrenergic sympathetic nerves to the heart increase the cardiac rate (positive chronotropic effect) and the force of cardiac contraction (positive inotropic effect). Impulses in the cholinergic vagal cardiac fibres decrease heart rate. There is a good deal of tonic discharge in the cardiac sympathetic and vagal nerves at rest. When the vagi are cut in experimental animals or after the administration of parasympatholytic drugs such as atropine, the cardiac rate in humans increases from its normal resting value of 70 to 150~180 beats per minute. In humans in whom both noradrenergic and cholinergic systems are blocked, the heart rate is approximately 100 beats/min.

2.Innervation of the Blood vessels

Noradrenergic fibres end on vessels in all parts of the body, but the fibres from the sympathetic ganglia to the cerebral vessels are of little functional importance. The noradrenergic fibres are vasoconstrictor in function. In addition to their vasoconstrictor innervation, the resistance vessels of the skeletal muscles are innervated by vasodilator fibres that, although they travel with the sympathetic nerves, are cholinergic (the sympathetic vasodilator system).

There is no tonic discharge in the vasodilator fibres, but the vasoconstrictor fibres to most vascular beds have some tonic activity. When the sympathetic nerves are cut (sympathectomy), the blood vessels dilate. In most tissues, vasodilatation is produced by decreasing the rate of tonic discharge in the vasoconstrictor nerve, although in skeletal muscles it can also be produced by activating the sympathetic vasodilator system.

Nerves containing peptides are also found in many blood vessels. The peptides released from these peptidergic nerves include VIP, which produces vasodilation.

Afferent impulses in sensory nerves from the skin are relayed antidromically down branches of the sensory nerves, which innervate blood vessels and these impulses produce vasodilation. This local neural mechanism is called the axon reflex.

3.Cardiovascular regulatory mechanism

(1)Nervous regulation

Cardiovascular centre: Cardiovascular centre means a certain region of the central nervous system that possesses the function to regulate a cardiovascular activity.

①Medullary cardiovascular centre:

Recent evidence strongly supports the view that the ventrolateral medullary (VLM) area functions to maintain vasomotor tone and mediate the cardiovascular reflexes.

The VLM area includes the rostral ventrolateral medulla (rVLM) area. This area corresponds with the so-called vasoconstrictor centre or C1 area where brain stem adrenaline containing neurones are located. The electrical or chemical stimulation of rVLM area elicits to an increase in arterial blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR). The VLM area includes the caudal ventrolateral medulla (cVLM). This area corresponds with the so-called vasodilator area or A1 area where brain stem noradrenaline containing neurones are located. The decrease in BP an HR of the cVLM stimulation may be mediated by activation of the GABA receptors in the rVLM.

In addition, the nucleus ambiguous and the dorsal motor nucleus of vagus in the medulla are areas sometimes called the cardioinhibitory centre

②Cardiovascular reflexes

Sino-aortic baroreceptor reflex is most important one, which maintains the constancy of arterial blood pressure in normal people. A rise in arterial pressure stimulates the baroreceptors and causes them to transmit signals to the central nervous system. Then the reflex produces a reduction of the arterial pressure toward the normal level and a decrease of HR.

Chemoreceptor reflex: The afferent nerve fibres from the carotid and aortic bodies pass with the baroreceptor afferents through the carotid sinus nerves and vagus nerves respectively. The chemoreceptor discharge increases rapidly when arterial PO2 falls or when there are increases in arterial PCO2 and hydrogen ion concentration. The main function of the chemoreceptors is to regulate ventilation.

Cardiopulmonary receptor reflex: Experiments have shown that stretching atria or pulmonary arteries causes a reflex inhibition of the sympathetic nerve activity, a reduction of the release of vasopressin from the pituitary and an increased release of atrial natriuretic peptide from the atrial myocardium. All the above mentioned reflex effects of the cardiopulmonary receptors tend to return the blood volume back to normal.

In addition to the above mentioned cardiovascular reflexes, stimulation of somatic or visceral nerves may also cause some other reflexes affecting the cardiovascular activity.

(2)Humoral regulation

Noradrenaline and adrenaline: Noradrenaline (NA) causes vasoconstriction almost in every vascular bed by binding with a-adrenoceptors in the vascular smooth muscle. On the other hand, adrenaline (Adr) binds with both a-and b-adrenoceptors, leading to vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.

Angiotensin: AngiotensinⅡis one of the most potent vasoconstrictor agents and so has pressor effects.

Vasopressin(VP): Vasopressin is a nonapeptide hormone synthesized in the neurones of the paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic nuclei (SON) in the hypothalamus. The principal physiological effect of VP is the retention of water by increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney and very potent vasoconstrictor and pressor effects. The baroreceptor reflex may be facilitated by the VP. In addition, the effect of VP on CNS, it also acts on the rVLM area in the brain to increase sympathetic vasomotor tone and arterial blood pressure.

Recent studies indicate that the effects of endothelium-relaxing factor (EDRF), bradykinin, prostaglandins (PG), b-endorphin and histamine are vasodilatation.

Local control of basal vascular tone: This myogenic activity results in a basal vascular tone which keeps these vessels in a state of partial constriction. When the arterial blood pressure in a tissue vascular bed is suddenly raised, the transmural pressure increases, especially in the section of precapillary resistance vessels, thus giving rise to a mechanical stretch of smooth muscle and distension of the vessels.

Part5

1.Coronary Blood Flow

In humans the resting coronary blood flow averages 225ml/min, which is 4 to 5 percent of the total cardiac output. The blood flow in the left ventricle falls to a low value during systole, because of strong compression of intramuscular vessels by the myocardial contraction. During diastole, however, the cardiac muscle relaxes and no longer obstructs the blood flow through the left ventricular blood vessels. Coronary blood flow increases rapidly during diastole. The force of contraction of right ventricle is much less than that of the left ventricle. The phasic changes in blood flow are relatively small compared with those in the left ventricle.

Oxygen demand or consumption is a major factor in regulation of coronary blood flow, while the neural control is of secondary importance. Among metabolites known, adenosine is thought to be the most important. It plays a role in the regulation of coronary blood flow.

2.Pulmonary circulation

The function of the pulmonary circulation is to oxygenate the mixed venous blood which comes from the right ventricle and remove its excess of CO2 by exchange between the capillaries and the air in the alveoli.

The blood volume of the lungs is approximately 450ml. Since blood volume in the pulmonary circulation is large and its volume variation is also large, the pulmonary vascular bed

serves as a blood reservoir in the body. On the other hand, the pulmonary interstitial hydrostatic pressure is very low and even subatmospheric at times. This low pressure helps to pull fluid from the alveoli into the interstitial space and into the capillaries, keeping the alveoli dry. When alveolar oxygen concentration becomes low, the adjacent blood vessels slowly constrict in a few minutes, leading to an increase in the vascular resistance. This response may cause most of the blood to flow through other areas of the lungs which are better ventilated.

Stimulation of the sympathetic fibres, NA, Adr and AngⅡ cause vasoconstriction of the pulmonary circulation.

3.Cerebral Blood flow

Cerebral blood flow is autoregulated extremely well between the pressure range of 60 and 160mmHg in the arterial pressure. The mechanism of this autoregulation is probably due to a combination of myogenic and metabolic factors. An increase in CO2 or H+ concentration in the arterial blood perfusing the brain greatly increases cerebral blood flow. Stimulation of the sympathetic nerves causes mild vasoconstriction, while stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves causes mild vasodilatation.

Blood-Brain and Blood cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Barriers:The morphological basis of the blood brain barrier is the endothelial cells, the basement membrane of the capillaries and the foot processes of astroglial cells (the perivascular end foot). This property of the blood-brain barrier helps to conserve the constancy of the local environment of the neurones, preventing fluctuation in plasma composition from being transmitted to the CSF.

The blood-CSF barriers also exist. Evidently, many large molecular substances hardly pass from the blood into the CSF.

Chapter 5 Respiration

The gas exchange between the living body and its environment is called respiration，which is an important sign of life. It includes three processes: external respiration (pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange in lungs), gas transport in the blood and internal respiration.

Pulmonary ventilation means the inflow and outflow of air between the lung alveolus and the environment. The force that drives pulmonary ventilation comes from respiration movement. The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the respiratory muscles cause the expansion or reduction of the chest and lung, which results in the expansion or reduction of the alveoli to change the alveolar pressure. During inspiration, alveolar pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure so air flows into the lung (inhalation). During expiration, opposite changes occur because the alveolar pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure and so air flows out of the lung (exhalation). Therefore the original impetus of pulmonary ventilation is respiratory movement and the direct impetus is the pressure difference between alveolar pressure and atmospheric pressure.

The intrapleural pressure (IP) is very important in the process of pulmonary ventilation. It means the pressure in the pleural space and is made of two factors: alveolar pressure (AP) acting on alveolar cell wall (namely visceral pleura) and recoil force (RF) of lung. They can be expressed as follows: IP=AP-RF. Hence, the intrapleural pressure is a slightly negative pressure

（compared with atmosphere pressure）. The physiological significance of negative pressure in pleural space is that it is required to hold the lungs in expansion and to enhance both venous return and lymphatic return.

During the process of pulmonary ventilation, only when the driving force overcomes the resistance, can ventilation take place. There are two kinds of resistance to pulmonary ventilation. One is the elastic resistance and another is the non-elastic resistance in pulmonary ventilation.

The elastic resistance of pulmonary ventilation can be classified into two categories: alveolar surface tension and elastic recoil of the lung；alveolar surface tension is more important. The common index to reflect the elastic resistance of the lung is the compliance of lung, which is the inverse of elastic resistance. Type II alveolar epithelial cells synthesize and secrete pulmonary surfactant (PS). The physiological functions of PS are to reduce the alveolar surface tension thereby allowing lung expansion easily；to stabilize the different sized alveoli in lungs；to prevent alveolar collapse and the infiltration of fluid into the alveoli.

The non-elastic resistance of pulmonary ventilation includes airway resistance, inertia resistance and tissue viscosity resistance. The airway resistance is a major element of non-elastic resistance. Many factors can lead to contraction of bronchial smooth muscle and the reduction of the bronchi radius. These changes can appear in asthma.

How to evaluate the function of pulmonary ventilation, there are many indexes. Timed vital capacity，vital capacity and alveolar minute volume are good indexes for the function of pulmonary ventilation and the efficiency of pulmonary ventilation respectively. Some indexes can be used to differentiate obstructive and restrictive pulmonary ventilation dysfunction.

The exchange of gases between the alveoli and blood in the capillary vessels is called pulmonary gas exchange. The diffusion constant is proportional to the difference in gas partial pressure, temperature, solubility of the gas and alveoli area；whereas inversely proportional to the respiratory membrane thickness and the square root of the molecular weight. Ventilation-perfusion is another important factor affecting gas exchange.

The gas exchange with tissues must be carried out through blood transportation in the body. There are two kinds of transport forms: physically dissolved and chemically combined gases. The physically dissolved form is an obligatory form for oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into and out of the blood; whereas the chemically combined form is the major form of transportation for oxygen and carbon dioxide. O2 is mainly transported in combination with haemoglobin and CO2 is mainly transported as bicarbonate, both within the erythrocytes.

Respiratory movements can be voluntary but are mostly generated as automatic rhythmical movements. Cooperation of respiratory centers in the medulla and pons provides reflex control of the normal breathing rhythm.

Respiratory movement is mainly regulated by chemical stimuli. There are two types of chemoreceptor: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid and aortic bodies and central chemoreceptors located near the ventral surface of the medulla. The peripheral chemoreceptors are sensitive to a decrease in arterial PO2 or pH and an increase in PCO2 or H+ concentration. When the blood PCO2 rises, CO2 will also rapidly penetrate the blood-brain barrier and enter the cerebrospinal fluid. Subsequently CO2 will promptly be hydrated to produce H2CO3, H+ will

dissociate from H2CO3. So the local H+ will stimulate central chemoreceptors in the end. The control centre responds to both sets of chemoreceptors by sending signals to regulate the rate and depth of respiration to maintain the homeostasis of CO2, O2 and H+. Mechanical stimuli are mainly those evoking the pulmonary stretch reflex (pulmonary stretch reflex includes inflation reflex and deflation reflex and it prevents over expansion and collapse of the lungs.

Chapter 6 Digestion and absorption

All cells in the human body require a supply of water, electrolytes and nutrients. These must come from food, where they are present as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, etc. These complex molecules are broken down by the process of digestion and then absorbed into the blood stream

or lymph. Digestion requires the food to be acted upon by enzymes and cofactors whose activity

is facilitated by both mechanical and chemical agitations of the gut contents. Absorption is a relatively slow process that requires controlled movement of material through the absorptive section of the gut. Gastrointestinal innervation includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The gastrointestinal tract has its own nervous system of called the enteric nervous system. Gastrointestinal smooth muscle is unique in that it has three types of membrane potential: resting potential, basic electrical rhythm, and action potential. There are a large number of endocrine

cells secreting gut hormones in the gastrointestinal tract. These gut hormones are frequently peptides, and regulate the movements of alimentary tract and secretions of alimentary glands.

The stomach serves to store food and to digest food primarily by attacks of acid and enzymes. It delivers the resulting chyme to the duodenum at a rate they can handle. These functions require a complex pattern of motility. There are three patterns of motility in the stomach smooth muscle: tonic contraction, receptive relaxation, and peristalsis. Gastric emptying

is when the gastric contents are slowly pushed in the duodenum. It is accelerated by gastric contents and gastrin, while it is inhibited by the enterogastric reflex and duodenal hormones. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsins, mucus, and intrinsic factor. HCl activates pepsinogens and stimulates secretin secretion. Pepsins partially hydrolyze protein. Mucus and bicarbonate secreted by mucus cells create the "mucus - bicarbonate barrier" that protects the mucosa from the caustic action of gastric acid and pepsins. Intrinsic factor binds to and protects vitamin B12 for absorption in the terminal ileum. Gastric secretions are stimulated by acetylcholine, gastrin, and histamine. While HCl, fat, and hypertonic solutions inhibit gastric secretions in the gastrointestinal tract. Gastric juice secretion is divided into three phases: The cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase. The control of the cephalic phase is neurohumoral. The secretion of the gastric phase is regulated via local reflexes of intrinsic nerves, vagal reflexes and gastrin release. The regulation of the intestinal phase is predominantly by humoral factors.

The small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption of nutrients. Patterns of motility of the small intestine are contraction, segmentation, and peristalsis. There are three major digestive juices in the small intestine; they are pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juices. The pancreatic juice, an most important digestive juice, contains the all required enzymes that are essential for the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The digestion of fat depends

entirely on pancreatic lipase. The digestive enzymes of protein must be activated before functioning. The bicarbonate solution is secreted by duct cells, while enzymes are secreted by acinar cells. The secretion of pancreatic juice is regulated mainly by cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin. The bile secreted by liver plays a vital role in the digestion and absorption of lipids. Bile is composed of bile salts, cholesterol, and lecithin. The enterohepatic bile circulation is regulated by neural and humoral factors. Among the factors that enhance bile secretion are secretin, CCK, gastrin, bile salt, and food rich in protein.

The processes of digestion yield a variety of small ions and molecules that must be absorbed, together with the large quantities of water and electrolytes. Most absorption takes place in the small intestine, with some further absorption of water and ions in the large intestine. The small intestine absorbs water, electrolytes such as Na+, K+, Cl-, sugars such as glucose, galactose and fructose, amino acids and dipeptides, vitamins and mineral and fats. Absorption from the small intestine is by diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport, activities enhanced by the structure of the mucosa.

Carbohydrates, proteins are absorbed actively through intestinal epithelial cells along with Na+ after being digested into simple sugar and amino acid respectively. Among the fat digestion products, glycerin is absorbed along with simple sugar. Others are absorbed with the help of bile salts and transported mainly via the lymphatic system. Calcium is absorbed by diffusion into the intestinal epithelium and active transport across the basolateral membrane, all steps in the processes stimulated by 1,25-(OH)2-VitD3. Only ferrous iron is absorbed by a carrier protein.

Chapter 7 Energy metabolism

Metabolism is used to refer to all the chemical and energy transformation occurring in the body, which consists of material metabolism and energy metabolism. Energy metabolism refer to the production, storage, transform, release and utility of energy during the process of material metabolism.

The carbohydrates, fats and proteins may become the source of energy of the body. These foods can be oxidized in the cell and produced large amounts of energy in this process. The animal organism oxidizes carbohydrates, fats and proteins principally to CO2, H2O and the energy necessary for life processes. It has been pointed out that carbohydrates, fats and proteins can all be used by cells to synthesize large quantities of ATP, and that the ATP can in turn be used as an energy source for many other cellular functions, including synthesis and growth, muscular contraction, glandular secretion, nerve conduction, active absorption, etc. Energy is stored by forming high energy phosphate bonds. The ATP and the creatine phosphate contain all high energy phosphate bonds. Creatine phosphate can transfer energy interchangeably with ATP.

The metabolic rate can be determined by simply measuring the quantity of heat liberated form the body by direct or indirect methods.The metabolic rate is affected by many factors .The most important one is muscular exertion. The ingested food also increases the metabolic rate . After a meal containing a large quantity of carbohydrate or fat, the metabolic rate usually increases by only about 4%. However, after a meal containing large quantity of protein, the metabolic rate usually increases by about 30%. Another factor that stimulates metabolic rate is

the environmental temperature. When the environmental temperature is lower than body temperature , heat-conserving mechanisms such as shivering are activated and the metabolic rate rises. When the temperature is high enough to raise the body temperature, there is a general acceleration of metabolic processes. In addition, the metabolic rate is also related to body surface area, age, sex and hormones such as thyroid hormone, epinephrine and norepinephrine, growth hormone etc.

Even when a person is at complete rest, considerable energy is required to perform all the chemical reactions of the body. This minimum level of energy required to exist is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR). The measurement of the BMR provides a useful means of comparing one person's metabolic rate with that of another under basal conditions.

Chapter 8 Body temperature

The temperature of human body includes core temperature and the shell temperature. The core temperature is relatively uniform in the core and is regulated within narrow limits by a negative feedback system. The body temperature in physiology means core temperature, i.e., the mean temperature of deep body. In fact, the body temperature is usually indicated by the temperature in the armpit, the mouth (under the tongue) or the rectum. These values normally vary from 36.0℃ to 37.4℃, or 36.4℃ to 37.4℃, or 36.9℃ to 37.9℃ respectively. Under normal conditions, the body temperature is easily affected by day and night, sex, age, muscle activity and other factors, but does not normally vary by more than 1℃.

Body temperature depends on the production and loss of body heat. The main organs of heat production in human body are the liver, the brain, the heart and the skeletal muscles. The production of heat occurs through basic metabolism and muscle activity and is controlled by neural and humoral factors. The heat is lost largely through the skin. The volume of heat loss from the body depends mainly upon the differences in temperature between the skin and the surroundings. The flow of blood to the vessels in the skin controlled by sympathetic nerves can regulate the skin temperature. Skin loses heat to the external environment by means of four processes :radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation. Sweating is an active secretion of water by sweat gland, which removes heat from the skin as it evaporates. The main sweating control centre is located in hypothalamus.

Thermoregulation includes autonomic thermoregulation and behavioral thermoregulation. Thermoreceptors are divided into peripheral thermoreceptors and central thermoreceptors, which receive cold or hot stimuli. The information converges to the nervous center, especially PO/AH in hypothalamus. The efferent impulse results in the production or loss of the heat so as to regulate the body temperature.

Chapter 9 Formation and excretion of urine

The urinary system is composed of the kidneys, bladder and accessory structures. The kidneys produce urine, a fluid waste product whose composition and volume vary.

The six functions of the kidneys are regulation of extracellular fluid volume, regulation of osmolarity, maintenance of ion balance, homeostatic regulation of pH, excretion of wastes and foreign substances, and production of hormone. The most important function of the kidneys is the

homeostatic regulation of the water and ion content of the blood.

I. Structure of the kidneys

Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons. Each nephron in the kidneys consists of a renal corpuscle and a tubule.

1. Each renal corpuscle comprises a capillary tuft, termed a glomerulus, and a Bowman's capsule, into which the tuft protrudes.

2. The tubule extends out from Bowman's capsule and is subdivided into many segments, which can be combined for reference purposes into the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Beginning at the level of the collecting ducts, multiple tubules join and empty into the renal pelvis, from which urine flows through the ureters to the bladder.

3. Each glomerulus is supplied by an afferent arteriole,and an efferent arteriole leaves the glomerulus to branch into peritubular capillaries, which supply the tubule.

II. Basic Renal processes

1.The three basic renal processes are glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. In addition, the kidneys synthesize and /or catabolize certain substances. The excretion of a substance is equal to the amount filtered plus the amount secteted minus the amount reabsorbed.

2. Urine formation begins with glomerular filtration - approximately 180L/day - of essentially protein-free plasma into Bowman's space.

(1) Glomerular filtrate contains all plasma substances other than proteins and substances bound to protein.

(2) Glomerular filtration is driven by the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries and is opposed by both the hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space and the osmotic force due to the proteins in the glomerular capillary plasma.

3. As the filtrate moves through the tubules, certain substances are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries.

(1) Substances to which the tubular epithelium is permeable are absorbed by diffusion because water reabsorption creates tubule-interstitium concentration gradients for them.

(2) Tubular reabsorption rates are generally very high for nutrients, ions,and water, but are lower for waste products. Reabsorption may occur by diffusion or by mediated transport.

(3) Many of the mediated-transport systems manifest transport maximums, so that when the filtered load of a substance exceeds the transport maximum, large amounts may appear in the urine.

4. Tubular secretion (movement from the peritubular capillary into the tubules), like glomerular filtration, is a pathway for entrance of a substance into the tubule.

Ⅲ. Renal regulation

Renal function is regulated by neural and hormonal influences. The most important of these are:

1. renal sympathic nerves

2. renin-angiotensin system

3. aldosterone

4. atrial natriuretic peptide

5. antidiuretic hormone

6. prostaglandins

7. parathyroid hormone

Ⅳ. Clearance

Clearance is an abstract concept that describes what volume of plasma passing through the kidneys has been totally cleared of a substance in a given period of time. For substances such as inulin which are neither actively absorbed nor secreted by the kidneys, clearance is equivalent to the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In clinical settings, creatinine is used to measure GFR.

If a person's GFR is known, then it is possible to measure the filtration rate of a substance.

If less substance appears in the urine than was filtered, then some was reabsorbed by the nephrons. If more substance appears in the urine than was filtered, then there is net secretion of the substance. If the same amount of the substance is filtered and excreted, then the substance is neither reabsorbed nor secreted.

Clearance values are also used to determine how the nephron handles a substance filtered into it. If the clearance of a substance is less than the inulin or creatinine clearances, then the substance has been reabsorbed. Conversely, if the clearance rate of the substance is greater than inulin or creatinine then it has been actively secreted into the nephron.

V. Micturition

Urine is stored in the bladder until released by urination, also known as micturition.

1. In the basic micturition reflex, bladder distention stimulates stretch receptors that trigger spinal reflexes; these reflexes lead to contraction of the detrusor muscle, mediated by parasympathetic neurons, and relaxation of the external urethral sphincter, mediated by inhibition of the motor neurons to this muscle.

2. V oluntary control is exerted via descending pathways to the parasympathetic nerves supplying the detrusor muscle and the motor nerves supplying the external urethral sphincter.

Chapter 10 Sensory organs

Human bodies detect information from both external and internal environment with receptors that translate sensory stimuli into action potentials，which ate then conducted to CNS. The simplest sensory receptors are specialized peripheral endings of afferent neurons. Sensory organs include receptors and some specialized structures housing the sensitive receptors essential for special perception. These receptors have differential sensitivities to various stimuli, respond to particular stimuli, called the adequate stimuli, and translate the energy forms of the stimuli into bioelectrical signals. There are discrete pathways from the receptors to the CNS so that information about the type and location of the stimuli can be deciphered by the CNS, even though all the information arrives in the form of action potentials.

All sensory receptors have one feature in common, the sensory stimulus produces a graded local potential called a receptor potential. The strength and rate of change of the stimulus are reflected in the magnitude of the receptor potential, which in turn determines the frequency of

action potentials generated in the afferent neuron. A special characteristic of almost all sensory receptors is that they adapt either partially or completely to their stimuli when a continuous sensory stimulus is applied. The receptors respond at a very high impulse rate at first, and then at a progressively lower rate until finally many of them no longer respond at all.

The eye is designed to focus the visual image on the retina with minimal optical distortion. Light is focused by the cornea and the lens, and then reaching photoreceptors in the retina, which are called the rods and cones. Rods and cones are activated when they contain differentially absorb various wavelengths of light. Light absorption causes a biochemical change in the photopigment that is converted into a change in the release of transmitter from the photoreceptors and ultimately the rate of action potential propagation by the retinal ganglion cells which provide axons for the visual pathway leaving the retina .The cones are responsible for color vision and display high acuity but can be used only for day vision because of their low sensitivity to light. Different ratios of stimulation of three cone types by varying wavelengths of light lead to color vision. The rods are used for night, because they are very sensitive to light. When the rods and cones are excited, signals are transmitted through successive neurons in the retina itself and finally into the optic nerve fibers and vision center of cerebral cortex.

The ear has two unrelated functions: ①hearing, which involves the external ear, middle ear, and cochlea of the inner ear; and ②sense of balance, which involves the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear. The ear receptors are located in the cochlea and vestibular apparatus, which are mechanoreceptors and are called hair cells. Hearing depends on the ear's ability to convert airborne sound waves into mechanical deformations of receptive hair cells, thereby initiating neural signals that are transmitted to the auditory cortex in the brain for sound perception. High frequency resonance of the basilar membrane occurs near the base, where the sound waves enter the cochlea through the oval window; and low frequency resonance occurs near the apex mainly because of difference in stiffness of the fibers but also because of increased "loading" of the basilar membrane with extra amounts of fluid that must vibrate with the membrane at the apex.

The vestibular apparatus in the inner ear consists of the semicircular canals for detecting rotational acceleration or deceleration in any direction, and the utricle and saccule for detecting the orientation of the head with respect to gravity. Neural signals are generated in response to mechanical deformation of hair cells caused by specific movement of fluid and related structures within these sense organs. This information is important for the body to obtain the sense of equilibrium and maintain posture.

Taste and smell are chemical senses. Taste is mainly a function of the taste buds in the mouth. For practical analysis of taste the receptor capabilities have been collected into four general categories called the primary sensations of taste. They are sour, salty, sweet, and bitter. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa in the upper part of the nasal cavity. About seven different primary classes of olfactory stimulants preferentially excite separate olfactory cells. These classes of olfactory stimulants are characterized as camphoraceous, musky, floral, pepperminty, ethereal, pungent, putrid. Both sensory pathways include two routes: one to the limbic system for emotional and behavioral processing and one through the thalamus to the cortex for conscious perception and fine discrimination.

Chapter 11 Nervous system

Part 1

In general, the nervous system receives and processes information from the external and internal environment and initiates responses. The nervous system is composed of numerous neurons and neurogllia. Neurons are signal conducting cells of the nervous system and neuroglia are nonconducting cells that produce myelin, and protect and possibly nourish neurons.

·Neuron could be divided into four parts functionally: soma, dendrite, axon and axonal ending. Generally speaking, both the soma and dendrite are receiving the signals, the axon is the part of conducting impulse and the axonal endings are the part of outputting messages.

·Neurons can be classified into three categories functionally: (1) afferent or sensory neuron;

(2) interneuron or association neuron;(3) efferent or motor neuron.

·The basic functions of neuron are to analyze, integrate and memorize the changeful information from both internal and external environment and to produce the physiological regulation for target organs or tissues.

·Nerve fibers can be classified into (1) myelinated nerve fiber and unmyelinated nerve fiber;

(2) A, B and C fiber; (3) Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ and Ⅳ fiber according to their morphological and electrophysiological characteristics respectively.

·The characteristics of nerve impulse conduction in nerve fibers are: (1) both structural and functional integrality; (2) isolated propagation; (3) bi-direction propagation; (4) relative indefatigability.

·Neurons have some trophic effects for the normal metabolism and functions of innervated tissues. The neurotrophines (NT) are also necessary for survival and growth of the neuron.

·Neuroglia are composed of astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, microglial cell and ependymal cell. Neuroglia have following functions: (1) supporting, isolating and barrier action; (2) repairing, regenerative action; (3) metabolic, nutritive action; (4) synthesizing and secreting active substances and so on.

Part 2

A synapse is a specialized junction between the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron and a portion ( usually a dendrite or body ) of a postsynaptic neuron. Synapses are the primary pathways of cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system. The vast majority of synapses in nervous system are chemical synapses.

·Chemical synapses convert the electrical signals of one neuron （action potential ）to a chemical neurotransmitter between neurons to an electrical signal in a second neuron (electrical-chemical-electrical pattern).

·Presynaptic terminals triggered by an action potential release excitatory or inhibitory transmitters.

·The neurotransmitters bind receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and cause either depolarization due to increased membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ ，especially to Na+（excitatory postsynaptic potential，EPSP）or hyperpolarization due to increased membrane permeability to Cl- and K+ ，especially to Cl-（inhibitory postsynaptic potential，IPSP）.The net

运动生理学作业试题答案 (1)

1.运动生理学的主要研究任务是什么？在对人体生命活动规律有了基本认识的基础上，揭示体育运动对人体机能影响的规律及机理，阐明运动训练、体育教学和运动健身过程中的生理学原理，指导不同年龄、性别和训练程度的人群进行科学的运动训练，以达到提高竞技运动水平、增强全民体质、延缓衰老、提高工作效率和生活质量的目的。 2.解释课堂上讲授的生命基本特征。新陈代谢：是生物体自我更新的最基本的生命活动过程。兴奋性：可以感受刺激，产生兴奋的特性。（能力）适应性：生物体在客观环境的长期作用下可以逐渐形成一种与环境相适应的、适合自身生存的反应模式。这种能力称为适应性应激性，生殖 3.什么是神经调节？什么是体液调节？它们有什么不同？神经调节是指在神经活动的直接参与下所实现的生理机能调节过程。(神经系统完成) 体液调节是指人体血液和其他体液中的某些化学物质（如激素）以及某些组织细胞所产生的某些化学物质或代谢产物，可借助于血液循环的运输，到达全身或某一器官和组织，从而引起某些特殊的生理过程。神经调节的一般特点是比较迅速而精确，体液调节的一般特点是比较缓慢持久而弥散，两者相互配合使生理功能调节更趋于完善。 4.什么是生物节律？如何分类？生物体的各种生理功能活动会按一定的时间顺序发生周期性变化，这种生理机能活动的周期性变化称为生物的时间结构，或称为生物节律。可按其发生的频率高低分为三大类：近似昼夜节律、亚日节律、超日节律。近似昼夜节律：指24小时±4小时区间的生物节律如体温变化，激素浓度变化。超日节律：指周期小于20小时的生物节律。如心率、呼吸等节律。亚日节律：指周期大于28小时的生物节律。如女性月经周期等。又可分为近似周、月、年节律。作业2 1.感受器、感受器官的概念。感受器——是指分布在体表或组织内部一些专门感受机体内、外环境改变的结构或装置。如：视锥细胞感受器官——是指感受器与其附属装置共体构成的器官。如：眼、耳其感受器位于颞骨岩部迷路内，由椭圆囊、球囊和三个半规管构成。其适宜刺激是耳石的重力及直线正负加减速运动。当头部位置改变，重力对耳石的作用方向改变，耳石膜与毛细胞之间的空间位置发生改变，使毛细胞兴奋，引起有关肌肉紧张变化，同时产生头部空间位置改变的感觉。 2.什么是位觉？位觉的感受器是什么？位于哪里？它们的适宜刺激是什么？概念：身体进行各种变速运动（包括直线加速度运动和角加速运动）时引起的前庭器官中的位觉感受器兴奋并产生的感觉，称为位觉（或前庭感觉）。 3.解释前庭反射与前庭稳定性。前庭反应是指前庭感受器受到刺激产生兴奋后，除引起一定位置觉改变外，还引起骨骼肌紧张性改变、眼震颤及植物性功能改变。如眩晕、恶、呕吐和各种姿势反射等，这些改变统称为前庭反射。刺激前庭感受器而引起机体各种前庭反应的程度，称为前庭功能稳定性。体育锻炼有助于提高前庭功能的稳定性。

完整word版生理学期末考试试题及答案

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2018年自考运动生理学试题及答案

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生理学英文专业词汇

第1章英文专业词汇（英汉对照） A acclimatization, accustomization 习服acute animal experiment 急性动物实验afferent nerve 传入神经 autoregulation * 自身调节 B body fluid 体液 C cell physiology 细胞生理学 center 中枢 chronic animal experiment 慢性动物实验closed-loop system 闭环系统 control system 控制系统 cybernetics 控制论 E effecter 效应器 efferent nerve 传出神经 experiment in vivo 在体实验experiment in vitro 离体实验extracellular fluid, ECF 细胞外液 F feedback * 反馈 feed-forward * 前馈 G general physiology 普通生理学 H human physiology 人体生理学 humoral regulation * 体液调节homeostasis ** 稳态 hormone 激素I internal environment ** 内环境interstitial fluid, ISF 组织间液intracellular fluid, ICF 细胞内液 N negative feedback ** 负反馈neurohormone 神经激素 neurohumoral regulation 神经 - 体液调节neuroregulation * 神经调节neurosecretion 神经分泌 O organism 生物体 organ physiology 器官生理学 P paracrine 旁分泌 physiological experiment 生理学实验physiology ** 生理学 plasma 血浆 positive feedback * 正反馈 R receptor 感受器 reflex * 反射 reflex arc ** 反射弧 resetting 重调定 S set point ** 调定点 T target cell 靶细胞 telecrine 远距分泌 tissue fluid 组织液

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生理学期末考试试题及答案精编版 MQS system office room 【MQS16H-TTMS2A-MQSS8Q8-MQSH16898】

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08救援—《生理学》名词解释——[人卫版].[期末考试用].[英文字母顺序]简单排版

●吸收（absorption）食物经消化后形成小分子物质，以及维生素、无机盐和水通过消化道粘膜上皮细胞进入血液与淋巴的过程。 ●适宜刺激（adequate stimulate）一种感受器通常只对某种特定形式的刺激最敏感，即感受器适宜刺激。 ●肺泡通气量（alveolar ventilation）每分钟吸收肺泡的新鲜空气量：肺泡通气量=呼吸频率x（潮气量-无效腔气量） ●动脉血压（arterial pressure）流动着的血液对于单位面积动脉血管壁的侧压力，也是平时所说的血压。 ●血液凝固（blood coagulation）血液由流动的液体变为不流动的凝胶状态的过程，实质是可溶性纤维蛋白原转变为不溶性纤维蛋白。 ●心输出量（cardiac output）一侧心室每分钟射出的血液量，心输出量=搏出量*心率，健康成年男性安静正常值为4.5~6.0L/(min*m2) ●心力贮备（cardiac reserve）心输出量随机体代谢需要而增加的能力，称为心力贮备，或称心泵功能储备，通常用最大心输出量表示。 ●暗适应（dark adaption）人在长时间明亮环境中突然进入暗处，最初看不见东西，而后一定时间视觉敏感度逐渐升高，能逐渐看见物体的现象。 ●去大脑僵直（decerebrate rigidity）在动物中脑上、下丘之间切断脑干后，动物出现抗重力肌（伸肌）的肌紧张亢进，表现为四肢伸直，坚硬如注，头尾昂起，脊柱挺硬的现象 ●消化（digestion）食物中所含营养物质在消化道内被分解为可吸收的小分子物质过程。 ●射血分数（ejection fraction）搏出量占心室舒张末期容积的百分比。 ●电紧张扩布（electronic propagation）当膜的某一部分出现局部去极化后可向周围短距离扩布，并随扩布距离增加而衰减乃至消失。 ●兴奋性（excitability）可兴奋细胞接受刺激后产生动作电位的能力。 ●兴奋-收缩耦联（excitation-contraction coupling）将以膜的电变化为特征的电兴奋和以肌纤维机械变化为基础的收缩耦联起来的中间机制。 ●兴奋性突触后电位（excitatory postsynaptic potential，EPSP）突触后膜在某种神经递质作用下产生的局部去极化电位变化（兴奋性前膜产生兴奋性递质作用于突触后膜的相应受体，使化学门控通道开放，后膜对钠离子和钾离子的通透性增大，并且由于钠离子的内流大于钾离子的外流，所以发生净内向电流，导致细胞膜局部去极化） ●反馈（feedback）受控制部分不断将信息回输到控制部分，反过来影响控制部分的活动，称为反馈。 ●滤过分数（filtration fraction）肾小球滤过率和肾血浆流量的比值。 ●功能残/余气量（functional residual capacity，FRC）平静呼气末尚存留于肺内的气体量。 ●胃排空（gastric emptying）食糜由胃排入十二指肠的过程。 ●肾小球率过滤（glomerular filtration rate）单位时间内(每分钟)两肾生成原尿量称为肾小球率过滤。 ●球-管平衡（glomerulotubular balance）近端小管对溶质（特别是钠离子）和水的重吸收可随肾小球率过滤变化而变化，成正比关系。 ●听阈（hearing threshold）对于每一种频率的声波，都有一个能引起听觉的最小强度，称为听阈。 ●稳态（homeostasis）也称自稳态，是指内环境的理化性质，如温度，pH、渗透压和各种液体成分的相对恒定状态 ●激素允许作用（hormone permission action）激素之间存在的一种特殊关系，即某种激素对特定器官、组织没有直接作用，但它的存在却是另一种激素发挥生物效应的必要基础。 ●超极化（hyperpolarization）当静息时膜内外电位差向负值加大的状态。 ●下丘脑调节肽（hypothalamic regulatory peptides,HRP）由下丘脑促垂体区肽能神经元分泌的能调节腺垂体活动的肽类物质 ●明适应(light adaption)人在长时间暗环境中突然进入明处，最初感到耀眼光亮，看不清物质，而后一定时间恢复视觉的现象。 ●局部电流（local current）当神经受到刺激时产生兴奋向两侧传递，产生局部电位差而产生局部电流。在膜内，电流从兴奋部位到未兴奋部位，膜外则相反。 ●局部兴奋（local excitation）当刺激强度小于阈值时，不产生动作电位，但引起膜静息电位轻度减小。可引起受刺激局部的细胞膜兴奋而不能向远处传播，故称局部兴奋。 ●运动单位（motor unit）由一个α运动神经元或脑运动神经元及其所支配全部肌纤维所组成的功能单位 ●骨骼肌牵张反射（muscle stretch reflect）肌梭受到牵张刺激时，可反射性地引起其所在骨骼肌的收缩，属于本体感受器反射 ●近点（near point）晶状体最大调节能力可用所能看清眼前物体的最近距离来表示，即为近点。 ●负反馈（negative feedback）受控部位发出的反馈信息调整抑制控制部分的活动，最终使受控部位的活动朝着与它原先活动相反的方向改变，称为负反馈。

运动生理学作业试题答案

运动生理学的主要研究任务是什么？在对人体生命活动规律有了基本认识的基础上，揭示体育运动对人体机能影响的规律及机理，阐明运动训练、体育教学和运动健身过程中的生理学原理，指导不同年龄、性别和训练程度的人群进行科学的运动训练，以达到提高竞技运动水平、增强全民体质、延缓衰老、提高工作效率和生活质量的目的。 4.解释课堂上讲授的生命基本特征。新陈代谢：是生物体自我更新的最基本的生命活动过程。兴奋性：可以感受刺激，产生兴奋的特性。（能力）适应性：生物体在客观环境的长期作用下可以逐渐形成一种与环境相适应的、适合自身生存的反应模式。这种能力称为适应性应激性，生殖 5.什么是神经调节？什么是体液调节？它们有什么不同？神经调节是指在神经活动的直接参与下所实现的生理机能调节过程。(神经系统完成) 体液调节是指人体血液和其他体液中的某些化学物质（如激素）以及某些组织细胞所产生的某些化学物质或代谢产物，可借助于血液循环的运输，到达全身或某一器官和组织，从而引起某些特殊的生理过程。神经调节的一般特点是比较迅速而精确，体液调节的一般特点是比较缓慢持久而弥散，两者相互配合使生理功能调节更趋于完善。 6.什么是生物节律？如何分类？生物体的各种生理功能活动会按一定的时间顺序发生周期性变化，这种生理机能活动的周期性变化称为生物的时间结构，或称为生物节律。可按其发生的频率高低分为三大类：近似昼夜节律、亚日节律、超日节律。近似昼夜节律：指24小时±4小时区间的生物节律如体温变化，激素浓度变化。超日节律：指周期小于20小时的生物节律。如心率、呼吸等节律。亚日节律：指周期大于28小时的生物节律。如女性月经周期等。又可分为近似周、月、年节律。作业2 1.感受器、感受器官的概念。感受器——是指分布在体表或组织内部一些专门感受机体内、外环境改变的结构或装置。如：视锥细胞感受器官——是指感受器与其附属装置共体构成的器官。如：眼、耳其感受器位于颞骨岩部迷路内，由椭圆囊、球囊和三个半规管构成。其适宜刺激是耳石的重力及直线正负加减速运动。当头部位置改变，重力对耳石的作用方向改变，耳石膜与毛细胞之间的空间位置发生改变，使毛细胞兴奋，引起有关肌肉紧张变化，同时产生头部空间位置改变的感觉。 2.什么是位觉？位觉的感受器是什么？位于哪里？它们的适宜刺激是什么？概念：身体进行各种变速运动（包括直线加速度运动和角加速运动）时引起的前庭器官中的位觉感受器兴奋并产生的感觉，称为位觉（或前庭感觉）。 3.解释前庭反射与前庭稳定性。前庭反应是指前庭感受器受到刺激产生兴奋后，除引起一定位置觉改变外，还引起骨骼肌紧张性改变、眼震颤及植物性功能改变。如眩晕、恶、呕吐和各种姿势反射等，这些改变统称为前庭反射。刺激前庭感受器而引起机体各种前庭反应的程度，称为前庭功能稳定性。

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如有帮助，欢迎支持。常用生理学中英文名词对照按照中文第一个字母顺序查找：A-G H－N O－T U－Z A APUD细胞amine precursor uptake decarboxylation cell 氨基甲酰血红蛋白carbaminohemoglobin 暗视觉scotopic vision 暗适应dark adaptation α僵直αrigidity B 靶细胞target cell 被动转运passive transport 本体感受性反射proprioceptive reflex 比奥呼吸Biot breathing 比顺应性specific compliance 编码（作用）coding 变传导作用dromotropic action 变力作用inotropic action 变时作用chronotropic action 波尔效应Bohr effect 补呼气量expiratory reserve volume 补吸气量inspiratory reserve volume 不感蒸发insensible perspiration 不完全强直收缩incomplete tetanus C 残气量residual volume 层流laminar flow 长反馈long-loop feedback 长时程记忆long-term memory 长时程压抑long-term depression 长时程增强long-term potentiation 肠-胃反射enterogastric reflex 肠-胰岛轴entero-insular axis 超常期supranormal peiod 超短反馈ultra-short-loop feedback 超极化hyperpolarization 超射overshoot 超速驱动压抑overdrive suppression