20130518Getting enough sleep

Preview Questions

? How long do you usually sleep every night?

? How do you wake up every morning, by alarm clock or by biological clock?

③ How do you feel during the day time?

④ How do you work off the sleepiness?

Getting Enough Sleep? Dream on.

by William C. Dement & Christopher Vaughan

Is eight hours' sleep enough to everyone? Have you ever heard of "sleep debt?" The following article warns us of the consequences of sleep deprivation and suggests ways to work off sleep debt.

睡眠够吗？继续做梦吧。

威廉? C?德门特克里斯托弗?沃恩

八小时的睡眠是不是对每个人都充裕？你听说过“睡眠债”吗？下面这篇文章提醒我们睡眠不足的后果，建议我们如何偿还睡眠债。

I once had a patient who was so sleep-deprived that she loaded her dirty dishes into the clothes

dryer instead of the dishwasher. She turned on the machine, smashing china and glasses.

我曾经有过一位病人，她由于睡眠严重不足，竟把脏碟子放进了干衣机，而不是放进洗碗机里面。她扭开干衣机的开关，哗啦啦，瓷器和玻璃器皿撞成了碎片。

Another patient went to great lengths to obtain a 50-yard-line ticket to a crucial San Francisco 49ers play-off game, but was so sleepy that he dozed off in his seat in the first quarter and stayed asleep until the game was over.

还有一位病人费了九牛二虎之力才弄到一张五十码线门票，观看旧金山49淘金人协会举行的一场至为关键的加时赛，但他实在太疲倦了，头一段比赛就在座位上睡着了，一直睡到比赛结束才醒。

On an everyday level, sleepy people make math errors, break things and become cross with their families, friends and co-workers. Less commonly, they make mistakes with tragic consequences. It is hard to prove how many fatal car accidents are

caused by the driver's falling asleep, but my conviction is that the number is high. Laboratory experiments have confirmed that the

sleep-deprived mind is prone to "microsleeps" －lapses of consciousness so brief that the subject may not even be aware of them.

几乎每天，打瞌睡的人会犯数学错误，打坏东西，或向家人、朋友和同事发火。瞌睡者因犯错而导致可悲后果的情况并不常见。很难证实，有多少起致命的车祸是由于驾驶员瞌睡引起的，但是，我相信，这个数目一定不小。实验室的试验已经证实，缺少睡眠的大脑很容易进入“短暂的昏睡”-- 阵发性的意识丧失，这种意识丧失的时间短得甚至连当事人都可能意识不到。

In one experiment in our laboratory at Stanford University, a volunteer who had only been allowed four hours' sleep the night before had his eyelids taped open (uncomfortable, but it doesn't hurt). He was asked to press a button every time an irregular strobe light flashed. For a few minutes he tapped the switch after each flash, on average every six seconds. Then a bright flash surged

into his pupils －but he did nothing.

在斯坦福大学实验室进行的一项实验中，只让一名自愿者前一天晚上睡四个小时，然后把他的眼睑固定，让他睁着眼睛，（这样做虽不舒服，但并无损害）。按照要求，每当频闪闪光灯无规律地闪光之时，他必须揿下一个按钮。最初几分钟，每闪一次他揿一下按钮，平均每六秒钟一次。而后，一道强光照入他的眼球-- 但是，他一动没动。

"Why didn't you press the switch just now?" we asked.

"Because there was no flash," the young man replied. “刚才你为什么不揿按钮？”我们问他。

“没有闪光啊?”年轻人回答说。

The machines we used to monitor brain activity showed that at the very moment the light had flashed, the young man had unwittingly fallen asleep, with his eyes wide open, for two seconds. If he had been behind the wheel of a car, those two seconds could have meant disaster.

监控大脑活动的机器表明，就在灯光闪烁的那一刻，

这位年轻人已经睁着双眼不知不觉地睡着了，睡了两秒钟。倘若他当时是在开车，这两秒钟可能就意味着灾难。

Societal pressures to work more and at odd hours have reduced our sleep time over the past century by about 20 percent. Add to the mix our own era's drive to have and do it all － work, family, sports, hobbies － and there is very little time left for rest. I consider sleep deprivation a national emergency.

上个世纪，迫于社会压力，我们不得不加班加点，睡眠时间减少了约20％。我们这个时代充满着各种欲望：工作，家庭，运动，业余爱好等等，使这种忙乱有增无减。因此，休息时间便所剩无几了。我认为睡眠缺失是国家的紧急情况。

Sleep Debt and the Mortgaged Mind

Generally, adults need to sleep one hour for every two hours awake, which means that most need about eight hours of sleep a night. Of course, some people need more and some less. Children and teenagers need an average of about ten hours.

睡眠债与抵押的大脑

一般说来，成人每清醒两小时就需要一小时的睡眠，这就意味着大多数人每晚需要八个小时的睡眠。当然，有人需要的多些，有人需要的少些。儿童和青少年平均需要十个小时的睡眠时间。

The brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is allowed. My colleagues and I coined the term sleep debt because accumulated lost sleep is like a monetary debt: it must be paid back. If you get an hour less than a full night's sleep, you carry an hour of sleep debt into the next day －and your tendency to fall asleep during the daytime becomes stronger.

大脑对应有的睡眠量做出准确的计算。我和同事们杜撰了“睡眠债”这个词 -- 睡眠缺失积累下来，就像

债务一样：必须得到偿还。倘若某个晚上少睡一小时，一小时的睡眠债就被带到第二天，白天越来越想睡觉。

During a five-day workweek, if you got six hours of sleep each night instead of the eight you needed, you would build up a sleep debt of ten hours (five days times two hours). Because sleep debt accumulates in additive fashion, by day five your brain would tend toward sleep as strongly as if you'd stayed up all night. From this perspective, sleeping until noon on Saturday is not enough to pay back the ten lost hours as well as meet your nightly requirement of eight; you would have to sleep until 5 p.m. to balance the sleep ledger.

在每周五天的工作日里，倘若每晚只睡六小时，而不是所需的八小时，你就欠下了十个小时的睡眠债（5天×2小时）。由于睡眠债是以累积的方式攒下的，到了第五天，你的大脑会非常想睡觉，就好像你整夜未眠似的。从这个角度说，周六睡到中午并不能满足每晚八小时的睡眠需要，也不够偿还缺失的十小时睡眠；只有睡到下午5点才能保持这本睡眠帐的平衡。

But for most people it is difficult to sleep that long because of the alerting mechanism of our biological clock.

然而，对大多数人来说，由于我们生物钟的警醒机制，我们很难睡那么长的时间。

Wide Awake but Not Rested

An amazingly precise biological clock within us regulates sleeping and waking, and also synchronizes a vast array of biochemical events in our bodies. It is a timepiece of such astonishing precision that people often wake up a few minutes before their alarm clocks go off.

睡意全无却没有得到休息

我们体内的生物钟准确得简直令人叹服，我们何时睡眠，何时苏醒全由它调节，它还与我们体内的一系列生化活动保持同步。这种时钟准确得惊人，我们往往就在闹铃响前几分钟醒来。

Most people have two peak times of alertness daily, at about 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. Alertness wanes to its

lowest point at around 3 p.m.; after that it begins to build again. This explains why people who have worked hard all day will often start to feel more alert at the same time every evening despite a large accumulation of sleep debt during the day. I believe this "clock-dependent alerting" can often deceive people into thinking they are sufficiently meeting their sleep needs.

大多数人每天有两次警醒高峰，上午9点和晚上9点左右。警醒度在下午3点衰减至最低点，随后又开始攀高。这就是为什么那些整天努力工作，白天欠下一屁股睡眠债的人们，却常常在每晚的同一时间开始感到更加警醒。我认为，这种“依赖时钟型警醒”的情况常会使人产生错觉，以为自己的睡眠已经满足了需求。

Some years ago I had the chance to observe a striking example of clock-dependent alerting in action. It was during a visit with my daughter, Cathy, who was then a college student. At first , she was almost alarmingly apathetic and seemed to be totally uninterested in my visit. I suggested

we take a walk. It was about four o'clock on a sunny late-spring afternoon. In the course of perhaps 20 to 30 minutes, Cathy changed into a talkative, informative, smiling, even vivacious person.

几年前，我曾有机会观察到一个显著的“依赖时钟型警醒”发挥效力的例子。那是我去看望女儿凯西时的事情，那时她还是个大学生。起初，她冷淡得几乎令人吃惊，似乎对我的到来一点也提不起兴致。我提议和她一起散散步。那是晚春的一个明媚的下午，4点钟左右。就在这大约20-30 分钟的时间里，凯西成了一个健谈、见多识广、笑意盈盈、甚至活力四射的女孩。\ The explanation for this marvelous transformation: clock-dependent alerting. Even a typically heavily sleep-deprived college student like Cathy will have a late afternoon/evening period of mental arousal. In her case it was able to abolish her fatigue. Nevertheless, my daughter was still carrying around a heavy load of sleep debt.

对这次奇妙转变的解释是：依赖时钟型警醒。即使像凯西这样睡眠严重不足的大学生，也会在傍晚或深夜

的一段时间内精神特别兴奋。就她来说，这样可以消除疲劳。不过，我女儿依然背负着沉重的睡眠债。

Sleep and Well-Being

People sometimes ask me if the exact accounting of sleep debt could mean that they are still deprived from those all-nighters years earlier in college. We don't know what happens to sleep debt in the long term, because research has only been able to measure two-week-long periods. You may have paid off those sleep-deprived stretches when you got sick shortly afterward and slept 18 hours at a stretch. Or the brain may lose track of sleep debt accumulated months or years earlier.

睡眠与安康

人们有时会问我，准确计算睡眠债是否意味

着，数年前在大学期间常常要通宵达旦、加班加点的人至今仍被剥夺了睡眠机会呢？我们不知道，从长远的角度看，睡眠债会怎么样，因为目前的研究还只能测量为期两周的状况。或许你不久后病倒了，一睡就是十八个小时。这样的话，那些因剥夺了睡眠机会而造成的种种紧张感就被一扫而光。或者，数月或数年前，你欠下了多少睡眠债，大脑也算不清了。

Or, accumulated sleep debt may do long-term damage to your health. In 1959 the American Cancer Society started a massive study, surveying over one million Americans about their exercise, nutrition, smoking, sleep and other habits. After tracking the group for six years, researchers found that short sleep time had a high correlation with mortality: if people had originally reported sleeping less than seven hours a night, they were far more likely to be dead within six years than those who slept an average of seven hours per night.

或者可以说，积累的睡眠债可能会对健康造成长期损害。1959年，美国癌症协会发起了一次大规模的研究，

对一百多万美国人的锻炼、营养、吸烟、睡眠以及其它方面的习惯进行调查。在对这组人进行了六年的跟踪调查后，研究者们发现，睡眠时间短缺与寿命长短有密切关系：如果人们起初称自己每晚睡眠时间不足七小时，他们就比那些睡眠时间平均每晚达七小时的人更有可能在六年内去世。

After years of further research, the original results still stand: although sleep needs vary, people who sleep about eight hours, on average, tend to live longer.

经过多年的进一步研究，最初的结论依然成立：尽管睡眠需要因人而异，但一般说来，每晚睡眠达八小时的人，寿命往往会更长些。

Another interesting finding from this survey was the fact that adults who said they slept ten hours or more per night also tended to have shorter lives. We speculate that these self-described long sleepers are more prone to die because they have undiagnosed sleep disorders, like sleep apnea, in which breathing stops for more than ten seconds, possibly hundreds of times a night. This causes sleep to be disrupted repeatedly by short, unremembered awakenings that may create life-threatening health problems.

此次调查的另一个有趣的发现是：那些称自己每晚睡眠达十小时，甚至更多时间的成人，寿命也往往会短些。我们推测，这些自称睡眠时间较长的人更容易死亡，是因为他们患有原因不明的睡眠紊乱，如睡眠呼吸暂停，在这种情况下，呼吸会暂停10多秒钟，每晚大概会发生上百次。这使得睡眠不断受到短暂觉醒的干扰（人们醒后却不记得），可能产生一些危及生命的健康问题。

Other, more immediate effects of sleep deprivation on health and well-being have been documented by research. Studies have shown that cognitive skills and physical performance are impaired by sleep debt, but mood is affected even more. People who get less than a full night's sleep are prone to feel less happy, more stressed, more physically frail and more mentally and physically exhausted as a result. Lowering sleep debt can make us feel better, happier, more vigorous and vital.

研究也记载了睡眠被剥夺会对健康造成其他更直接的影响。研究表明，睡眠债会损害感知能力和身体的

活动能力，但是，情绪更会受影响。晚上睡眠不足的人更易感到沮丧、压力、体力不支，身心疲惫。减少睡眠债可以使我们感觉更好，更加开心，更有活力和生机。

Toward a Sleep-Smart Lifestyle

We are generally very bad judges of our sleepiness. In 1988 my friend and colleague Tom Roth and his team at the Henry Ford Hospital's Sleep Disorders Center and Research Lab in Detroit studied a group of people who specially claimed that day-time sleepiness － a sure symptom of sleep debt － was not a problem. He first sent them to bed for eight hours － a good night's sleep, most people would agree. Upon awakening, the subjects said they felt fine.

通向巧妙睡眠的生活方式

一般说来，我们对自己的睡眠情况不能做出很好的判断。1988年，我的朋友及同事汤姆?罗斯与他在底特律的亨利?福特医院的睡眠紊乱中心与实验室

小组成员们对一组人进行研究，这些人特别声明，白

天想打瞌睡。这无疑是睡眠债的一种症状，并非什么大不了的问题。他首先让他们上床睡了八个小时 -- 睡一夜好觉，大多数人都会同意。醒来时，被调查者们都说感觉良好。

Yet when their daytime alertness was tested later on, more than 80 percent were not optimally alert. Of those, about 25 percent who said they felt fine were actually so in need of sleep that they posed a danger to themselves or others. Only about two in ten were optimally alert.

不过，在随后对他们进行的白天警醒度测试中，80%以上的人达不到最佳的警醒状态。这些人中，说自己感觉良好的人约有25%其实非常需要睡眠，以致他们对自己或他人构成了威胁。十个人中大约只有两个人处于最佳警觉状态。

You can't work off a large sleep debt by getting a good night's sleep. You have to make up as much sleep as possible and avoid amassing another large sleep debt by adopting a sleep-smart lifestyle. Here's how:

一夜好觉无法抵消大笔的睡眠债。你必须尽可能补充睡眠，采取一种巧妙睡眠的生活方式，避免积累下另

一大笔睡眠债。做法如下：

First, establish your average personal sleep requirement in each 24-hour period to maintain a consistent level of alertness. Start with the number of hours of sleep you think you require －eight for most people. Make a point of getting that amount of sleep for several nights and pay close attention to how you feel during the day, especially during lulls on the job, after lunch or while driving.

首先，确定自己每24小时期间个人平均所需睡眠量，维持一个稳定的警觉水平。按照自己认为所需的睡眠时间开始-- 大多数人需要八小时。连续几晚都要睡那么长时间，密切注意自己白天的感受，尤其注意上班时短暂的想睡觉，午饭后或驾驶时等不活跃期的感受。

If you are getting drowsier on successive days, then you are getting less than your daily requirement and should add 15 to 30 minutes to your sleep time. If drowsiness continues, you can increase sleep time even more, but if you are feeling sleepy only around bedtime, you are probably close to your optimal sleep time.

如果接连几天都感到瞌睡，那么，你就没有达到每天

所需的睡眠量，应该再增加15到30分钟的睡眠时间。如果依然瞌睡，你甚至可以再增加睡眠时间。不过，如果只是在就寝时间感到睡意的话，你可能已经接近自己的最佳睡眠量了。

Bear in mind that you'll have to take your biological clock into account. If, like me, you are a "lark," or morning person, your strongest period of clock-dependent alerting occurs at this time. I always deal with a need for extra sleep by going to bed early rather than trying to sleep late. An "owl," or night person, however, might not be able to fall asleep early, and would be better off making up sleep debt by rising as late as possible.

记住，必须考虑到自己的生物钟。如果你也像我一样，是只“云雀”，或者说是个惯于早上活动的人，那么你很可能就会在这段时间最需要靠生物钟叫醒自己。我总是通过早睡的方式来对付额外睡眠的需要，而不会熬夜。不过，一只“夜猫子”，或者说一个惯于晚上活动的人，可能无法很早就入眠，因此最好还是尽量晚些起床，以抵消所欠下的睡眠债。

Finally, if you think you have a sleep disorder, do not hesitate to seek professional help. You can find a list of specialists on the Internet. I recommend SleepNet (www. sleepnet. com) and the American Sleep Disorders Association (www. asda. org). The National Sleep Foundation site (www. sleepfoundation. org) also contains useful information on helping you to knit up "the ravell'd sleeve of care," as Shakespeare once aptly described a good night's sleep.

最后，如果你认为自己睡眠紊乱，那么在寻求专家帮助时切莫犹豫。网上可以查到专家的名单。我推荐睡眠网站( https://www.wendangku.net/doc/9018500908.html, )与美国睡眠紊乱协会网站（www. asda. org）。国家睡眠基金会网站(www. sleepfoundation. org)也有一些有用的信息，帮助你编织“那散了线的忧虑之袖”-- 莎士比亚在描绘美美地睡上一夜好觉时，曾有过这种贴切的比喻。

A. Determining the main idea.

too ..... to 结构的用法

too...to"结构表示肯定意思的用法 "too…to"是英语中常见的,以其肯定形式表示否定意义的结构.但是,并不是所有的"too…to"结构都表示否定意义.在某 些情况下,"too…to"结构也表示肯定意义.下面将从"too...to" 结构的语义特征分析其肯定意义及其语域和成因. 一,"too...to"结构的肯定意义在"某些特殊副词+too…to"结 构语域中的体现及其成因研究: 1.语域研究 "too...to"结构之前带有"but, only, all, simply, just"时,该结 构表示强烈的肯定意义,汉译为"非常/十分/实在/真是太……"等.eg: They are but too glad to do so.他们非常喜欢这么做. The patient was only too willing to be operated upon.病人 非常愿意接受手术. We are all too satisfied to take your advice.我们非常乐意 接受你的建议. We shall be simply too glad to help you.我们很乐意帮助你. I am just too glad to help you.能帮你的忙,我真是太高兴了. 2.成因研究 在以上例句中,too前面的"but, only, all, simply, just"等副词 只起到了加强语气的作用.因此,用于"too...to"结构前面的这

几个副词可以互换,而不定式,to则表示原因,有肯定意义.另外,该用法中的too只表示程度深一些,所以不会对其后的形容词产生否定意义,反而更强调了其肯定意义. 二,"too...to"结构的肯定意义在"否定副词+too...to"结构和"too...+not to"语域中的体现及其成因研究 1.语域研究 "too...to"结构前也可以加否定副词not或never构成 "not/never too…to"和"too...not to"结构.该结构不表示否定,而表示肯定,译为"不太……可以……,决不……能……,非常(很,太,那么)……不会不(必定能,所以能)……".eg: He is not too weak to carry the bag.他不太弱小;可以背得 动那个书包. The box is not too heavy to lift.这只箱子不太重,可以抬得 起来. It is never too late to mend.亡羊补牢,犹未晚也. One is never too old to learn.活到老学到老. He is too careful not to have noticed that.他那么小心,肯定会注意到那一点的. You are too kind not to help me.你很善良,肯定会帮助我的. 2.成因研究 当too表示"太,过分"意义时,它是一个表示超量的程度副词,

too和enough的用法及区别

too的用法： (1) 表示“太……”，修饰形容词 She can’t move the case. It’s too heavy. 她移不动那只箱子，它太沉了。 The water is too hot and we can’t bath. 水太热了，我们没有办法洗澡。 (2) sth+be+too+形容词+for sb to do sth对于某人太……，以至于不能做…… The house is too expensive for me to buy. 那房子太贵了，我买不起。 (3) sb+be+too+形容词+to do sth某人太……，以至于不能做…… She was too busy to have a talk with me. 他太忙了，以至于不能和我说话。 enough的用法 一、作形容词 【注】有时与某些具有形容词意味的名词连用，此时enough必须后置，且该名词通常不用冠词。如：I was fool [=foolish] enough to accept his offer.我接受他的提议真是太傻了。 1、作定语时，既可修饰可数名词，也可修饰不可数名词。 1) Are there enough seats for ten persons? 有没有足够十人的座位？ 2）We have enough food for a week. 我们有足够维持一周的食物。 有时也可以将enough放在被修饰名词的后面， 例如： I don’t have wine enough (=enough wine) for five persons. 我的酒不够5个人喝。 2、作表语只有当主语是代词数词和“数词+名词”（具有(或暗示有)数量意义的名词）时，enough才可作表语用，如果主语是名词，enough便不能作表语用了 如： 1) That’s enough.. Thank you. 够了，谢谢。 2) Five is enough. 五个够了。 3) Will 12 apples be enough? 十二个苹果够不够？ 试比较以下句子 误：The beer isn’t enough. 正：There isn’t enough beer.啤酒不够 误：Was the time enough? 正：Did you have enough time? 时间够吗？ 如果enough之后跟其它修饰语(如不定式或for短语时),前面的主语不受限制。

too..to...和not..enough to..的用法

too …to …. ; not …enough to… Step 1 看图说话利用课本P36页的图画和提示词练说too…to do 和not … enough to do 句子。如：1. The snake / dangerous/ hold . / The boy not brave The snake is too dangerous to hold. The boy is not brave enough to hold it . 板书too…to do 和not … enough to d o并让学生明确这两个短语的中文意思是“太… 而不能…”。提醒学生观察这两个句子结构中的形容词用什么形式，to do中的do 可否变换形式。在准确理解的基础上继续看图说话。 2. The girl / short / get on the elephant. / she / not / tall . 3. The elephant / heavy / carry. / The boy / not strong. 4. The elephant / fat / go through the gate. / The gate / not wide. 5. The monkey / far away / get the bananas. / The bananas / not near. 6. The cat/ slow/ catch the bird./ It / cannot run/ fast . Step 2 抛砖引玉 板书The snake is too dangerous to hold. The boy is not brave enough to hold it . (改为同义句) The snake is so dangerous that the boy _________ hold it. 学生在理解的基础上探求答案，在探求答案的过程中获得新知。板书so … that + 含有can’t / couldn’t do的否定句等同于too…to do…; not …enough to do 同步操练：1. The girl is too short to get on the elephant. (改为同义句) ①The girl _________________________ to get on the elephant. ②The girl ____________that she ___________ get on the elephant. ③The elephant is so tall__ that the girl can’t get on it . ④The elephant _________ enough ______ the girl ______ get on. ⑤The elephant __________tall ______ the girl _______ get on. 完成句子后求异： ①与原句比较后发现：由too… to do… 结构转换为not … enough to do 结构时，要找到句中形容词的反义词。 ③与④比较后发现：so… that + 含有can’t / couldn’t do的否定句结构

(完整版)too__very_enough_的及其用法

too,very或enough的相关习题 一．完成下列句子，用too,very或enough填空 1.I couldn’t speak to the boss. He was _____ busy. 2.I couldn’t go out. It was ________ cold for me to go out. 3.I could answer all the questions. They were _____ easy. 4.Is that suitcase light ________ for you to carry. 5.Is your brother old _____ to be a member of our association? 6.They couldn’t see that film. They were _____ young. 二．改写同义句，每空一词。 1. The book is interesting enough for everybody to read. The book is __________ interesting __________ everybody likes to read it. 2. The boy is so short that he can’t reach the buttons of the lift. The boy is __________ short __________ __________ the buttons of the lift. The boy isn’t __________ __________ __________ __________ the buttons of the lift. 三．中考题的例子 1. He is old enough to go to school. He is __________ __________ that __________ __________ go to school. 2. She was so weak that she couldn’t take care of her baby. She was __________ weak __________ take care of her baby. 一、so…that与too…to的转换 当that引导的从句为否定式且从句主语与主句的主语相同时，so…that可转换为too…to结构；若从句主语与主句的主语不相同时，so…that可转换为too…for sb to结构。例如： She is so young that she can’t go to school. ＝She is too young to go to school. The box is so heavy that he can’t carry it. ＝The box is too heavy for him to carry.

初中英语语法口诀大汇总

初中英语语法口诀大汇总 【新初一年级英语语法口诀（上）】 大小写字母书写口诀 大A箭头指上方，小a系辫好模样； 大B耳朵右边长，小b食指指向上； 大C吃饭把嘴张，小c大C一个样； 大D肚子圆又胖，小d五线谱里藏。 大E将山竖着放，小e像鱼肉真香； 大F像旗杆上绑，小f像个小拐杖； 大G让C挂条棍，小g大辫真正长。 大H工字放倒写，小h椅子侧着放。 大I工字中间长，小i像人跪地上； 大J长得多像“厂”，小j子弹射出枪；大K伸臂又踢腿，小k稍息把事想； 大L指针三点过，小l像根火腿肠； 大M像海鸥在飞翔，小m鼻孔出气长。大N电闪实在亮，小n单门墙上装； 大O鸡蛋喷喷香，小o蛋小人人抢； 大P圆旗高飘扬，小p让b练倒立； 大Q西瓜连藤摘，小q和9很相似； 大R是P右踢腿，小r向上撅撅嘴。

大S弯弯溪流淌，小s像8没合上； 大T铁锤当当响，小t像个大写七； 大U陷阱在下方，小u将n倒着放； 大V竖起两手指，小v长个尖下巴。 大W是M朝天躺，小w将v弄成双； 大X像叉画本上，小x剪刀裁衣忙。 大Y弹弓没皮筋，小y比v多尾巴； 大Z和2最相像，小z呼噜声最响。 英语字母书写口诀 字母书写有规则，右倾五度正适合。 大写全在上两格，高低一致不会错。 小写字母也不难，请你记住这几点。 有头就用上两格，b, d, h, i, k, l 和t。有尾就占下两格，g, p, q, y要记着。 无头无尾写中格，多练几遍不会错。 剩下j, f不一般，三个格子全都占。 仔细辨来认真练，养成书写好习惯。 单词首字母大写用法歌口诀 单词字母要大写，下面规则是小结。 句子开头首字母，文章标题虚词除（外）。

too…to…句式用法详解

too…to…句式用法详解 too…to…结构是初中英语中一个十分重要的结构，同时也是中考英语中一个十分重要的考点，同学们在学习或复习中应注意以下几点： 一、基本结构特点 too…to…结构的基本形式为“too+形容词或副词+to+动词原形”，其意为“太……以至于不能……”。如： He is too shy to speak to her. 他太害羞，不敢同她讲话。 It’s too cheap to be good. 这东西太便宜，好不了(即便宜无好货)。 He is too young to know right from wrong. 他太小，还分不清是非。 二、不定式的逻辑主语 有时不定式前可以带有一个由介词for引出的逻辑主语。如： It’s too expensive for her to buy. 太贵了，她买不起。 The box is too heavy for the boy to carry. 这个箱子太重，这男孩提不起。 The print is too small for me to read without glasses. 印刷字体太小，我不戴眼镜就看不清。 三、不定式是否带宾语 在通常情况下，too…to…结构中的不定式可根据其是否及物来确定它是否带宾语。如： He is too tired to go any further. 他太累了，不能再往前走了。(不定式 to go不及物，无需带宾语)

She is too poor to buy such a nice a dress. 她太穷，买不起那件漂亮的连衣裙。(不定式to buy后带有宾语 such a nice a dress) 但是，若句子主语与其后不定式有动宾关系，那么，其后的及物动词不定式不能带宾语。如： The nice dress is too expensive for her to buy. 这件漂亮的连衣裙太贵了，她买不起。(to buy在此虽为及物动词，但由于句子主语the nice dress与该不定式to buy有动宾关系，故to buy后不宜再接代词it作宾语) 注意：若句子主语与其后不定式有动宾关系，且其中的动词为不及物动词，此时应注意在其后加适当的介词。如： The room is too dirty to live in. 这房间太脏，不能住。(句末的介词in 不可省略) 四、不定式是否用被动语态 上面讲到，若句子主语与其后不定式有动宾关系，其后作为及物动词的不定式不再带宾语。此时还需注意，该不定式通常也不用被动式，尽管意义上是被动的。如： The text is too difficult to understand. 这课文太难了，理解不了。 The text is too difficult for the students to understand. 这课文太难了，学生理解不了。 但在某些特殊的语境，其中的不定式必须要用被动式。如： He spoke in a voice too low to be heard. 他说话的声音太低，听不见。 He is too young to be sent to America for advanced study. 他太年轻，不能送到美国去深造。 五、与so [such]…that结构的转换

Some和any的用法

Some和any的用法 some和any 既可以修饰可数名词又可以修饰不可数名词，some常用在肯定句中，而any则常用在否定和疑问句中。因此some和any 的用法主要是考虑用在肯定句、疑问句还是否定句中，与名词的可数与否无关。 some意为“一些”，可作形容词和代词。它常修饰可数名词复数。如：some books一些书，some boys一些男孩，也可修饰不可数名词，如：some water一些水，some tea一些茶叶，some常用在肯定句中。any意为“任何一些”，它也可修饰可数名词复数或不可数名词，常用于疑问句和否定句。如： --I have some tea here. 我这儿有些茶叶。--I can’t see any tea. 我没看见茶叶。 --Do you have any friends at school? 你在学校有些朋友吗? 但在表示建议，反问，请求的疑问句中，或期望得到肯定回答时，多用some而不用any。如： Would you like some coffee? 你要不要来点咖啡? What about some fruit juice? 来点水果汁如何? 当any表示“任何”的意义，起强调作用时，它可以用在肯定句中； Any student can answer this question.任何学生都可以回答这个问题。 辨析some和any的不同用法：some 常用在肯定句中，而any 则常用在否定和疑问句中。在表示建议，反问，请求的疑问句中，或期望得到肯定回答时，多用some而不用any。 Enough的用法 英语中enough表示“足够”，它可以用作名词、形容词和副词，它的具体用法有： 一、用作形容词，意思是“充足的; 足够的”；在句中可作定语和表语。作定语时它的位置较灵活，既可放在所修饰的词前，也可放在所修饰的词后。例如： We have enough seats（seats enough）for everyone.我们有足够的座位让大家都能坐。 二、用作副词，意思是“充分地；足够地”，修饰形容词、副词或动词，位于所修饰词的后面。例如： 1. He is not strong enough. 他不够强壮。 2. She is old enough to understand this. 她年纪已足够大了能了解这事。 3 ．I didn't know her well enough. 我对她不够了解。4．He did not work hard enough. 他不够用功。 ［提示］enough常用在“be+形容词+enough +for+sb.+to do.”结构中，注意do后面不接宾语。例如： The book is easy enough for you to read.这本书很简单，你们可以看懂。 三、作名词，意思是“足够; 充分”。例如： 1. —Would you like another cup of tea? 你想再来一杯茶吗？ —I have had enough. Thank you very much. 我已经喝够了。非常感谢。 2. He couldn't earn enough money to keep a family. 他赚得钱不够养活家人。 我们在使用enough时还要注意以下几点： 1）enough不能与no连用。如不可以说：I have no enough money to buy a car.而应说：I don't have enough money to buy a car. 2）enough用作形容词时不可被very修饰，但可用quite修饰。例如： We have quite enough time. 我们有足够的时间。 3）can't / can never... enough表示“越……越好；无论怎样……也不过分”。例如： You can never be careful enough. 你越细心越好。 下面的“口诀”可能对大家理解和掌握enough的用法有所帮助：

too和enough的用法及区别知识讲解

t o o 和 e n o u g h 的 用 法及区别

too的用法： (1)表示太……”，修饰形容词 She can ' t move the case. It ' s too he她移不动那只箱子，它太沉了。 The water is too hot and we can ' t b水太热了，我们没有办法洗澡。 ⑵sth+be+too+ 形容词+for sb to do sth 对于某人太.... ,以至于不能做…… The house is too expe nsive for me to buy. 那房子太贵了，我买不起。 ⑶sb+be+too+ 形容词+to do sth 某人太 ......... ，以至于不能做.... She was too busy to have a talk with me. 他太忙了，以至于不能和我说话。 eno ugh 的用法 一、作形容词 【注】有时与某些具有形容词意味的名词连用，此时en ough必须后置，且该名词通常不用冠词。如：I was fool [=foolish] eno ugh to accept his offer.我接受他的提议真是太傻了。 1、作定语时，既可修饰可数名词，也可修饰不可数名词。 1) Are there eno ugh seats for ten pers ons? 有没有足够十人的座位？ 2) We have enough food for a week. 我们有足够维持一周的食 物。 有时也可以将enough放在被修饰名词的后面， 例如： I don ' t have wine eno ugh (=e no ugh wine) for five pers ons. 我的酒不够5个人喝。 2、作表语只有当主语是代词数词和数词+名词”(具有(或暗示有)数量意义的名词)时，enough才可作表语用，如果主语是名词，enough便不能作表语用了 如： 1) That ' s enough.. Thank you. 够了，谢谢。 2) Five is en ough. 五个够了。 3) Will 12 apples be en ough? 十二个苹果够不够？

形容词的用法以及口诀

?形容词的概念： 形容词(adjective)，简称adj.或a，形容词用来修饰名词或代词，表示人或事物的性质、状态，和特征的程度好坏与否，形容词在句中作定语、表语、宾语补足语。通常，可将形容词分成性质形容词和叙述形容词两类，其位置不一定都放在名词前面。 ?形容词的作用与位置： 形容词是用来修饰名词的，常被放在名词前作定语，或放在系动词后面作表语。以下属几种特殊情况，须牢记； （1）形容词短语作定语，定语后置。 如：a language difficult to master, a leaning tower about 180 feet high （2）表语形容词（afraid、alike、alone、asleep、awake、alive等）作定语，定语后置。 如a man alive。有些表身体健康状况的形容词如well、faint、ill只作表语。sick既可作表语又可作定语，ill如作定语意为“bad”。 （3）用作定语，修饰由不定代词one、no、any、some和every构成的复合词如anything、something等时，通常后置。 如：I have something important to tell you. （4）else常用作疑问代词和不定代词的后置定语。 （5）enough、nearby修饰名词前置或后置，程度副词一般位于形容词、副词前面，enough 修饰形容词、副词时，必须后置。 （6）几个并列的形容词作定语，其语序通常为：限定语（The、A）+描绘性形容词+size （大小）+shape（形状）+age（年龄、时间）+color（颜色）+origin（国籍、来源）+material

too。。。to的用法

too…to的用法 一、too...to...结构表示否定含义 表示否定意义，在翻译时，通常可译为“太...而不能....”、“太...无法...”。常用的句型有五种。 1.“主语（人）+谓语动词+too＋形容词/ 副词＋to do sth.”这个句型是too...to结构最基本的常用句型。主语是动词不定式的执行者，too后接形容词或副词原级，有时too 后也可跟一个起形容词作用的过去分词，to后接动词原形。如： The boy is too young to go to school. 这男孩年龄太小，不能上学。 He walks too slowly to get there on time. 他走得太慢，不能按时到达那儿。 2．“主语（物）+谓语动词+too＋形容词/ 副词+ to do ”这个句型也是too...to结构最基本的常用句型。主语是动词不定式的承受者，此时用主动式表示被动涵义。在这个句型中，句子的主语和不定式的宾语是指同一个事物，则宾语不能重复，必须省掉。 如：The hat is too large to wear. 这帽子太大，没法戴。 The tea is too hot to drink. 茶太热，不能喝 3．“主语（物）+谓语动词+too＋形容词/ 副词+ to be done”，这是“too...to”结构中主语是不定式动作的承受者，动词不定式用被动式，后不能带宾语。如： The tea is too hot to be drunk.茶太热，不能喝。。 The shoes are too badly broken to be mended.这些鞋子破烂得不能修补。 4．当句子的主语与动词不定式的逻辑主语不一样时，要用句型“主语+谓语动词+too＋形容词/ 副词＋for sb +to do ”，在这个句型中，句子主语和不定式的宾语是指同一个事物，则宾语不能重复，必须省掉。如果句子的主语是物时，for sb.可以省略，并不会影响句子否定意义的表达。如： 这个箱子太重，我搬不动。 误：This box is too heavy for me to carry it. 正：This box is too heavy for me to carry. 这辆小汽车太贵，他买不起。 误：The car is too expensive for him to buy it. 正：The car is too expensive for him(to buy). 5．too＋adj.＋a(an)＋n.＋to do /to be done，这个句型在too＋形容词后再接一个带不定冠词的名词，不定冠词一定要放在形容词后，只有当too后形容词修饰一个可数名词时，才可以在形容词与名词间加不定冠词“a/an”。当句子主语是动词不定式的执行者时，用to do主动式，当主语是动词不定式的承受者时，则用to be done被动式。如： He's too experienced an artist to mind what the critics say. ＝As an artist he's too experienced to mind what the critics say. 他是个经验非常丰富的艺术家，不会介意批评家说些什么。 He is too experienced an artist to be worried by what the critics say. 他是一个经验非常丰富的艺术家，不至于为批评家们的议论而担忧。 二、too…to…结构表示否定含义时，可以与…enough to... 结构及so... that...结构相互转换。1．将too...to...结构转换为…enough to... 结构时，要注意： ⑴enough 前的形容词或副词应是too后面形容词或副词的反义词；⑵…enough to... 句式须用否定式； ⑶too... to...结构有逻辑主语时，enough to... 结构也要加上逻辑主语。 如：She is too young to do the work. = She isn't old enough to do the work. The problem is too hard for him to work out. = The problem isn't easy enough for him to work out.

冠词的用法口诀

一、冠词分类 冠词分为定冠、不定冠，零冠 不定冠词a和an，“—”的含义表泛指， 表示特指要用the，次序、方位、最高级， 世上物体独一个，人或事物再次提， 以下情况冠词免，学科球类三顿饭， 名词复数表泛指，季节星期月份前， 二、定冠词the的用法巧记 特指、重提和唯一，岛屿、海峡和海湾，海洋、党派、最高级， 沙漠、河流与群山，方位顺序和乐器，年代、团体与机关， 船名建筑和组织，会议条约与报刊，姓氏复数、国全名，记住用定冠。 三、零冠词的用法口诀 月季星期节假洲，呼语头衔职务前，

三餐球类惯用语，学科棋类名词前。 不定冠词表示泛指、类指，定冠词表示特指、专指、类指，零冠词表示泛指人或事物、类指。a、an，仅用在单数可数名词前来表示“一”的意义，但不强调数目概念，只表示名词为不特定者。 定冠词the，表示名词的特定者，表示“这”·“那”·“这些”·“那些”，用在可数名词单数、复数，不可数名词前均可。(/)则表示名词化的其他词或专有名词，因此单数复数均可。复数可数名词和不可数名词前不用冠词，也表泛指，有些语法专家称之为“零冠词”。 扩展资料： 冠词的使用位置 1、不定冠词位置 不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。注意： （1）位于下列形容词之后：such，what，many，half， I have never seen such an animal.

（2）当名词前的形容词被副词as,so,too,how,however,enough修饰时，不定冠词应放在形容词之后： It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent. So short a time. （2）quite，rather与单数名词连用，冠词放在其后。 但当rather，quite 前仍有形容词，不定冠词放其前后均可。如：quite a lot （4）在as，though 引导的让步状语从句中，当表语为形容词修饰的名词时，不定冠词放形容词后： Brave a man though he is，he trembles at the sight of snakes. 他尽管勇敢，可见到蛇还是发抖。 当名词被比较级形容词修饰时，不定冠词通常置于比较级形容词之后。 2、定冠词位置

Too 的用法

Too 的用法 一?too的用法 1. too表示“也”?“又”?“还”的意思?通常用于肯定句中,且常置于句末,其前有逗号,但有时也可以插入句中?例如: Perhaps there will be a new hospital here, too. 也许这儿也会建一家新医院? In peace, too, the Red Cross is expected to send help wherever there is human suffering. 在和平时期,红十字会还被期待着在人们有难的地方提供援助? 注意: too意为“也”,也可用于否定陈述句里,但不可直接用于否定词的后面?例如: I did not go and she too did not go yesterday. 昨天我没有去,她也没去? 2. too表示“而且”?“还”的意思时,通常用于肯定句中?例如: They got the work done quickly, and well, too. 他们迅速地把活儿干完了,而且还干得很好? You ought to send for a doctor, and quickly, too. 你得去把医生请来,而且要快? 3. too表示“太”?“过于”的意思时,在句中修饰形容词或副词?too前面不可用fairly, very, quite等副词修饰,但可以用far, rather, much, a bit, a little, a lot 等词语修饰,以表达不同的程度?例如: You’re standing too near the camera. Can you move a little farther? 你站得离摄像机太近,能否走远一点? I don’t go in for rock’n’ roll. It’s much too noisy for my taste. 我不喜欢摇滚音乐?就我对音乐的欣赏而言,它太过于喧闹了? The cakes are delicious. He’d like to have a third one because the second one is rather too small. 这些蛋糕味道很好?我还想吃第三块,因为第二块实在太小了? 二?含too结构的用法 1. none too意为“一点儿也不”,相当于not at all?例如: He is none too stupid. 他一点儿也不笨? 2. “all too + adj. /adv.”表示“非常”?“太过于……”的意思, all起加强语气的作用?例如: The holidays ended all too soon. 假期结束得太快了? All too often, global development means that rich people get richer while the poor get poorer. 全球的发展常常意味着富人更富?穷人则更穷? 3. “can’t ... too”或“can never ... too”意为“越……越好”?“无论……也不过分”?例如: You can never be too careful in the street. 在街上怎样小心也不过分? You cannot praise the film too highly. 这部电影你怎样称赞也不过分? 4. “too ... to ...” 结构的用法 ①“too ... (for sb) to ...” 意为“太……而不能……”,表示否定的意义?例如: These books are too heavy for me to carry. 这些书太重,我搬不动?

too和enough的区别和用法

t o o和e n o u g h的区别 和用法 文件编码（008-TTIG-UTITD-GKBTT-PUUTI-WYTUI-8256）

t o o与e n o u g h的区别和用法例举（1）enough的用法 A 在形容词之后使用： He failed the exam because it wasn't easy enough. 他考虑不及格，因为题不够轻易。（不说 enough easy）? B 在名词之前使用： He didn' t buy the car because he didn't have enough money. 他没买那部车，因为他没有足够的钱。? C 可以用在 enough… for sb．/sth．和 enough… to do sth．结构之中： She hasn't got enough money for a holiday.她没有足够的钱去度假。? This dress isn't big enough for her.这件衣服对她来说不够大。? She's not old enough to live alone.她未到独自生活的年纪。? （2）too的用法 A too 表示“过于”： I can't go out. It's too hot.我无法外出，太热了。 She couldn't answer the questions because they were toodifficult for her.

她无法回答问题，因为对她来说太难了。? B 可以用在 too…for sb．/sth．结构之中： This skirt is too big for me.这条裙子对她来说太大了。? It's too easy for me.这对我来说太轻易了。? C 可以用在 too…to do sth．结构之中： The exam was too difficult for him to pass.考试太难了，以至于他无法通过。? The box is too heavy for you to carry.这个盒子太沉了，你没法扛起。? She i too young to live alone.她年纪太小了，无法独自生活。? It's too far to walk home from here.从这儿步行回家太远了。

(完整版)too和enough的区别和用法.doc

too 与 enough 的区和用法例 （1） enough 的用法 A在形容之后使用： He failed the exam because it wasn't easy enough. 他考不及格，因不易。（不enough easy） B在名之前使用： He didn' t buy the car because he didn't have enough money. 他没那部，因他没有足的。 C 可以用在enough ? for sb．/sth．和enough? to do sth．构之中：She hasn't got enough money for a holiday.她没有足的去度假。 This dress isn't big enough for her.件衣服她来不大。 She's not old enough to live alone.她未到独自生活的年。 （2） too 的用法 A too表示“ 于”： I can't go out. It's too hot.我无法外出，太了。 She couldn't answer the questions because they were toodifficult for her. 她无法回答，因她来太了。 B 可以用在too ? for sb．/sth．构之中： This skirt is too big for me.条裙子她来太大了。 It's too easy for me.我来太易了。 C 可以用在too ? to do sth．构之中： The exam was too difficult for him to pass.考太了，以至于他无法通。The box is too heavy for you to carry.个盒子太沉了，你没法扛起。 She i too young to live alone.她年太小了，无法独自生活。 It's too far to walk home from here.从这儿步行回家太远了。

自然拼读顺口溜

小学英语自然拼读顺口溜 1. 我家dad（爸爸），脾气bad（坏），让我sad（伤心难过）。有只cat（猫咪），非常fat（肥胖），专吃rat（鼠）。 2. 放下plate（盘子），赶到gate（门口），已经late（晚了）。清晨wake（醒来），来到lake（湖边），钓上snake（蛇）。 3. 撇下net（网），鱼没get（得到），衣服wet（湿了）。为捉pest（害虫），从不rest （休息），本领best（最棒）。 4. 一只pig（猪），非常big（大），把洞dig（挖）。没给tip（尖），把我lip（唇）， 装上zip（拉链）。 5. 一只kite(风筝)，颜色white（白色），被狗bite（咬）。学会ride（骑车），妈妈 pride（自豪）。 6. 清晨jog（慢跑），带上dog（狗），踩到frog（青蛙）。轻轻hop（跳），跳上top （顶部），唱起pop（流行音乐）。 7. 把眼close（闭上），用我nose（鼻子），去闻rose（玫瑰）。喝着coke（可乐），听着joke（笑话），把腰broke（扭伤）。 8. 举着gun（枪），瞄准sun（太阳），不停run（跑）。小小bug（烦恼），把我hug （环抱）。 9. 找个excuse（借口），借车use（用），遭到refuse（拒绝）。假装mute（哑巴）， 真是cute（聪明）。 10. 开着car（车），向着star（星星），路途far（遥远）。想变smart（睿智），必须start（开始），学习art（艺术）。 11. 一个driver（司机），掉进river（河里），生命over（结束）。一个robber（强盗），专抢rubber（橡胶）。 12. 穿上shirt（衬衫），脱下skirt（裙子），扔进dirt（污垢）。这只bird（鸟），总跑third（第三） 13. 个子short（短小），喜欢sport（运动），跑到airport（太空）。拿着fork（叉）， 吃着pork（猪肉）。 14. 一个nurse（护士），丢了purse（钱包）。买只turtle（龟），颜色purple（紫色）。 15. 一只goat（山羊），穿件coat（外套），上了boat（小船）。一片oat（燕麦），卡在throat（喉咙）。

too...to do sth用法

在一般情况下,too... to...结构意为“太……以致不能……”,too后接形容词或副词,to是动词不定式符号,后接动词原形,动词不定式表示否定意义。但是,too... to...结构在以下情况中,动词不定式表示肯定意义。 一、too... to ...的意义 too...to...句型形式是肯定的，但表达否定意义，表示"太……而不能……"。too 的后面接形容词或副词的原级，to的后面接动词原形，构成动词不定式。too...to...句型是简单句。例如： He is too young to join the army.他年龄太小，不能参军。 二、动词不定式的逻辑主语 动词不定式所发出的动作，其执行者与整个句子的主语不同指一个人或物时，需要在动词不定式前加上一个逻辑主语(for sb.)。例如： The maths problem is too difficult for me to work out.这道数学题太难我不能解出它。 三、too...to...结构表示肯定意义的情况 1. too前面含有表示否定意义的词，例如: not, never, nothing等时，too... to...结构不表示否定意义。例如： One is never too old to learn.活到老，学到老。 2.如果在too...to...结构的前面出现了only,不仅免去了其否定意义，反而加强了它的肯定语气，only too相当于very或very much。例如： I shall be only too pleased to get home.我将极高兴地回家。 3. too后为表示情感的形容词，例如：glad, pleased, happy, sad等时，表示的是肯定意义。例如： He is too sad to hear the bad news.听到不幸的消息他太悲伤了。 四、too...to...结构与... enough to...结构及so...that...结构的相互转换 1.将too...to...结构转换为...enough to...结构时要注意：①enough前的形容词或副词须是too前面形容词或副词的反义词；②...enough to ...句式须用否定式； ③too...to...结构有逻辑主语时，...enough to...结构也要加上逻辑主语。例如：