英语形态学

What is morphology?

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

What does morphology cover?

Morphology

Word morpheme allomorph

What is word?

A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.

A minimal free form

A sound unity

A unit of meaning

A form that can function alone in sentence

(Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.)

woman, fine, misfortune, management

Classification of words

Grammatical words and lexical words

Open class word and closed class word

Variable and invariable words

Word class

Grammatical words and lexical words

Grammatical words (function words) express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliary and pronouns, are grammatical words.

Lexical words (content words) have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are lexical words.

Open class word and closed class word

Open class words: content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.

Closed class words: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. Grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.

Variable and invariable words

Variable words: -----ordered and regular series of grammatically different word

form----- part of the word remains relatively constant.

follow – follows – following – followed.

Invariable words have no inflective endings.

since, when, seldom, through, hello

Word class (parts of speech)

?Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article

?Particles: infinitive …to?, negative …not?, by in “get by”, up in “make up”, over in “make over” , etc.

?Auxiliary: Primary (do, have, be); Modal (can, may, shall, will, etc.), Semi-aux (have to, used to, appear to, etc.)

?Determiner: Determiners refer to the words which are used before the noun (including its premodifiers like adjectives) acting as head of a noun phrase,

and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.

?Pro-form: pronoun, pro-adjective (Your car is red. So is his.) , pro-verb (He speaks English better than she did.), pro-adverb (He hopes he?ll win and I

hope so too. ), pro-locative (James's hiding there, behind the door.)

定冠词（definite article〕，不定冠词（indefinite article〕，零冠词（zero article〕

物主限定词（possessive determiner〕，my, your, his, her, our, your, their, one's, its.

名词属格（genitive noun〕，john's, my friend's.

指示限定词（demonstrative determiner〕，this, that, these, those, such.

关系限定词（relative determiner〕，whose, which.

疑问限定词（interrogative determiner〕，what, which, whose.

不定限定词（indefinite determiner〕，no, some, any, each, every, enough, either, neither, all, both, half, several, many, much, (a) few, (a) little, other, another.

基数词（cardinal numeral〕和序数词（ordinal numeral〕

倍数词（multiplicative numeral〕和分数词（fractional numeral〕

量词（quantifier 〕a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great of, a good deal of, a large of, a small amount of, a quantity of, a great of, a good number of

Morpheme-the minimal units of meaning

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning (maybe a word or not a word)

A sound-meaning unit

A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function

The level of language at which sound and meaning combine

Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.

1-morpheme boy, desire

2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble

3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity

4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,

un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity

5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness

6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

(反对教会与国家分开学说)

Types of morphemes

morpheme free: free root root

bound bound root

affix inflectional

derivational prefix

suffix

infix

Free morpheme & bound morpheme

Free morpheme---- Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves as independent words such as the morpheme “help” in the word “helpful” . “Help” can be used all by itself. Free morphemes can be combined with other morphemes, for example, helplessness and helper.

Bound morpheme---- is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme.

The y can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-”

in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.

Inflectional morpheme &Derivational morpheme

Inflectional morpheme---a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.

workers, children; walking, walked; biggest; John?s

Derivational morpheme---a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.

Affix

An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).

Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others,

e.g. un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.

Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.

Infix---- some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.

Allomorph

A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the

same morpheme are called its allomorphs（词素变体).

map----maps [s]

dog----dogs [z]

watch----watches [iz]

mouse----mice [ai]

ox----oxen [n]

tooth----teeth [i:]

sheep----sheep [i:]

Word-formation

1.Inflection

table/ tables

talk/ talks/ talking/ talked

boy/ boy?s

2.Derivation

The formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. Words formed in this way are called derivatives, which are open-class.

Eg. national, foolish, non-smoker

Conversion

3.Conversion ( zero-derivation)

Conversion is a process where new word can be obtained by changing their parts of speech.

mother n. →to mother v.

book n. →to book v.

to rest v. →a rest n.

native adj. →a native n.

short adj. →shorts n.

Compounding

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/9f12738067.html,pounding

Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.

n. + n. : bookstore, hand book

adj. + adj. : white-hot, red-hot

prep. + prep. : within, into, onto

n. + adj. →adj. snow-white, seasick

adv.+ adj. →adj. ever-green

adj. + n. →n. break-water

n. + prep. phrase →n. mother-in-law

adj. + n. →adj. :first-rate, second-hand

5.Invention (Neologism)

With the development of economy and science and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms.

clone, e-mail, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO, Kodak, coke, nylon, etc.

6.Blending

Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.

smaze: smog + haze motel: motor + hotel

Types of blending words

(a) head+tail

lion+ tiger --liger

smoke+ fog--smog

(b) head+head

teleprinter+ exchange--telex

digital+ computer--digicom

(c) head+word

medical + care--medicare

Europe + Asia-- Eurasia

(d) word+ tail

work + welfare-- workfare

7.Clipping (Abbreviation)

Clipping is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.

(a) front dipping

quake (earthquake), phone (telephone)

(b) back dipping

plane (aeroplane), gent (gentleman), stereo (stereophonic)

(c) front and back dipping

flu (influenza), dept (department), fridge (refrigerator)

(d) phrase clipping

pub (public house), zoo (zoological garden)

pop (popular music)

8.Acronym

It is the process of forming a new word by combining the initial letters of a number of words.

①Initialisms:

VOA: Voice of America

BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation

UFO: unidentified flying object

TV: television

CD: Computer Disk

②Acronyms

NATO: the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

laser: lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

TEFL: teaching English as a foreign language

9.Back-formation

It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.

televise (from television)

donate (from donation)

enthuse (from enthusiasm)

burgle (from burglar)

zip (from zipper)

baby sit (from babysitter)

10.Onomatopoeia

Words imitate sounds in nature (or in technology), but need to conform to phonological system of the language

A dog: bow wow or woof-woof, 汪汪

A clock: tick-tock, 滴答

A rooster: cock-a-doodle-doo 咕咕咕

A camera: click, 喀擦

A duck: quack 嘎嘎

A cat: meow 喵喵

Ring of a bell: ding-dong, 叮咚

A cow: moo, 哞哞

lA bee: buzz, 嗡嗡

A snake: hiss, 嘶嘶

11. Borrowing

Greek: electricity...

Latin: cancer, etc (et cetera)...

French: entail, debut...

Spanish: macho, junta...

Italian: pizza, balcony...

German: hamburger, thick-milk...

Chinese: Kung-fu, china...

Japanese: kimono, tatami...

Korean: tea kwon do,...

Inflection derivation conversion compounding

blending clipping acronym backformation

Point out the word formation processes in the following words.

Blueprint

girlfriend

telequiz

a white copter lovely Enthuse better