语言学复习资料(1)
第一次Exercise1
1 (1) metlanguage: it is the language used to analyze or describe a language.
e.g. Some morphemes can derive new words, such as –ness when it adhere to an adjective.
(2) metalingual Metalingual is the function of language that can be used to talk about language itself.
(3)Macrolinguistics Macrolinguistics is the interedisciplinary study of language. It mainly includes such branches as Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Anthropological linguistics, Computational Linguistics, etc.(4)Langue: 略(5)Parole: 略
(6)Competence: It is a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
(7)Performance: It refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
2. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
2-1. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
2-2. How do you understand competence and performance?
American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.
2.4. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
3. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
(1)Phonology is the study of speech sounds that human voice is capable of creating whereas phonetics is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.
(2) Phonetics is different from phonology in that the first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.
(3)Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.
(4)The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.
(5) Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.
(6) The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.
(7) Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.
4. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
(1) Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.
A. sociological…psychological
B. psychological…sociological
C. applied… pragmatic
D. semantic and linguistic
(2) According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
A. parole
B. performance
C. langue
D. Language
(3) Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings. A. sense B. sounds C. objects D. ideas
(4) If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________. A. prescriptive B. analytic
C. descriptive
D. linguistic
(5)Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?
A. Arbitrariness
B. Displacement
C. Duality
D. Meaningfulness
（6）Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.
（7）Saussure put forward two important concepts. _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
3. (1) F (2) T (3) F (4) T (5) F (6) T (7) T
4. (1-5) ACBCD
第二次
Give the description of the following sound segments in English:
1.Phonetics
2.Articulatory Phonetics
3.Acoustic Phonetics
4.Auditory Phonetics
5.Phonology
6.Speech Organs
7.IPA
8.The manner of articulation
9.The place of articulation
10. [p] 11. [b]12. [s]13. [z]14.[m]15. [L
Define the following terms
1. Phonetics: Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
2. Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.
3. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.
4. Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds
5.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’.
6. Speech Organs: It is also named as VOCAL ORGANS, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The organs involved in the production of speech: lung, trachea (windpipe), throat (larynx), nose, mouth
7.IPA It is the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. Since then it has undergone a number of revisions.
8. The manner of articulation
It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished.
9. The place of articulation It refers to the point where a consonant is made.
Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.
Give the description of the following sound segments in English:
1 [p] : voiceless bilabial stop 不带声双唇塞音2. [b]: voiced bilabial stop 带声双唇塞音
3. [s] : voiceless alveolar fricative 不带声齿龈擦音
4. [z]: voiced alveolar fricative 带声齿龈擦音
5. [m]: bilabial nasal 双唇鼻音
6. [l] : alveolar lateral 齿龈边音
Exercise 2-2第三次
Choose the best answer to each question
1. Pitch variation is known as __A_______ when its patterns are imposed on sente A. intonation B. tone C. pronunciation D. voice
2. Conventionally a ____C______ is put in slashes (/ /
A. allophone
B. phon
C. phoneme
D. morpheme
3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are ____D______ of the p phoneme.
A. analogues
B. tagmeme
C. morphemes
D. allophones
4. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?__A _A. [n] B. [m] C. [ b ] D. [p]
5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _D_________.
A. minimal pairs
B. allomorphs
C. phones
D. allophones
6. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?B A. [i:] B. [ u ] C. [e] D. [ i ]
7. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?
A. Voiceless
B. Voiced
C. Glottal stop
D. Consonant
1. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire
the quality of a speech sound. (T)
2. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not
contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but
merely a different pronunciation. (T)
3. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop. (F)
4. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.
(F)
ⅢFill in the blanks
1.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __friction ___.
2. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and the lips.
3. In English there are a number of diphthong, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.
4. Consonant sounds can be either voiceless or voiced , while all vowel sounds are voiced.
5. __Pitch__ variations which can distinguish meanings like
phonemes.
Ⅳ.根据下列语音描述给出国际音标符号
不带声唇齿擦音[v] 带声齿龈后擦音硬腭通音不带声声门擦音[h]
不带声齿龈塞音[d] 中高前展唇元音[i:] 高央圆唇元音低前圆唇元音
Ⅴ. 根据国际音标做出语音描述
1.[t] voiceless alveolar stop
2.[d] voiced alveolar stop
3.[m] bilabial nasal
4.[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel
5.[u] high back lax rounded vowel
6.[a] low back tense unrounded vowel
Unit 2 The Sounds of English第四次
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:
1 Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most
highly developed, is acoustic phonetics
2. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.
3 sound (p) in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.
4. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
5 supersegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than
the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.
6. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for
another result in a change of meaning.
7 The airstream provided by the lungs has undergo a number of modification to acquire the
quality of a speech sound
8. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which
occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.
9 Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not
contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce different word, but merely a different pronunciation
10. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.
11. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or
more phonemic segments.
12. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme.
13. Not all English phonemes have allophones.
14. The same set of vowels is used in all languages.
15. All syllables must contain at least one vowel.
16. The marking of word stress is arbitrary for the most part in English.
17. English is a tone language.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1 When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in
isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.
2 A _________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds
of speech
3 P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language
and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.
4 speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. There
movements have an effect on the a__________ coming from the lungs
5 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the
pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.
6 Consonant sounds can be either v ________ or v________, while all vowel sounds are
v__________
7 T_______ is pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal
cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
8 The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the t _________and the lips
9 Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of
Stress: word stress and s_________ stress. III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
10 p ____________ is the smallest linguistic unit.
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
1 Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?
A [z]
B [w]
C [b]
D [v]
2 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.
A. mouth
B. lips
C. tongue
D. vocal cords
3 The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.
A. voiceless
B. voiced
C. vowel
D. consonantal
4 which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?
A [i]
B [u]
C [e]
D [i:]
5 __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.
A. /z/
B. /d/
C. /k/
D./b/
6 The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a
sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.
A. identical
B. same
C. exactly alike
D. similar
7 Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can
distinguish meaning, they are said to be
A. in phonemic contrast
B. in complementary distribution
C. the allophones
D. minimal pair
8 Pitch variation is known as ________when its patterns are imposed on sentences.
A intonation
B tone
C pronunciation
D voice
9 The sound /f/ is _________________.
A. voiced palatal affricate
B. voiced alveolar stop
C. voiceless velar fricative
D. voiceless labiodentals fricative
10 which branch of phonetics concern the production of speech sounds?
A acoustic phonetics
B articulatory phonetics
C auditory phonetics
D neither of them
IV. Define the terms below:
1. Free variation
2. Allophone 3 International Phonetic Alphabet
4 intonation 6 phonemic contrast 7 minimal pair 8 rounded vowel
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
1 what is stress in a word? For words of more than one syllable, how are they pronounced?
2 What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
3. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
4. What does speech sounds for human being?
5 In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
6. A phoneme can be further analyzed into a set of distinctive features. For example, /p/ is defined as composed of such distinctive features as [plosive]+[bi-labial]+[breathed] because each of them can distinguish /p/ from some other phonemes. However, the property of aspiration contained in the allophone [ph] does not distinguish meaning and therefore is not a distinctive feature in this case.
ASK: (1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different?
(2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes (a) /F/ (b) /k/ (c) /n/
Answers for Unit 2
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1F 2F 3T 4F 5T 6T 7T 8F 9T 10 T
11 T 12F 13 T 14 T 15.F 16. F 17. F
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1 intonation
2 articulatory
3 Phonology
4 air stream
5 oral 6voiced;
voiceless; voiced 7 tone 8 tongue 9 sentence 10 phonemes
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement
1B 2.C 3.A 4 B 5.B 6 D 7A 8A 9D 10 B
IV. Define the terms below
1 free variation: Free variants indicates that the same word pronounced in two different ways , the pronunciation may be audible or not with the diacritic in IPA symbols. Such a phenomenon is called FREE VARIATION.
2 allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
3International phonetic alphabet:omit
4intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.5. Omit
6 phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
7. minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
8. rounded vowel: one of the criteria used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. If
a vowel is pronounced with the lips rounded, then the vowel in question is a rounded vowel.
V. Answer questions
1. what is stress in a word? For words of more than one syllable, how are they pronounced?
Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable, for words of more than one syllable, one is more stressed than the other .the more stressed syllable is the primary wile the less stressed syllable is known as the secondary stress
2. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
3. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs, etc are pronounced
With greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the s entence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
4. What does speech sounds for human being?Human being are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of there sounds have become units in the language system, there units are called speech sounds for human being.
5. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme , or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.
6. (1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different? [voiced]
(2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes?
(a) /F/ [fricative] + [voiceless] + [palatal] (b) /k/ [velar] + [voiceless] + [plosive]
(c) /n/ [nasal] +[voiced] +[alveolar]
Unit 3 The Units of English 第五次
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:
1. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second
element receives secondary stress. F
2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. T
3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic
unit in the study of morphology. T
4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.
T
5. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme T
fore- 以前的，前部的; fore: 走红，出名
6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories
such as number, tense, degree, and case. T
7. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed. F
9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new
word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.
F
10. In most case, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class
of the base T
11. All words in English have a hierarchical structure. F
12. Clipping is one of the three most important devices of word-formation in English. F （不止三
种）
13. Idioms in English are modifiable in some grammatical ways. T
14. The presence of constructions is unique to English. F
15. Every English sentence has a subject. F （come on ! let’s go）
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1. Take is the l__exeme____ of taking, taken and took.
（-eme，表示"语言构成要素"，其它词如：sememe 义素，morpheme 语素， phoneme音素）
2. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish(男孩子气的) conveys a g rammatical meaning.
3. B_ound__________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to
be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d erivational affixes.
5. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with v__ocabulary______
6. A s uffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it
may change its part of speech.
7. C____ompound_____ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to
create new words.
8. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are
called m_orphological rules.
9. Words are divided into simple, compound and derive words on the m __orphemic____level
10. A s_tem_____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a
derivational affix can be added.
第六次
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
1. Nouns ，verbs and adjectives can be classified as _____A___
A lexical words
B grammatical word
C function
D forwards
2. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the
meaning of a compound _____D_____.
A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components
B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes
（green-horn则更是指"没有经验的人"，如果理解为"绿色的角"）
C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.
（例如：greenhouse是一个复合词，a green house 是一个自由词组）
D. None of the above
3. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of
_____B_____.
A. the first element
B. the second element
C. either the first or the second element
D. both the first and the second elements.
（参看文章“英语复合词”，复合词通常是第一个词修饰第二个词，因此第二个词是中心词，它决定该复合词的词性）
4. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called
_____A_____morpheme
A．inflectional B free C function words D derivational
5. _____C____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the
rules by which words are formed.
A. Syntax
B. Grammar
C. Morphology D Morpheme
6. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ____C___.
A. lexical
B. morphemic
C. grammatical
D. semantic
7. Bound morphemes are those that _____D______.
A. has to be used independently
B. can not be combined with other morphemes
C. can either be free or bound
D. has to be combined with other morphemes
8. __A__ modifies the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of
Speech of the original word.
A. Prefixes
B. Suffixes
C. Roots
D. Affixes
9. ____B_____ is often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the
linguists.
A. Words
B. Morphemes
C. Phonemes
D. Sentences
10. All of them are meaningful except for____B_________
A．lexeme B phoneme C morpheme D allomorph
IV. Define the terms below:
1. Morphology
2. Inflectional morphology
3. Derivational morphology
4. Morpheme
5. Allomorph
6. Bound morpheme
7. Root
8. Analogy
9. Prefix 10. Base
V. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the main features of the English compounds?
2. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?
(a) the government’s policies (b) the latest news
(c) Isn’t it snowing! (d) two frightened cows
4. Count the number of clauses in the following paragraphs and categorize them into different
types.
The amount of stress a person can withstand depends very much on the individual. Some people are not afraid of stress, and such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities. Others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties. When exposed to stress, in whatever form, we react both chemically and physically. In fact we make choice between “flight and fight” and in more primitive days the choices made the difference between life and death. The crises we meet today are unlikely to be so extreme, but however little the stress, it involves the same response. It is when such a reaction lasts long, through continued exposure to stress, that health becomes endangered. Such serious conditions as high blood pressure and heart diseases have established links with stress. Since we cannot remove stress from our lives (it would be unwise to do so even if we could), we need to find ways to deal with it.
IV. Define the terms below:
1. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of
words and the rules by which words are formed.
2. Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections
3. Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.
4. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
5. Allomorph: it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditional by position or
adjoining sounds
6. Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used
indepen dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
7. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al though it
bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
8. Analogy: it is a way making a new word or phrase by making an analogy between the word to
be made and an existing corresponding one. Based on earthquake, youth quake is coined.
9. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin ning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the
stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
10. It is any form to which affixes of any king can be added. this means that any root or stem
can be termed a base. but a base differs from a root or a stem
V. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the main features of the English compounds?
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word Stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
2. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
There are two morphemes in English:
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”. Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound
Morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite m eaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of no uns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?
(a) the government’s policies ’s; -s (b) the latest news -est
(c) Isn’t it snowing! -ing (d) two frightened cows -ed; -s
第七次
Chapter 4 From Word to Text
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:
1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of
sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed construction because it has just one
head
4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong
to the same syntactic category.
5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,
namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.
6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.
7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of English sentences.
8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.
9.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows theverb.
10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.
( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )
II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usually comprises a number of words
to form a complete statement, question or command
2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time structurally alone is
known as an f__________ clause
3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says
something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.
4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated
into the other.
5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an
e_______ clause.
6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly
added.
7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logical functional relations between every
noun phrase and sentence
8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.
Answers:
1. sentence
2. finite
3. predicate
4. complex
5. embedded
6. open
7. grammatical
8. simple
9. sentence 10. subject III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________
A the city
B Rome
C city
D the city and Rome
2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.
A. coordinator
B. particle
C. Preposition
D. subordinator
3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.
A. recursive
B. grammatical
C. social
D. functional
4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.
A. how words and phrases form sentences.
B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words
C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences
D. All of the above.
5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________construction
A endocentric
B exocentric
C subordinate
D coordinate
6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.
A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.
B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase
C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions
D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.
7 The sentence structure is ________.
A. only linear
B. Only hierarchical
C. compel
D. both linear and hierarchical
8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.
A. large
B. small
C. finite
D. infinite
9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical
sentences. A. lexical B. morphological C. linguistic D. combinational
10 The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves” is a
____________sentence A simple B coordinate C compound D complex Answers: 1 D 2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 A
IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.
1. Syntax
2. IC analysis
3. Hierarchical structure
Answers:
1.Syntax:Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form
sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
2.IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the
analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.
3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural
constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as
NP, VP and PP.
V. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.
2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?
3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence: The child asked for a new book
4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples
Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence,
coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.
2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or
approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.
3. 略
4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.
Unit4The Structures of English (1)
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:
1. Application of the transformational the transformational rules yields deep structure
2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.
4. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of language speak er are known as linguistic competence.
5 The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
6. An endocentric construction is also known as headed construction it has just one head
7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.
8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.
9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,
namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.
10. Number and gender are categories of noun pronoun
11. Word order plays an important role in the organization of English sentences.
12. All ambiguous sentences result from our failure to use proper organization.
13. With transformations, we can organize a sentence the way we like.
14. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command
2. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
3 A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time structurally alone is known as an f__________ clause
4 The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.
5. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
6 In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.
7 Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.
8 A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.
9. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.
10 G_________ relations refer to the structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence
III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________
A the city
B Rome
C city
D the city and Rome
2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the
embedded clause.
A. coordinator
B. particle
C. Preposition
D. subordinator
3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.
A. recursive
B. grammatical
C. social
D. functional
4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.
A. how words and phrases form sentences.
B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words
C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences
D. All of the above.
00541语言学概论必过资料
第一章语言和语言学 第一节语言的客观存在形式 一、语言： 1．语言是一种社会现象，不是一种物质实体。 2．言语交际是一个编码（说话）和解码（听话）的过程。 （语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为，有声的口头语言，即口语） 3．语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。 二、口语和书面语的主要差别： 1．口语：是有声的口头语言。 2．书面语：是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。 3．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。 4．书面语比口语更精练、更精确。 5．书面语比口语省略成份少一些。（多了一些成份） 三、口语与书面语的关系： 1．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。 2．书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。 3．口语、书面语基本是一致的。（一般情况下） 四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义： 书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制，是人类进入文明社会的标志。 五、语言和民族： 1．语言是民族的重要标志，但不是最可靠的标志。 （1）在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。 （2）也有一个民族使用多种语言。（犹太民族） （3）不同民族使用同一种语言。（满族、汉族） （4）尽管语言是最直观的，最容易识别民族的标志，从目前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”，也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。 因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。（） 六、语言与种族的关系： 语言和种族没有必然的联系，但不是完全没有联系。特别就“语系”而言，两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。（汉语、汉藏语系都有声调） 七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但是语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是先天遗传的，它是一种社会现象，完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。 八、语言的客观存在形式：口语、书面语。语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语， 而当出现了文字以后，又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。 口语和书面语都有两个方面：一方面是表示一定意义的声音或图形，这是一种物理现象；另一方面则是由声音或图形（字）表示的意义，那是一种心理现象，或者说是思维活动的结果和感情流露。 第二节语言的性质 一、语言和言语 瑞士语言学家索绪尔是杰出的代表和集其大成的学者。 他的《普通语言学教程》（1916）开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。 1．什么是语言、言语？ （1）言语：指说话这种行为和说出来的具体的话。 特色：a.具有个人因素（嗓音、用词等）。
语言学复习资料
下定义： 1.IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法) the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.Direct from the external form of syntactic structure, analyze the direct component of the sentence. 2. Endocentric Constructions (向心结构) ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD. 3.Exocentric Constructions (离心结构) EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is funct ionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including：the basic sentence ；the prepositional phrase the predicate (verb + object) construction the connective (be + complement) construction 4.Relations of Position（位置关系） Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/aa7864431.html,positionality组合原则--- a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. 6.Performatives(施为句): Utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/aa7864431.html,ngue（语言）--refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 8.Parole --refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/aa7864431.html,petence: a language user?s underlying knowled ge about the system of rules. 10. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations. 11.Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 12.Bound morphemes--Morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. 13.Variable words(可变化词) --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may
语言学概论试题及答案
一、填空题:（每空1 分，本大题共10 分） 1. （）语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学 走上独立发展道路的标志。 2. 人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制（ 掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 3. 进入20世纪以后，语言研究的主流由历史比较语言学转为 （）。 4. 俄语属于印欧语系的（ 5. 一个音位包含的不同音素或者具体表现出来的音素叫做 （）。 6. 语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是（ 7. 现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于（）字 母。 8. 言外之意之所以能够被理解是因为（）起了补充说明的 作用。 9. 方言在社会完全分化的情况下，有可能发展成（? ）?； 在社会高度统一的情况下，会逐渐被共同语消磨直到同化。 10. 南京方言的“兰”、“南”不分，从音位变体的角度来说，[n ]和[l]是 属于（）变体。 二、单项选择题: 码填在题干上的括号内。（每小题1 分，本大题共15 分）
1. 在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是（） A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”属于（） A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”（） A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是（） A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型（） A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素，“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素，“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 （）
语言学复习资料
下定义 1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics. 2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication. 5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds. 6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. 8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers. 11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement. 12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word. 13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
广州大学_语言学基础2012(学科教学(英语)专业)_考研专业课真题
广州大学 2012年研究生入学考试试题（全日制专业学位硕士） 招生领域：教育硕士 科目名称：语言学基础 科目代码：928 Ⅰ.Define the following terms (4 points each, 20%) 1. functional linguistics 2. minimal pair 3. consonant 4. syntax 5. synonymy Ⅱ. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false (1 point each, 10%) 1. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons. 2. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 3. The part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or a verb phrase is grammatically called predicate. 4. The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph. 5. Human language is arbitrary. 6. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. 7. In most cases, the illocutionary force of “freeze!” is a warning. 8. Linguistics is the course of language. 9. In English, pitch and length constitute intensity which seems to determine stress. 10. Tense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. 1
英语语言学试题及答案
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
语言学概论00541史上最全(吐血整理) 汇总 简单题+名词解释 小抄笔记
27.书面语：书面语是用文字记录的语言形式，它是文字产生或在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。 26.口语：就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式。它是书面产生的基础。 28．语言相关论：语言相关论是萨丕尔和沃尔夫提出的关于语言与思维关系的观点，主张语言决定思维，不同的语言就有不同的思维方式。 29．大脑语言功能临界期：大脑语言功能临界期是指大脑的单侧化，大脑左半球的分区以及语言的遗传机制，都只提供人具有语言能力的潜在可能性，这些潜能必须在一定期限内被一定的语言环境激活才可能起作用。26．语言符号的所指 :语言符号的所指是符号的形式所指的意义内容。 29．机器翻译：通过计算机把一种语言自动翻译成另一种或多种自然语言的信息处理技术。 26.语音：语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。 27.词：词是最小的、有意义的、能够独立运用的语言单位。 28.语用：语用指语言运用，即人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。 29.文字：文字是记录语言的书写符号系统。 27．单纯词：单纯词是由一个构词语素构成的词。 29．屈折：屈折是通过词的内部发生语音的交替变换来改变词的语法意义的手段。 28．意译词：是用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词，把外语中某个词的意义翻译过来。 27.仿译词：是用本族语言的语素逐个对译外语原词的语素造成的词，它不仅把原词的词义翻译过来，而且保持了原词的内部构成方式。 29．主谓词组：两个成分之间具有被说明和说明关系的词组是主谓词组。 27．复辅音：一个音节内处于同一个肌肉紧张的渐强阶段或渐弱阶段上的两个或两个以上辅音的组合。 27.双语现象：某一言语社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象，具体而言是社团内的全体成员或部分成员双语并用的现象。 28.亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言叫亲属语言，亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系。 26．调位：利用音节内的音高差别来起辩义作用的语音单位叫做调位，调位是一种非音质音位，依附在音位的组合序列上。 29.词组：实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群。 28．语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位。 28．词尾：附着在词干后的，能改变词的语法形式，但不能构成新词的语素。 29．语素：音义结合的最小语言单位。 26．词类：词类是词在语法上的分类。它指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。 27．词法：（1）词法主要描写词的形态特征和词形变化规则。例如，俄语的名词在形式上有单数和复数的区别，有阳性、阴性、中性等性的区别，有主格、宾格、属格等格的区别，这些都是典型的词法现象。（2）由于印欧语言中构词单位、构词方式和词类都与词的形态变化相关，因此构词和词类问题也成为词法的一部分。27．语法意义：语法意义是语法形式所体现的意义，是语言中通过一类形式或功能所获得的意义。二者相辅相成，不可分离。如“动词+名词”有动宾关系的意义，汉语所有的同类组合都是如此，这种意义就是一种语法意义。 27.语法形式：语法形式就是能体现表达某种语法意义的形式。表示某一类语法意义或者有共同作用的形式，如词类形式、组合形式、虚词形式，就是语法形式。语法形式不是个别的语音形式和词语形式，但能产生某一类意义或者有共同作用的语音表现形式或者词形变化形式也是语法形式。 27.语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点所归并的语法形式的基本类别叫做语法手段。语法手段可分为词法手段和句法手段两大类。通过词形的变化来表现语法意义的形式是词法手段；通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式是句法手段；例如英语名词后加s表示复数，英语动词后面加ed表示过去时，就是词法手段中的词形变化。 28．自源文字：自源文字指独立发展起来的文字。如古埃及文字、苏美尔文字、汉字，这些文字的形体、体系都是由最早使用该文字的人们独创的。 29．语音合成（1）语音合成是语音信息处理研究中的主要工作。 （2）语音合成就是让计算机模拟人的发音器官的动作并发生类似的声音。如汉语的语音合成目前已初步实现自动生成声韵调结合的音节。 26．句子:句子是词或词组按一定规则组合成的、能表达相对完整的意义、前后有较大停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。 27．异化：语流中两个相同或相近的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得不相同或不相近。
语言学复习资料 精整版
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试与827阅读与写作复习全析(含真题)
2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试与827阅读与写 作复习全析（含真题） 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题，共三册）》由鸿知广大考研网依托多年丰富的教学与辅导经验，组织官方教学研发团队与广州大学优秀研究生共同合作编写而成。全书内容紧凑权威细致，编排结构科学合理，为参加2019广州大学考研的考生量身定做的必备专业课资料。 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题）》全书编排根据广州大学考研参考书目： 1．《语言学纲要》，叶蜚声、徐通锵，北京大学。 2、《现代汉语》（增订版），黄伯荣、廖序东主编，高等教育出版社。 3、《古代汉语》，王力主编，中华书局。 结合提供的往年广大考研真题内容，帮助报考广州大学考研的同学通过广大教材章节框架分解、配套的课后/经典习题讲解及相关985、211名校考研真题与解答，帮助考生梳理指定教材的各章节内容，深入理解核心重难点知识，把握考试要求与考题命题特征。 通过研读演练本书，达到把握教材重点知识点、适应多样化的专业课考研命题方式、提高备考针对性、提升复习效率与答题技巧的目的。同时，透过测试演练，以便查缺补漏，为初试高分奠定坚实基础。 适用院系： 人文学院：语言学及应用语言学、汉语言文字学 资料选购适用科目：
619汉语综合考试（自命题） 本书包括以下几个部分内容： Part 1 - 考试重难点与笔记： 通过总结和梳理《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）、《古代汉语》（王力校订重排本）、《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵北大修订版）各章节复习和考试的重难点，建构教材宏观思维及核心知识框架，浓缩精华内容，令考生对各章节内容考察情况一目了然，从而明确复习方向，提高复习效率。该部分通过归纳各章节要点及复习注意事项，令考生提前预知章节内容，并指导考生把握各章节复习的侧重点。 Part 2 - 教材配套课后/经典习题与解答 针对教材《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）经典课后习题配备详细解读，以供考生加深对教材基本知识点的理解掌握，做到对广大考研核心考点及参考书目内在重难点内容的深度领会与运用。 Part 3 - 名校考研真题详解汇编： 根据教材内容和考试重难点，精选本专业课考试科目相关的名校考研真题，通过研读参考配套详细答案检测自身水平，加深知识点的理解深度，并更好地掌握考试基本规律，全面了解考试题型及难度。 Part 4 - 广州大学历年考研真题： 汇编广大考研专业课考试科目的2014-2017年考研真题试卷，方便考生检查自
大学语言学考试基本题型和大纲要点
I.第一单元 A定义 1Design features of language. The features that define our human languages can be called design features, including arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 2. Functions of language Informative, Interpersonal（maintain social relations）, Performative, Emotive, Phatic communion寒暄语，Recreational，Metalinguistic元语言功能 3.Main branches of linguistics Phonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds语音学 Phonology: the study of speech sounds of a language as a system音系学 Morphology: the internal structures of words形态学 Syntax: the internal structures of sentences.句法学 Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language.语义学 Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context.语用学 B 填空 1 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2 Langue vs parole (Saussure) C 翻译terms D topic Qs 1 Important distinction in linguistics Descriptive (native speakers) vs prescriptive （rules for correct uses of language）studies Synchronic (used at a particular point) vs diachronic studies (changes over time) Langue vs parole (Saussure)--Langue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stable; Parole (speech) is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable Competence vs performance--Competence is the underlying knowledge about one’s language; Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations. Syntagmatic （组合关系）vs paradiamatic relations（聚合关系） Modern linguistics 第二课 QUESTIIONS 1Phonetics (divisions; speech organs;) The three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics: the study of sound production
语言学概论之一语言功能
第一章语言的社会功能 语言的功能与语言学的功用要区分开来。 向外看：交际工具 向内看：思维工具 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言和说话（言语） 句子的数目可以无限。 句子的长度可以无限。（我知道你不知道我知道你不知道……） 无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。 说话的单位是句子，语言的单位是从音位到句子的各级单位。 二、语言是人类社会的交际工具 社会：生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。 没有社会，语言就失去了存在的价值和基础。没有语言，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会解体。 三、语言是人类最重要的交际工具 文字是记录语言的工具，是辅助性的。 旗语，一些代码或标志是在语言文字基础上的交际工具，具有特定的服务领域，如红绿灯之于交通。 表情、身体姿势以及身体距离等也能传达一定的信息，这种信息的不以语言为基础，在交际中也有重要作用，可以补充语言的不足。 当人在谈话时，如果他把双臂抱在胸前，就说明他想要在自己和对方之间设立“障碍”，是一种抗拒的表示。动物式的领地观念仍然存在于人类头脑中，在公共场合人们都会尽量保持“安全距离”。在两个人说话时，如果一个人一只脚前伸，另一个人两脚平放，说明前者处于支配地位，因为他侵入了后者的“地盘”。在饭馆里，人们喜欢背靠墙壁，而面对开阔的位子，是因为他们喜欢“背后被保护”，同时视野开阔，“利于逃跑”。 手语分两种，如果是作为第一语言来使用，比如聋哑人，属于语言；如果只是暂时的方便使用，仍有自己的第一语言，属于辅助语。 第二节语言是思维的工具 萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说认为语言决定思维，但现在一般认为语言与思维是互相独立的，语言是思维的工具，而且是最主要的工具。要注意区分工具和行为本身。作为工具，语言对思维有非常重要的作用。 一、思维离不开语言 一般认为，东亚国家（中日韩）的小孩数学水平要高于欧洲国家，许多人从家庭教育、教学方法等方面找原因。有实验显示这与这些语言的不同的组织数字方式有关：
语言学复习资料
F. De Saussure is considered to be the “father of modern linguistics”. Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Properties of language: Arbitrariness(任意性)the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Duality(二层性)Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Productivity(creativity创造性)Language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Displacement(移位性)This property of human language provides speakers with the opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place. Branches of linguistics Phonetics(语音学) 研究语言，包括语言的产生(发出，传递，感知)，对语音，词语和连 续言语的描写和分类 Phonology(音系/位学) 研究支配语音分布和 排列的规则以及音节的形式 Morphology(形态学/词形学) 内在构造，研 究意义最小的单位-语素和构词过程 Syntax(句法学) 研究产生和理解正确的句 子所遵循的规则 Semantics(语义学) 意义如何在语言中被编 码 Pragmatics(语用学) 在语境中研究意义 Prescriptive(规定式)Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. It tries to lay down rules for “correct” or standard language behavior. Descriptive(描写式)Modern linguistics is descriptive, which means its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. Modern linguistics mainly describes and analyses the facts of language. Synchronic(共时)现代语言学主要是共时性，侧重于现代语言；Diachronic(历时)