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竞争优势模型【外文翻译】

竞争优势模型【外文翻译】
竞争优势模型【外文翻译】

外文翻译

原文

A Model of Competitive Advantage

Material Source: Strategic Management Journal, Mar., 1993

Author: Margaret A. Peteraf

Heterogeneity

A basic assumption of resource-based work is that the resource bundles and capabilities underlying production are heterogeneous across firms. One might describe productive factors in use as having intrinsically differential levels of 'efficiency'. Some are superior to others. Firms endowed with such resources are able to produce more economically or better satisfy customer wants. Heterogeneity implies that firms of varying capabilities are able to compete in the market-place and, at least, breakeven. Firms with marginal resources can only expect to breakeven. Firms with superior resources will earn rents.

Ricardian rents

Heterogeneity in an industry may reflect the presence of superior productive factors which are in limited supply. They may be fixed factors which cannot be expanded. More often, they are quasi-fixed, in the sense that their supply cannot be expanded rapidly. They are scarce in the sense that they are insufficient to satisfy demand for their services. Thus, inferior resources are brought into production as well. This is the familiar Ricardian argument. It may be understood most clearly by assuming that firms with superior resources have lower average costs than other firms. These low cost firms have somewhat inelastic supply curves, in that they cannot expand output rapidly, regardless of how high the price may be. High prices, however, do induce other less efficient firms to enter the industry. Such firms will enter and produce so long as price exceeds their marginal cost. In equilibrium, industry demand and supply are in balance, high-cost firms breakeven, and low-cost firms earn supra normal profits in the form of rents to their scarce resources. Firms are price takers and produce at the point where price equals marginal cost. The high returns of efficient firms cannot be attributed to an artificial restriction of output or to market power. Neither do they depend upon uniqueness or even rarity in the absolute sense. It is theoretically possible for rents to be earned by a number of equally efficient producers, so long as an efficiency differential remains between

them and other producers. What key is that the superior resources remain limited in supply. Thus, efficient firms can sustain this type of competitive advantage only if their resources cannot be expanded freely or imitated by other firms. Consider what happens if this is not so. Increased production by additional efficient producers will shift the supply curve out. This will drive down the equilibrium price, forcing marginal firms to leave the market. Remaining firms will produce at the point where price equals both marginal cost and average cost. As a result, rents will be dissipated and only normal returns will be earned by efficient producers. The Ricardian model is often thought of with respect to resources which are strictly fixed in supply. But it may be applied as well to quasi-fixed resources, which are of much greater importance. These are resources which, while limited in the short run, may be renewed and expanded incrementally within the firm that utilizes them. Utilization of such resources may in fact augment them. Prahalad and Hamel describe how core competencies, particularly those which involve collective learning and are knowledge-based, are enhanced as they are applied. Such resources may provide both the basis and the direction for the growth of the firm itself. Current capabilities may both impel and constrain future learning and investment activity. Incremental growth and renewal of such limited resources, however, is not inconsistent with a Ricardian view of rent and competitive advantage.

Monopoly rents

The condition of heterogeneity is equally consistent with models of market power and monopoly rents as it is with the Ricardian story. What distinguishes monopoly profits from Ricardian rents is that monopoly profits result from a deliberate restriction of output rather than an inherent scarcity of resource supply. In monopoly models, heterogeneity may result from spatial competition or product differentiation. It may reflect uniqueness and localized monopoly. It may be due to the presence of intra-industry mobility barriers which differentiate groups of firms from one another. It may entail size advantages and irreversible commitments or other first mover advantages. There are numerous such models. What they all have in common is the supposition that firms in favorable positions face downward sloping demand curves. These firms then maximize profits by consciously restricting their output relative to competitive levels. These are models of market power. Unlike Ricardian models, many are 'strategic' in that firms take into account the behavior and relative position of their rivals. Apparently homogeneous firms may also earn monopoly rents. Cournot behavior exhibited by identical rivals. So may collusive

behavior, tacit or otherwise. But these kinds of behaviors are facilitated by fewness of numbers and therefore depend on barriers to entry. Asymmetries must exist between incumbent. This is a notion attributable to organizational economics. Consider also models of dominant firm behavior, firms and potential entrants. In this case, the heterogeneity occurs across these two groups of firms.

Imperfect mobility

Resources are perfectly immobile if they cannot be traded. Dierickx and Cool discuss several examples of this sort. Resources for which property rights are not well defined or with 'bookkeeping feasibility' problems fall into this category. So do resources which are idiosyncratic to the extent that they have no other use outside the firm. Other kinds of resources may be described as imperfectly mobile. These are resources which are tradeable but more valuable within the firm that currently employs them than they would be in other employ. Resources are imperfectly mobile when they are somewhat specialized to firm-specific needs. Montgomery and Wernerfelt use the concept of switching costs to discuss how firm-specific investments may cement the trading relationship between a firm and the owners of factors employed by the firm. These investments by the resource owners may be regarded as a sunk cost which may inhibit the factor's exit from a firm. These costs give the firm a greater claim on the resource in question. Cospecialized assets may be another case in point. These are assets which must be used in conjunction with one another or which have higher economic value when employed together. To the extent that they have no other equivalent uses and to the extent that at least one of the assets is firm-specific, their mobility is limited. Other resources may be imperfectly mobile simply because the transactions costs associated with their transfer are exceedingly high. Because immobile or imperfectly mobile resources are nontradeable or less valuable to other users, they cannot be bid away readily from their employer. They remain bound to the firm and available for use over the long run. Thus, they can be a source of sustained advantage. Furthermore, the opportunity cost of their use is significantly less than their value to the present employer. This is an important point and one which will be developed further in the next section. It implies that any Ricardian or monopoly rents generated by the asset will not be offset entirely by accounting for the asset's opportunity cost. I use opportunity cost, here, in a sense slightly different from the conventional use of the term. Conventionally, it refers to the value of a resource in its next best use. Here, I mean it to refer to the value of the resource to its second-highest valuing

potential-user. The use to which the potential user may wish to put it may be exactly the same. This difference between the value of a resource to a firm and its opportunity cost is also a form of rent. Pareto rents, also called quasi-rents, are the excess of an asset's value over its salvage value or its value in its next best use. Following Klein et al., I use the term 'appropriable quasi-rents' or 'A-Q rents' to refer to the excess of an asset's value over its value to the second-highest valuing potential user or bidder for the resource. Klein et al. demonstrate that it is entirely possible for a resource to generate A-Q rents in the absence of either Ricardian or monopoly rents. Resources need not be rare or inimitable for them to be differentially valuable to possible users. On the other hand, such assets may make a firm less responsive and flexible in the face of environmental or technological changes which upset a previously held advantage. Specialization is a two-edged sword. Rent is not a sufficient indicator of competitive advantage. There must be monopoly or Ricardian rents generated as well. A-Q rents are appropriable in the sense that they need not be paid out to the resource for the user to retain its services. Were the user to appropriate the whole of the A-Q rents, the resource could earn no more elsewhere. It may be more accurate, however, to recognize that the rents will be shared between the factor owners and the firm employing them. First, one might as easily view the firm as tied to the use of specialized factors, since it cannot substitute generic factors at equal cost. This implies that the situation might be characterized best as a bilateral monopoly, in which the distribution of rents is indeterminate. Secondly, it should be recognized that the rents are in fact jointly produced and are as much due to the firm as to the factor. A specialized factor cannot be so productive apart from the firm. Therefore, its super-productivity is attributable as much to the context and other elements of the firm as to the factor itself. The firm and the factor are, in essence, a team. Caves states that rents are not entirely passed on to factors which are not traded on the open market. In a similar vein, Rumelt has argued that 'the rent on factor is not logically or operationally separable from the profits of the firm'. These two facts that imperfectly mobile resources will remain available to the firm and that the rents will be shared by the firm-are the key features of imperfect factor mobility. They, in turn, make imperfect factor mobility a necessary condition for sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, imperfect factor mobility is a particularly important component of the model because such resources are less likely to be imitable than other kinds. Furthermore, the opportunity cost of such assets, as defined above, does not offset the rents. But even together with heterogeneity and ex

post limits to competition, imperfect factor mobility is not yet sufficient for sustained competitive advantage.

The cornerstones of competitive advantage

In sum, four conditions must be met for a firm to enjoy sustained above-normal returns. Resource heterogeneity creates Ricardian or monopoly rents. Ex post limits to competition prevent the rents from being competed away. Imperfect factor mobility ensures that valuable factors remain with the firm and that the rents are shared. Ex ante limits to competition keep costs from offsetting the rents. This model is intended to highlight the importance of each of these conditions, as distinct from one another, and to explicate the particular role that each plays in creating and sustaining rents. It is not meant to imply, however, that these four conditions are entirely independent of one another. They are, in fact, related conditions. Heterogeneity is the most basic condition. It is the sine-qua-non of competitive advantage and has long been a fundamental concept of strategic management. For these reasons it deserves special emphasis. The model tells us that heterogeneity is necessary for sustainable advantage, but not sufficient. For rents to be sustained, we required ex post limits to competition as well. One can imagine heterogeneity without ex post limits to competition. Firms may have short-lived and unsustainable readily-imitated differences. It takes a greater stretch of the imagination to conceive of ex post limits to competition without heterogeneity. For the most part, ex post limits to competition imply heterogeneity, although heterogeneity does not imply ex post limits to competition. Heterogeneity underlies the condition of imperfect mobility as well. Again heterogeneous resources need not be imperfectly mobile. But it is hard to imagine any imperfectly mobile resources which are not also heterogeneous in nature. Resources which are immobile because of their idiosyncratic or firm-specific nature are certainly heterogeneous. Resources which are immobile due to ill-defined property rights or the lack of a market might possibly be homogeneous. Once again, however, imperfect mobility, for the most part, implies heterogeneity as well. Finally, it is important to recognize that the productivity of superior resources depends upon the nature of their employment and the skill with which a strategy based on resource superiority is implemented.

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某一职业领域需要的信息(如人力资源管理的专业知识); 岗位胜任模型岗位胜任模型 2.技能 掌握和运用专门技术的能力(如英语读写能力、计算机操作能力); 3.社会角色 个体对于社会规范的认知与理解(如想成为工作团队中的领导); 4.自我认知 对自己身份的知觉和评价(如认为自己是某一领域的权威); 5.特质 某人所具有的特征或其典型的行为方式(如喜欢冒险); 6.动机 决定外显行为的内在稳定的想法或念头(如想获得权利、喜欢追求名誉)。 建立岗位胜任模型步骤 定义绩效标准 绩效标准一般采用工作分析和专家小组讨论的办法来确定。即采用工作分析的各种工具与方法明确工作的具体要求,提炼出鉴别工作优秀的员工与工作一般的员工的标准。专家小组讨论则是由优秀的领导者、人力资源管理层和研究人员组成的专家小组,就此岗位的任务、责任和绩效标准以及期望优秀领导表现的胜任特征行为和特点进行讨论,得出最终的结论。如果客观绩效指标不容易获得或经费不允许,一个简单的方法就是采用“上级提名”。这种由上级领导直接给出的工作绩效标准的方法虽然较为主观,但对于优秀的领导层也是一种简便可行的方法。企业应根据自身的规模、目标、资源等条件选择合适的绩效标准定义方法。

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4.企业组织、战略和竞争状态因素 它们是指一国国内支配企业创建、组织和管理的条件。 国家经济发展四个阶段 波特认为,国家经济发展可分为四个阶段,即生产要素导向阶段、投资导向阶段、创新导向阶段和富裕导向阶段,其中前三个阶段是国家竞争优势发展的主要力量,通常会带来经济上的繁荣,第四个阶段则是经济上的转折点,有可能因此而走下坡。 它给我们的启示是:在开放型经济背景下,一国产业结构状况并不是一成不变的,各国产业发展具有很强的能动性和可选择性,固有的比较优势不应成为谋求增强国际竞争优势的障碍。 中国的竞争优势主要是在制造业 中国制造业的竞争优势分析:一国特定产业的发展及其竞争优势又受“机遇”与“政府”因素影响,“政府”因素所带给产业的影响可正可负,此点对于政府产业政策制定应有重要涵义。下面就根据“钻石体系”理论来分析我国能在制造产业上获得的国际竞争优势。生产因素优势从生产因素方面来看,我国具备低成本制造的要素。首先,人力资源充足,人力成本低。农村大量富余劳动力可以源源不断地为城市提供低成本的低技术产业工人。这一项是发达国家制造业难以逾越的。同时,近几年来,我国高等教育发展迅速,受过高等教育的年轻人的数量连年大幅增长,这对我国制造业的未来发展尤为重要,因为我国制造业不仅有低附加值的劳动密集型产业,还要有高附加值的技术和资本密集型产业。其次,我国民营经济已经完成了最初的原始积累,也吸引了大量的外资,资本资源也相对充足。最后,我国政府自改革开放以来就重视基础设施建设,高速公路、电信设施、电力建设等在发展中国家是最先进的,这对整个经济的发展,当然也包括制造业的发展起到了最基本的支持作用。我国正在经历城市化和工业化的进程,需要建设大量的基础设施。城市人口面临人均收入消费正从温饱型向享受型和发展型过渡,对房地产、汽车、数码电子等的需求旺盛,同时,随着农民收入的提高,

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Landscape planning and design of residential green space 1 topic sources The project comes from the social production practice of the instructor. 2 purpose and significance of research 2.1 the purpose of the study The modern residential district is increasing with unprecedented speed and quantity, and the landscape design of residential area is becoming more and more important. The landscape is usually in a variety of ways to meet different users. The goal of the design is to create a space that combines society, environment, culture, aesthetics and practical functions. Therefore, the landscape is a system of living, dynamic, ecological and cultural. The landscape design of residential area is closely related to our relationship. It has its own characteristics and development trend. With the rapid development of modern Chinese cities, global integration has made frequent international exchanges and highly shared information. How to assimilate the latest technological achievements and design trend of the world with conditional self concept is one of the common concerns of contemporary designers. The purpose of this study is to analyze the landscape planning and design of modern residential areas at home and abroad, and to summarize the landscape planning and design scheme suitable for the two phase of Ziyun government. For the fusion of classical and modern, Qucuqujing, with European style as the theme, to learn the essence China garden, ideal residential environment, the creation of ecological environment protection and sustainable development, to create a good living environment for residents. 2.2 significance of research The survival of mankind is inseparable from the necessities of life, and the content and content of life are all generated by living. This kind of living activity is called "the first activity of the city" in the Athens charter. As the main place of human activity - the residential area, it bears our needs for a good life. The advantages and disadvantages of human living environment not only relate to people's quality of life and health, but also reflect the culture of the city. As an index of improving the quality of people's life, urban landscape plays a decisive role. Landscape design of residential area has also become an indispensable part of urban landscape system. The design of an

胜任力模型

平安保险公司A类管理干部胜任素质模型 2012年1月

目录 一、简介 2 二、模型结构 3 三、胜任素质定义与层级 5 结果导向 6 适应调整7 监控能力8 影响能力9 团队领导10 组织理解11 战略导向12 建立创新组织13 归纳思维14 组织文化认同15 积极心态16 责任心17 重诺言18 学习领悟19 人际理解20

一、简介 作为中国金融界的飞速发展的企业,平安保险努力在激烈的竞争中保持健康的发展势头,迎接中国加入WTO后保险业面临的挑战。储备干部体系的完善是管理人员整体水平的提高的一个关键。为了建立一个高效率的管理干部发展和储备系统,A类管理干部胜任素质模型明确界定了作为优秀的平安管理干部需要具备的能力和行为特征。 胜任素质(COMPETENCY)方法是由国际知名的美国哈佛大学心理学教授McClelland博士倡导创立的。“胜任素质”是能区分在特定的工作岗位、组织环境、和文化氛围中个人工作表现的任何可以客观衡量的非技术性的个人特征。胜任素质是在国际上,特别是先进企业中得到普遍认可和广泛应用的管理干部选拔、培养和发展的有效方法。 A类管理干部胜任素质模型是由平安项目小组与昱泉管理顾问(上海)公司团队合作,经过严格的研究开发努力的结果。模型建立过程严格遵循胜任素质方法的基本准则和操作要求。分析与平安公司优秀的管理业绩直接挂钩的管理行为模式。该模式与平安的实际情况密切结合,直接服务于平安的发展战略和商业目标,促进平安管理干部的职业生涯发展。 该模型建立在广泛深入搜集的第一手材料的基础上。平安各级管理干部提供了大量的客观数据。通过对各种数据的详细分析,形成具有十五项胜任素质的平安A类管理干部胜任素质模型。

基本竞争优势模型共21页

基本竞争优势模型 [编辑] 一、国内外研究现状述评 中外学者对竞争优势进行了大量研究。其中,西方学者研究中较有影响的有: ①亚当·斯密的绝对优势 论(内生比较利益说)、大卫·李 嘉图的比较优势论和赫克歇尔- 俄林的资源要素禀赋学说,其核 心是比较优势。

②克鲁格曼(1985)的研究结论:以规模经济为基础的比较优势也是国家之间贸易的动因。 ③海默的垄断优势理论、巴克莱(P.J.Buckley)和卡森(M.Casson)的内部化理论和邓宁(J.H.Dunning)的国际生产折衷理论对竞争优势的跨国投资视角的研究。 ④科特勒认为,加强企业的营销管理能力,可以提升企业的竞争优势。 ⑤M.E.波特的产业竞争优势理论:《竞争战略》确定了分析产业和竞争对手的理论框架,提出了著名的竞争力分析五要素模型。《竞争优势》阐述了企业可以选择和推行三种基本战略以创造和保持竞争优势的方法,建立了价值链。《国家竞争优势》(1990)认为国家应该创造一个良好的经营环境和支持性制度,以

确保投入要素能够高效地使用和 升级换代。钻石理论的六要素分 析框架,对产业国际竞争力(优势) 研究做出了非常有价值的贡献。 ⑥哈默和普拉哈拉德(1990) 提出企业的竞争优势来源于企业 的核心能力。 ⑦安德鲁斯等提出的SWOT 分析法。 ⑧戴维德·梯斯(David Teece,大卫·梯斯)(1998)强调, 企业必须通过创新以适应环境获 取竞争优势。 近年来,国内有关竞争优势研究的主要观点有: ①陈佳贵(2003)指出,在新 的竞争格局中培育竞争优势,政 府要创造公平竞争环境和必要条 件,企业要学习和适应新的竞争 规则,提升国际竞争力。

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基于曲波变换的多聚焦图像融合算法研究 摘要:由于光学透镜聚焦深度的限制,往往很难得到一个包含所有相关聚焦目标的图像。多聚焦图像融合算法可以有效地解决这个问题。基于广泛应用的多聚焦图像融合算法的分析,本文提出一种基于多聚焦图像融合算法的曲波变换。根据曲波变换分解的不同频率区,分别讨论低频系数和高频系数的选择规律。本文中低频系数和高频系数被分别与NGMS(就近梯度最大选择性)和LREMS(局部区域能量最大的选择性)融合。结果表明,提出的多聚焦图像融合算法可以获得和图像聚焦融合算法相同的图像,在客观评价和主观评估方面较其他算法有明显的优势。 关键字:曲波变换;多聚焦图像;融合算法 1.简介 如今,图像融合被广泛应用于军事、遥感、医学和计算机图像等领域。图像融合的主要目的将来自两个或更多相同场景的信息相结合以获得一个包含完整信息的图像。比如,廉价相机的主要问题是我们不能获得不同距离的每个目标以获得一个聚焦所有目标的图像。因此,我们需要一种多聚焦图像融合方法来聚焦和获得更清晰的图像。 经典融合算法包括计算源图像平均像素的灰度值,拉普拉斯金字塔,对比度金字塔,比率金字塔和离散小波变换(DWT)。然而,计算源图像平均像素灰度值的方法导致一些不期望的影响例如对照物减少。小波变换的基本原理是对每个源图像进行分解,然后将所有这些分解单元组合获取合成表示,从中可以通过寻找反变换恢复融合图像。这种方法显然是有效的。但是,小波变化只能通过变换边缘特征反映出来,却不能表达边缘的特点。同时,也因为它采用各向同性所以小波变化无法显示边缘方向。由于小波变换的限制,Donoho 等人提出了曲波变换的概念,它采用边缘作为基本元素,较为成熟并可以适应图像特征。此外,曲波变换具有各向异性和有更好的方向,可以提供更多图像处理的信息。 通过曲波变换的原则我们知道:曲波变化除了具有多尺度小波变换和地方特色外,它还具有方向特征和支持会话的基础特征。曲波变化可以适当代表图像边缘和相同逆变换精度的光滑区。继曲波变化低波段和高波段融合算法系数的研究后,提出一种思想:低-带系数采用NGMS方法和不同的方向高带系数采用LREMS方法。 2.第二代曲波变化 第二代曲波变换和第一代的曲波变换不同的是,没有导入脊波变换的实施过

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毕业论文外文文献翻译 院 年级专业: 2009 级XXXXXXXXXXX 姓 名:学 号:附 件: 备注:(注意:备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印,看懂了即可)

1.从所引用的与毕业设计(论文)内容相近的外文文献中选择一篇或一部分进行翻译(不少于3000实词); 2.外文文献翻译的装订分两部分,第一部分为外文文献;第二部分为该外文文献的中文翻译,两部分之间用分页符隔开。也就是说,第一外文文献部分结束后,使用分页符,另起一页开始翻译。 3.格式方面,外文文献的格式,除了字体统一使用Times new roman 之外,其他所有都跟中文论文的格式一样。中文翻译的格式,跟中文论文的格式一样。 (注意:备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印,看懂了即可,定稿后,请删除本页.) 范文如下:注意,下面内容每一部份均已用分页符分开了,如果用本模板,请将每一模块单独删除,直接套用到每一模板里面,不要将全部内容一次性删除. 【Abstract】This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on

the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.,Times New Roman. 【Key Words】Brand positioning; Marketing mix; Positioning Strategy; enlightenment, lessons;ABC (本页为英文文献摘要,关键词两项一起单独一页,字体为:Times New Roman,小四号,1.5倍行距)

外文译文(格式要求)

外文文献译文格式如下 文献题目上角标 (上角标以脚注形式给出原文的文献来源,文献来源标注请注意按照指导手册中关于参 考文献的要求列出,必须真实可查) 原文作者姓名(英文) 译者姓名包括信息(班级学号姓名 [译]) (译文正文) 一、************(一级标题) (一)***********(二级标题) …… 注意:尽量保持译文完整,整篇翻译(包括摘要、关键词等),如有省略,请译出标题后加(略),中间内容可部分省略,但是结论最好要译出,此外文末有参考文献的译出参考文献字样,后面加(略)。译文正文的格式要求同论文正文的格式,包括字体,行间距,页边距,图表等所有格式,详见指导手册。黑色字体为格式说明项,红色字体为需要的信息。所有文中所出现的序号请按照指导手册要求修改,例如一、()一……等。外文原文的打印可以直接原文打印,若原文太长,可转换为word打印所译内容,其他省略翻译的列上标题后写略。原文打印可不必再写文献来源,只需在打印的原文第一页上方空白处按序写上“班级学号姓名”等信息。转换为word打印的,需按照指导手册要求调整好打印格式,并在标题后以脚注形式标注原文来源信息(指导手册要求)。在打印的word原文第一页上方空白处写上“班级学号姓名”等信息(此时不需加[译]的字样)。所有打印文件页脚上注意自动生成页码(如译文范文)。定稿时发送的文件名称改成(专业班级学号姓名-外文原文)。若是译文的话则文件名为(专业班级学号姓名-外文译文)。其他文件定稿时也是这个要求。 范文:(见下一页)

韩国**对经济影响的分析① 原作者名可直接用英文 经济学 061*班 2006*****6 张三[译] [摘要] 本文研究的目的*******的影响。在探讨*****影响各行业的产出、就业、收入、增值和进口中应用了投入产出模型。*******************。根据研究的结果,得出结论*********的作用。 [关键词] ***** 投入-产出模型 **效应 **效应 一、引言 在当今经济全球化***************。 ********** 表一 1998年到2000年外国参展商在韩国举办会展的数量 种类2000 会展数量百分数(%) 1999 会展数 量 百分数 (%) 1998 会展数 量 百分数 (%) 至少 50 50–99 100–299 300–499 500–999 1000 或更多总和179 42 51 10 6 4 292 61.3 14.4 17.5 3.4 2.0 1.4 100 146 53 59 12 13 4 287 50.8 18.5 20.5 4.2 4.5 1.4 100 154 47 51 6 8 1 267 57.7 17.6 19.0 2.2 3.0 0.4 100 来源:韩国******组织(2001) 或表一(略) 本研究的目的是为了调查********对经济的影响。 ①Samuel Seongseop Kim,Kaye Chon,Kyu Yoop Chung.Convention industry in South Korea: an economic impact analysis[J].Tourism Management,2003,(24).

外文翻译排版格式参考

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 系别:电子信息系 专业:通信工程 班级:B100309 姓名:张杨 学号: B 外文出处: 附件: 1. 原文; 2. 译文 2014年03月

An Introduction to the ARM 7 Architecture Trevor Martin CEng, MIEE Technical Director This article gives an overview of the ARM 7 architecture and a description of its major features for a developer new to the device. Future articles will examine other aspects of the ARM architecture. Basic Characteristics The principle feature of the ARM 7 microcontroller is that it is a register based load-and-store architecture with a number of operating modes. While the ARM7 is a 32 bit microcontroller, it is also capable of running a 16-bit instruction set, known as "THUMB". This helps it achieve a greater code density and enhanced power saving. While all of the register-to-register data processing instructions are single-cycle, other instructions such as data transfer instructions, are multi-cycle. To increase the performance of these instructions, the ARM 7 has a three-stage pipeline. Due to the inherent simplicity of the design and low gate count, ARM 7 is the industry leader in low-power processing on a watts per MIP basis. Finally, to assist the developer, the ARM core has a built-in JTAG debug port and on-chip "embedded ICE" that allows programs to be downloaded and fully debugged in-system. In order to keep the ARM 7 both simple and cost-effective, the code and data regions are accessed via a single data bus. Thus while the ARM 7 is capable of single-cycle execution of all data processing instructions, data transfer instructions may take several cycles since they will require at least two accesses onto the bus (one for the instruction one for the data). In order to improve performance, a three stage pipeline is used that allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously. The pipeline has three stages; FETCH, DECODE and EXECUTE. The hardware of each stage is designed to be independent so up to three instructions can be processed simultaneously. The pipeline is most effective in speeding up sequential code. However a branch instruction will cause the pipeline to be flushed marring its performance. As we shall see later the ARM 7 designers had some clever ideas to solve this problem. Instruction Fig 1 ARM 3- Stage pipeline

外文翻译格式示范

重庆科技学院学生毕业设计(论文)外文译文 学院建筑工程学院 专业班级土木应08(3) 学生姓名谭梳琪 学号2008540402

译文要求 1.外文翻译必须使用签字笔,手工工整书写,或用A4纸打印。 2.所选的原文不少于10000印刷字符,其内容必须与课题或专业方向紧密相关, 由指导教师提供,并注明详细出处。 3.外文翻译书文本后附原文(或复印件)。

外文原文出自:R.帕克、T.波利编著的《钢筋混凝土结构》中的417-423页 7.4 有腹筋钢筋混凝土梁的抗剪机理 7.4.1腹筋的作用 梁内有了像箍筋这样的腹筋之后,不会从根本上改变前面所描述的抗剪机理。作为梁作用的主要元件的混凝土悬臂这时将像被拉住的悬臂那样工作。除去有骨料咬合、销栓和悬臂的弯曲作用所联合承担的粘结力ΔT之外,还有一部分粘结力ΔT′能够由习惯上所说的“桁架作用”来承担。在这个桁架中,悬臂起斜向压杆的作用(见图7.14)。 图7.14 起斜压杆作用的混凝土悬臂 箍筋的存在在其他许多方面对梁作用也是有益的,它通过以下方式对抗剪机构的强度发挥作用: 1.改进销栓作用。箍筋能够有效地支承在它附近与弯剪裂缝相交的纵向钢筋。 2.通过桁架作用产生的斜压力C d抵消悬臂块体内的弯曲拉应力。 3.限制斜裂缝在弹性范围内的张开程度,从而使由骨料咬合作用传递的剪力得以维持 和增强。 4.当箍筋布置得足够密时,能对混凝土提供约束,从而特别是在受拱作用影响的部位 提高其抗压强度。 5.当在锚固区内由于销栓力和锚固力的作用而形成劈裂裂缝时,能防止粘结遭到破 坏。 总之,可以说,做了适当的细部设计的腹筋将能保持梁的整体性,并因而能够保持前面已经详述的梁机构的强度V e,从而使更多的建立V s能由桁架机构来承担。 7.4.2桁架机构 一个平行弦桁架与一个有腹筋混凝土梁之间在抗剪作用方面的相似性是混凝土结构的一个古老的概念。这种由Morsch[7.2.23]在本世纪初所假定的相似性的含义是,等效桁架的腹杆是由起拉杆作用的箍筋和走向平行于斜裂缝的、通常是与梁轴成45°角的混凝土压杆所组成的。混凝土的弯曲受压区和弯曲受拉钢筋构成这种比拟铰接桁架的上弦和下弦。桁架的内力只需根据平衡条件就能确定。这个桁架的性能与前已详述的“理想梁作用”相似到了如此地步,以至它能承受分散于弯曲受拉钢筋方向上的各个虚拟铰接点处的粘结力ΔT′,从而以不变的内力偶臂长来抵抗变化的外弯矩。 在梁内伴随着梁作用或拱作用以及桁架机构而出现的变形之间是不协调的。这种按惯例不予考虑的应变不协调性在趋近极限(即塑形)状态时越来越不显著。 图7.15中的比拟桁架描绘了腹筋以β角倾斜于水平线的一般情况。它也可以用来表示有桁架所承担的外剪力V s与各内力之间的关系。承受压力的C s的斜压杆与水平线的交角为

外文文献翻译--内容格式2012.4 2015.5.28 2015.11.10 2016.3.4

外文文献翻译的撰写说明 一、外文文献翻译的内容 通过外文文献查阅与翻译,进一步提高掌握使用外文的能力,熟悉本专业的主要的外文书刊,了解毕业设计(论文)课题的国内外信息与发展动向。翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料,应与毕业设计(论文)主题相关,并作为外文参考文献列入毕业设计(论文)的参考文献,中文译文后应附外文原文。 (一)标题应真实反映翻译外文的主体内容或原外文标题内容,一般控制在20个汉字以内。可以用副标题对标题予以补充说明; (二)标题下方正中为外文作者署名; (三)外文翻译成中文的内容; (四)外文著录。 二、字数要求 一般要求为2000-3000汉字或不少于15000外文字符。 三、格式 1、用Microsoft Word软件进行文字处理 2、页面设置:A4纸打印。上:3.5cm;下:2.5 cm;左:3.0 cm;右2.4 cm; 装订线:0.5cm;页眉:2.5 cm;页脚:1.8cm; 没有说明的为:正文为标准字间距、行间距为固定值22磅,其他设置 默认。 3、字体、字号: 整篇文章完工后,再各段选择“Time New Roman”字型可使英文及数字统一,并使波浪线居中而不是高高在上。 页眉“湖北理工学院外文文献翻译”,宋体、五号,居右排列;页码居页面底端靠右排列。单倍行距,段前段后0行。 文章题目:三号黑体、居中 空一行,此行五号宋体字,行间距16磅 作者:五号宋体字,行间距16磅 单位:五号宋体字,行间距16磅 空一行,此行五号宋体字,行间距16磅

摘要、关键词:顶格写,后用冒号,五号宋体,加粗;后面用五号宋体字,行间距16磅。如: 摘要:废水回用可以大大减少…… 关键词:废水回收利用;反冲洗;上清液 中间用“;”分隔,最后没有“。” 空一行,此行五号宋体字,行间距16磅 正文标题均要顶格写,后空一个格,即半个字或一个字符位置。 1 一级标题:黑体、小三号; 1.1…二级标题:黑体、四号; 1.1.1…三级标题:宋体、加粗、小四; 正文内容:宋体、小四;每段缩进2字位置 空一行,此行五号宋体字,行间距16磅 参考文献顶格写,小四,宋体,加粗 [1] LeGouellec……顶格写,五号,“Time New Roman”,行间距16磅。 其它:如8、公式9、插表10、插图等等按照“湖北理工本科毕业设计(论文)规范化要求”来 *公式 公式原则上居中书写。若公式前有文字(如“解”、“假定”等),文字顶格书写,公式仍居中写。公式末不加标点。公式序号按章编排,并在公式后靠页面右边线标注,如第1章第一个公式序号为“(1-1)”。文中引用公式时,一般用“见式(1-1)”或“由公式(1-1)”。 公式较长时在等号“=”或运算符号“+、-、×、÷”处转行,转行时运算符号书写于转行式前,不重复书写。公式中应注意分数线的长短(主、副分线严格区分),长分线与等号对齐。 公式中第一次出现的物理量应给予注释,注释的转行应与破折号“——”后第一个字对齐。 注:若公式部分不能显示,则更改行距为“单倍”

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