Building an annotated corpus in the molecular biology domain
Building an Annotated Corpus in the Molecular-Biology Domain Yuka Tateisi,Tomoko Ohta,Nigel Collier,Chikashi Nobata,Jun-ichi Tsujii
Department of Information Science
Graduate School of Science
University of Tokyo,
7-3-1Hongo,Bunkyo-ku,Tokyo113-0033,Japan
Abstract
Corpus annotation is now a key topic for all ar-eas of natural language processing(NLP)and information extraction(IE)which employ su-pervised learning.With the explosion of re-sults in molecular-biology there is an increased need for IE to extract knowledge to support database building and to search intelligently for information in online journal collections.To support this we are building a corpus of an-notated abstracts taken from National Library of Medicine’s MEDLINE database.In this pa-per we report on this new corpus,its ontologi-cal basis,and our experience in designing the annotation scheme.Experimental results are shown for inter-annotator agreement and com-ments are made on methodological considera-tions.
1Introduction
In the?eld of molecular biology there have re-cently been rapid advances that have motivated researchers to construct very large databases in order to share knowledge about biological sub-stances and their reactions.A large part of this knowledge is only available in unformalized re-search papers and information extraction(IE) from such sources is becoming crucial to help support timely database updating and to help researchers avoid problems associated with in-formation overload.
For this purpose,various NLP techniques have been applied to extract substance names and other terms(Ohta et al.,1997;Fukuda et al.,1998;Proux et al.,1998;Nobata et al.,1999) as well as information concerning the nature and interaction of proteins and genes(Sekimizu et al.,1998;Blaschke et al.,1999;Hamphrays et al.,2000;Thomas et al.,2000;Rind?esch et al.,2000).The nomenclatures of genes and associated proteins for model organisms such as S.Cerevisiae(yeast)and D.Melanogaster (fruit?y)are established so that good dictio-naries for those names have been constructed. However nomenclatures for humans are not yet available as the whole picture of the human genome has yet to be revealed,this results in arbitrary names being used by researchers who identi?ed the structure of proteins and genes, so dictionary-based approaches might not be as e?ective as in the case of model organisms. Thus many of the previous researchers either limit their scope to extracting information on substances like enzymes which have established naming conventions(Hamphrays et al.,2000) or extracting information on‘substance’giving up the distinction between the class of sub-stance like protein and DNA(Fukuda et al., 1998;Proux et al.,1998;Sekimizu et al.,1998; Thomas et al.,2000).
Term identi?cation and classi?cation meth-ods based on statistical learning seem to be more generalizable to new knowledge types and representations than the methods based on dic-tionaries and hand-constructed heuristic rules. We think that a corpus-based,machine-learning approach is quite promising,and to support this we are building a corpus of annotated ab-stracts taken from National Library of Medicine (NLM)’s MEDLINE database.
Corpus annotation is now a key topic for all areas of natural language processing and lin-guistically annotated corpus such as treebanks are now established.In information extraction task,annotated corpora have been made mainly for the judgment set of information extraction competitions such as MUC(Chinchor,1998). We think that technical terms of a scienti?c domain share common characteristics with the “Named Entities”and the tasks we attempt in-
volve recognition and classi?cation of the names of substances and their locations,just as named entity recognition task in MUC conferences.We therefore try to model our annotation task after the de?nition of“EnameX”(Chincor,1998a) of MUC conferences.Unlike in MUC confer-ences,we don’t make a precise de?nition of how the recognized names are used in further infor-mation extraction task such as event identi?ca-tion,because we want the recognition technol-ogy to be independent of the further task.Our work is also compared to word-sense annotation (e.g.,(Bruce and Wiebe,1998))where instances of words that have multiple senses are labelled for the sense it denotes according to a certain dictionary or thesaurus.
We?rst built a conceptual model(ontology) of substances and sources(substance location), and designed a tag set based on the ontology which conforms to SGML/XML https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a69252216.html,-ing the tag set,we annotated the entities such names that appears in the abstracts of research papers taken from the MEDLINE database.In this paper we report on this new corpus,its on-tological basis,and our experience in designing the annotation scheme.Experimental results are shown for inter-annotator agreement and comments are made on methodological consid-erations.
2Design of The Tag Set
2.1Underlying Ontology
The task of annotation can be regarded as iden-tifying and classifying the names that appears in the texts according to a pre-de?ned classi?-cation.F or a reliable classi?cation,the classi?-cation must be well-de?ned and easy to under-stand by the domain experts who annotate the texts.To ful?ll this requirement,we create a concrete data model(ontology)of the biologi-cal domain on which the tag sets are based. Ontologies have been developed in the biomedical sciences for several applications. Such ontologies include conceptual hierarchies for databases covering diseases and drug names. Construction of a more general ontology e.g. (Baker et al.,1999)is being attempted by several groups interested in interconnecting databases under a uniform view.
We start from a taxonomy illustrated in Fig-ure11.In this taxonomy,we classify sub-stances according to their chemical character-istics rather than their biological role.This is unlike other existing ontologies in the biol-ogy?eld(Baker et al.,1999;Schulze-Kremer, 1998),which mix the classi?cation by biological role and by chemical structure.The reason that we have adopted this approach is that we con-sider mixing two criteria prevents the mutually exclusive classi?cation and thus makes the an-notated task more complicated by introducing nested tag structures and context dependent se-mantic tags.In our initial annotation work we therefore chose to simplify the classi?cation by concentrating on the chemical structure. Chemical classi?cation of substances is quite independent of the biological context in which it appears,and is therefore more stably de?ned. For example,the chemical characteristics of a protein can be easily de?ned,but its biological role may vary depending on the biological con-text,e.g.,it may work as an enzyme for one species but a poison for others.Therefore,in our model we do not classify substance as en-zymes,transcription factors,genes,etc.but as proteins,DNAs,RNAs,etc.They are fur-ther classi?ed into families,complexes,individ-ual molecules,subunits,domains,and regions, because these super-and sub-structures often have separate names.This classi?cation is non-controversial among biologists and can be easily expanded into other ontologies.
Sources are biological locations where sub-stances are found and their reactions take place, such as human(an organism),liver(a tissue), leukocyte(a cell),membrane(a sub-location of a cell)or HeLa(a cultured cell line).Organisms are further classi?ed into multi-cell organisms, mono-cell organisms other than viruses,and https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a69252216.html,anism,tissue,cell,sub-locations are interrelated with part-of relation but that relation is not shown in F igure1.Based on this domain model,we annotate the names of pro-teins,DNAs,RNAs,and sources using the tags shown in Table1.
An example of an annotated text is shown in Figure2:the UI number is a unique iden-ti?er of the abstract in MEDLINE assigned by 1In Figure1the concepts represented in bold are re?ected in the tag set and the concepts represented in
italic are re?ected in the attributes.
other
peptide
amino acid monomer
nucleic
RNA
DNA
nucleic acid monomer other polymer of nucleic acid DNA family/group DNA molecule
domain/region of DNA
RNA family/group RNA molecule
domain/region of RNA
substance amino PROTEIN protein family/group protein complex protein molecule protein substructure subunit of protein complex
domain/region of protein
SOURCE
organism
sub-location of cells
multi-cell organism mono-cell organism virus
natural
tissue cell type
cultured
cell line
Figure 1:The taxonomy used as a domain model of our tagging scheme
Table 1:Tags and their target objects tag object
DNA molecules,DNA groups,DNA regions,and genes
DNA molecules,RNA groups,RNA regions,and genes
the names of organisms,tis-sues,cells,sub-locations of cells,and cell lines
the National Library of Medicine,TI is the ti-tle,and AB is the abstract text.The unsure attribute shown in the text is optional.This is used when annotators are unsure about whether a name should be tagged or whether the bound-ary of the tagged name is correct,and when the annotator was sure about the instance of the markup,unsure attribute can be omitted (or can be assigned the value ok ).
3Tagging Task
Before beginning the tagging process we made a preliminary experiment by tagging 100ab-
UI -91012785
TI -
lines:role for unsure=ok>Human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I)-infected T-cell lines
constitutively produce high levels of biologically active unsure=ok>tumor necrosis factor-beta)protein and unsure=ok>LTtranscription by unsure=ok>HTLV-I-positive MT-2cells Figure 2:Example of Annotated Text stracts.The abstracts were 116words long on average.One of the authors,who has a doctor-ate in molecular biology,manually tagged the abstracts.The process took about 40hours.2125proteins,358DNAs,30RNAs,and 801SOURCEs are tagged. Ten abstracts out of the 100were randomly chosen and three other volunteers,two medical science researchers and one biology researcher,were asked to annotate them with our tagging scheme.We gave a brief explanation on the tag-ging task and scheme to each annotator.The annotators were asked to annotate the text in-dependently in one weeks’time. After the annotation was done,we sent a questionnaire to annotators to ask for their com-ments on the tagging task and the guide.F rom the feedback of the questionnaire,we learned that the annotators felt the task to be relatively easy,but there are several cases where the they were unsure about which tags to be assigned where.The cases include: ?where two or more names are conjoined with and or or , e.g.,IRF-1mRNA and protein ?the ambiguity in some papers concerning Table2:The percentage of inter-annotator agreement on10abstracts T1T2T3T4T5T6T7T8T9T10Mean A0-A1100.0069.0538.1882.7669.8183.8774.0783.3388.3191.6777.29 A0-A2100.0060.9866.1367.6580.4972.3172.7390.1184.2171.4376.78 A0-A395.2459.0957.6396.5586.0583.8269.6479.5585.7184.9178.44 A1-A2100.0083.7841.1860.6162.0067.2183.0277.6580.8278.7272.55 A1-A395.2452.5066.6778.5761.5476.5677.7870.7379.7376.4772.76 A2-A395.2451.2847.2763.6485.0076.1285.4582.0283.5665.3873.85 Mean97.6262.7852.8474.9674.1576.6577.1680.5783.7278.1075.85 whether names denote DNAs,RNAs or proteins, The annotators also said that the concrete ex-ample of tagged texts are more useful than descriptions and more examples should be in-cluded in the manual. Two-way agreement rate is scored accord-ing to the scheme used in MUC confer-ences(Chincor,1998b).This scoring scheme uses the F-measure derived from recall and pre-cision.Recall R and precision P are given by: R=|X∩Y|/|X|(1) and P=|X∩Y|/|Y|(2) where X is the set of‘correct’objects and Y is the set of‘retrieved’objects.The F-measure is the harmonic mean of R and P given by F=1/(1/P+1/R)=2×|X∩Y|/(|X|+|Y|) (3) and this F can be used to measure the agree-ment of two sets of objects neither of which are considered‘correct’(note that F is symmetric with regards to X and Y). The F-measures multiplied by100to show the percentage of the agreement between anno-tators for the10abstracts are shown in Table2. In Table2,T1,...,T10denotes the abstracts and A0,...,A3denotes annotators.The ta-ble shows that the agreement rate,comparable to man-machine agreement of systems partici-pated in MUC,is not good for inter-annotator agreement rate.The disagreement indicate that there are several problems in the de?nition of the target and the description in the manual,some of which seem to be speci?c to this do-main2. We investigate into the case of disagreement by aligning the tagged text and examining the disagreed parts by hand.We found that the dis-agreement could be classi?ed into several pat-terns enlisted below.The numbers in the paren-theses in the items are the number of the occur-rence of the disagreement in total10texts.See Table3for examples3. Division(27):The cases where a same part of a text is tagged as one by some annotators but divided into two(or more)parts by others. They were further classi?ed into the following cases. D-1(13)parenthesized abbreviations,full forms,and synonyms D-2(3)appositive phrases D-3(6)names of a substance which includes SOURCE names D-4(2)names of a complex D-5(3)conjoined names Part(60):The cases where a part of phrases is included between P-1(30)the cases where the substances des-ignated by the tagged part are changed by whether the words following a name are tagged together or not:in10cases,dif-ferent tags are used by the annotators;in 2Though it may not be directly compared,inter-annotator agreement for the judgment set of IREX conference on Japanese information extraction(Sekine, 1999)is reported to be around97%in F-measure. 3Attributes are omitted in the examples. Table3:Examples of disagreement Cases Examples D-1 D-2 synthase D-4 D-5 P-1 (di?erent tags) P-1 (same tags) P-2 P-3 housekeeping P-4 transcription factor P-5 Missing 21bp repeats the other20cases,the same tags are used by the annotators. P-2(18)the cases where the substances des-ignated by the tagged part are not a?ected by whether the words following a name are tagged together or not P-3(6)the preceding attributive phrase that narrows the meaning of the phrase P-4(5)the preceding appositive phrase P-5(1)determiners Class(19):The same part of text is tagged with di?erent tags Missing(25):A part of text is tagged by some annotators but not by others The result shows that most of disagreement involves recognizing the names,i.e.,identifying the range of words in sentence that are part of the names.On the other hand,there are rela-tively few cases where classi?cation of the names alone is the problem. The disagreement involving abbreviation and synonym(case D-1)will be simply solved by explicitly giving an instruction as to whether a full form and its abbreviation(or a name and its synonym)should be separated or not.The case of appositives(cases D-2and P-5)and deter-miners are also easy to solve by giving explicit instruction,though the distinction between ap-positives or determiners and other attributive phrases(case P-4)must be carefully stated in the instruction.The cases involving words that follow a name that do not a?ect the substance the name designates(P-2)should be handled similarly with a careful description of such cases in the instruction. The cases that involve the source names(case D-3)and the following words that modify the meaning of the phrase(P-1)are more di?cult, because the names with or without the modi-fying phrases are recognized by the annotators. One solution would be to allow nesting tags,but this might complicate the tagging scheme and be the cause of another type of error.Simple heuristics of‘taking the longest phrase’might work here,but in the case of preceding modi-?ers(P-3)the heuristic is not desirable,because most of the preceding modi?ers are just descrip-tion of a characteristics of a substance. The names tagged by some annotators but not by others(case M)were mostly the terms that describes the parts of a gene as in the ex-ample above,or the terms that denotes a family or a class of substances.Such parts or families are considered to be the‘substance’by some annotators but not by others.Incorporating the distinction between families,individual sub-stances,and parts of the substance would help to make the classi?cation of names clearer and result in more consistent annotation. One of the di?culties of this task compared to MUC named entity extraction is that our targets are inherently unique names of classes, whereas the targets of MUC named entity ex-traction are names of unique entities.When we refer to a speci?c protein or DNA,we don’t refer to a speci?c molecule,but rather a class of molecules that have the same characteris-tics.As the name of a class,when a researcher ?nds a new substance,the substance is often named after the combination of its function,lo-cation,etc.F or example,“B-cell speci?c tran-scription factor”is a name of a protein(there is an entry in the SwissProt database).This re-sults in the di?culty of distinguishing the names of substances from general description of the substance.In cases such as“Human erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase”,some researchers recognize it as a name but some only recog-nize“5-aminolevulinate synthase”as a name and“Human erythroid”as just a description and separate the part as di?erent entity.Also the prenominal modi?ers are recognized or not recognized as a part of the name depending on whether the names with or without the modify-ing phrases are recognized by the annotators. The classi?cation error,though relatively few, also might be from the nature of this domain. Most of the inconsistency are suspected to be from conventional use of the protein names to denote the genes that transcribe the protein. For example,NF-kappa B gene is a name of a gene that transcribe the protein NF-kappa B,and the authors often omit the word gene where they think it is clear from the context that the particular occurrence of NF-kappa B denotes the DNA.This require the annotators good background knowledge and careful read-ing,and sometimes the cause of annotation er-rors.Even the participated annotators,who are quali?ed specialist of the domain,are sometimes unsure about the target,according to the ques-tionnaire.This might be resolved if the full pa-per could be referenced in the process of anno-tation. 4Conclusion and Future Work We are in the process of developing a high-quality tagging scheme for semantic annotation of substances and their sources which play an important role in molecular-biology events.We have shown the results of initial inter-annotator agreement tests using the current scheme.Af-ter the initial experiment,we revised the tag-ging manual to give more precise de?nitions and more examples,and also added attributes to denote the distinction of whether the pro-tein(DNA,RNA)is a molecule,complex,sub-structure,region,etc.We tagged500abstracts according to the revised manual and tagging-scheme,which are in the process of cross-checking and cleaning up the errors.When they are done we plan to make the corpus available to the public along with the tagging manual. Establishing the training process of annota-tors,including communication between anno-tators to get agreement on tagging strategies, which is reported to improve the agreement rate (Dan Melamed,1998;Wiebe et al.,1999)should also be necessary to help them make consist an-notation. One of the concerns that we have is that our target task is more di?cult than the traditional named entity recognition task,because of the naming convention(or the lack of it)of the molecular-biology domain and because the task requires very precise knowledge of the special-ist.To solve this problem,tagging tools that incorporates the reference function to the exter-nal sources such as substance databases,on-line glossaries,and full-text of the paper should also be of great help. 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The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because The way的用法及其含义（二） 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语： 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势，忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中 定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way... “tｈｅwａｙ+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Ｒead the foｌloｗｉnｇpassagｅａnd talkａbout ｉt wi ｔh your classmaｔes．Try tｏｔeｌl whaｔyｏu thiｎk ｏf Tom aｎd ｏｆｔhe ｗay the chiｌｄrenｔrｅated ｈim. 在这个句子中，ｔhe waｙ是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in whｉch的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the ｗaｙ+从句”结构的用法。 1.tｈe wａy之后，引导定语从句的关系词是tｈat而不是hoｗ,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典＞＞中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：Ｔhｉs is ｔｈeｗayｈowｉtｈａppened. This is the way how he ａlwａｙs treats me. 2．在正式语体中,thaｔ可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中，ｔhat则往往省略。由此我们得到theｗay后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) tｈe ｗaｙ＋ｔhａt-从句２）the way +ｉn whiｃh－从句3) the ｗay +从句 例如：Ｔｈe way(in whiｃh ，thａt) ｔhｅｓｅｃomｒade ｓloｏｋａｔｐrobｌems is wrong．这些同志看问题的方法 不对。 Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke. 表示“方式”、“方法”，注意以下用法： 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式，通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如： Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法，其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如： It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句，但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如： 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法： That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看，你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题： ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A，而不选其他几项，则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法，下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示：在一定程度上，从某方面说。如： In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注：in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示：即将来(去)，就要来(去)。如： Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示：在路上，在行进中。如： He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示：(婴儿)尚未出生。如： She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子，现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children，and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了，另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法 The way的用法及其含义（一） 有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年，这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么？其意义如何？在阅读时，学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子，如：No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中，the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是，“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how；第二句的意思是，“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中，the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展，the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面，我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析： 一、the way作先行词，后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如：“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如：“火灾如何发生的，有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started. way 的用法 【语境展示】 1. Now I’ll show you how to do the experiment in a different way. 下面我来演示如何用一种不同的方法做这个实验。 2. The teacher had a strange way to make his classes lively and interesting. 这位老师有种奇怪的办法让他的课生动有趣。 3. Can you tell me the best way of working out this problem? 你能告诉我算出这道题的最好方法吗？ 4. I don’t know the way (that / in which) he helped her out. 我不知道他用什么方法帮助她摆脱困境的。 5. The way (that / which) he talked about to solve the problem was difficult to understand. 他所谈到的解决这个问题的方法难以理解。 6. I don’t like the way that / which is being widely used for saving water. 我不喜欢这种正在被广泛使用的节水方法。 7. They did not do it the way we do now. 他们以前的做法和我们现在不一样。 【归纳总结】 ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，如表示“以……方式”，前面常加介词in。如例1； ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，其后可接不定式to do sth.，也可接of doing sth. 作定语，表示做某事的方法。如例2，例3； t h e-w a y-的用法 The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. way的用法总结大全 way的用法你知道多少，今天给大家带来way的用法，希望能够帮助到大家，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 way的用法总结大全 way的意思 n. 道路,方法,方向,某方面 adv. 远远地，大大地 way用法 way可以用作名词 way的基本意思是“路,道,街,径”,一般用来指具体的“路,道路”,也可指通向某地的“方向”“路线”或做某事所采用的手段,即“方式,方法”。way还可指“习俗,作风”“距离”“附近,周围”“某方面”等。 way作“方法,方式,手段”解时,前面常加介词in。如果way前有this, that等限定词,介词可省略,但如果放在句首,介词则不可省略。 way作“方式,方法”解时,其后可接of v -ing或to- v 作定语,也可接定语从句,引导从句的关系代词或关系副词常可省略。 way用作名词的用法例句 I am on my way to the grocery store.我正在去杂货店的路上。 We lost the way in the dark.我们在黑夜中迷路了。 He asked me the way to London.他问我去伦敦的路。 way可以用作副词 way用作副词时意思是“远远地,大大地”,通常指在程度或距离上有一定的差距。 way back表示“很久以前”。 way用作副词的用法例句 It seems like Im always way too busy with work.我工作总是太忙了。 His ideas were way ahead of his time.他的思想远远超越了他那个时代。 She finished the race way ahead of the other runners.她第一个跑到终点,远远领先于其他选手。 way用法例句 t h e_w a y的用法大全 The way 在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms. 从那天起,其他同学是夹着书本来上课,而他们却带着"失败"的思想负担来上课. The way的用法及其含义（三） 三、the way的语义 1. the way=as（像） Please do it the way I’ve told you.请按照我告诉你的那样做。 I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own.我和你说话就像和自己孩子说话一样。 Plant need water the way they need sun light. 植物需要水就像它们需要阳光一样。 2. the way=how（怎样，多么） No one can imagine the way he misses her.没人能够想象出他是多么想念她！ I want to find out the way a volcano has formed.我想弄清楚火山是怎样形成的。 He was filled with anger at the way he had been treated.他因遭受如此待遇而怒火满腔。That’s the way she speaks.她就是那样讲话的。 3. the way=according as （根据） The way you answer the questions, you must be an excellent student.从你回答问题来看，你一定是名优秀的学生。 The way most people look at you, you'd think a trash man was a monster.从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物。 The way I look at it, it’s not what you do that matters so much.依我看，重要的并不是你做什么。 I might have been his son the way he talked.根据他说话的样子，好像我是他的儿子一样。One would think these men owned the earth the way they behave.他们这样行动，人家竟会以为他们是地球的主人。 一．Way：“方式”、“方法” 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式 Do it (in) your own way. Please do not talk (in) that way. 2.表示做某事的方式或方法 It’s the best way of studying [to study] English.。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. I don’t like the way that he spoke. I don’t like the way in which he spoke.误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4. the way 的从句 That’s the way (=how) he spoke. I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. He did not do it the way his friend did. 二．固定搭配 1. In a/one way：In a way he was right. 2. In the way /get in one’s way I'm afraid your car is in the way， If you are not going to help，at least don't get in the way. You'll have to move－you're in my way. 3. in no way Theory can in no way be separated from practice. 4. On the way (to……) Let’s wait a few moments. He is on the way Spring is on the way. Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way. She has two children with another one on the way. 5. By the way By the way，do you know where Mary lives? 6. By way of Learn English by way of watching US TV series. 8. under way 1. Elbow one’s way He elbowed his way to the front of the queue. 2. shoulder one’s way 3. feel one‘s way 摸索着向前走；We couldn’t see anything in the cave, so we had to feel our way out 4. fight/force one’s way 突破。。。而前进The surrounded soldiers fought their way out. 5.. push/thrust one‘s way（在人群中）挤出一条路He pushed his way through the crowd. 6. wind one’s way 蜿蜒前进 7. lead the way 带路，领路；示范 8. lose one‘s way 迷失方向 9. clear the way 排除障碍，开路迷路 10. make one’s way 前进，行进The team slowly made their way through the jungle. 在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms. “the way+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子： Read the following passage and talk about it with your classmates. Try to tell what you think of Tom and of the way the children treated him. 在这个句子中，the way是先行词，后面是省略了关系副词that 或in which的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the way+从句”结构的用法。 1．the way之后，引导定语从句的关系词是that而不是how,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典>>中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：This is the way how it happened. This is the way how he always treats me. 2. 在正式语体中，that可被in which所代替；在非正式语体中，that则往往省略。由此我们得到the way后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) the way +that-从句2) the way +in which-从句3) the way +从句 例如：The way(in which ,that) these comrades look at problems is wrong.这些同志看问题的方法不对。 The way(that ,in which)you’re doing it is completely crazy.你这么个干法，简直发疯。 We admired him for the way in which he faces difficulties. Wallace and Darwin greed on the way in which different forms of life had begun.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 This is the way (that) he did it. I liked the way (that) she organized the meeting. 3.the way(that)有时可以与how(作“如何”解)通用。例如： That’s the way (that) she spoke. = That’s how she spoke. I should like to know the way/how you learned to master the fundamental technique within so short a time. 4．the way的其它用法：以上我们讲的都是用作先行词的the way，下面我们将叙述它的一些用法。 定冠词the的12种用法 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道?快来一起学习吧。下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道? 定冠词the用在各种名词前面，目的是对这个名词做个记号，表示它的特指属性。所以在词汇表中，定冠词the 的词义是“这个，那个，这些，那些”，可见，the 即可以放在可数名词前，也可以修饰不可数名词，the 后面的名词可以是单数，也可以是复数。 定冠词的基本用法： (1) 表示对某人、某物进行特指，所谓的特指就是“不是别的，就是那个!”如： The girl with a red cap is Susan. 戴了个红帽子的女孩是苏珊。 (2) 一旦用到the，表示谈话的俩人都知道说的谁、说的啥。如： The dog is sick. 狗狗病了。(双方都知道是哪一只狗) (3) 前面提到过的，后文又提到。如： There is a cat in the tree.Thecat is black. 树上有一只猫，猫是黑色的。 (4) 表示世界上唯一的事物。如： The Great Wall is a wonder.万里长城是个奇迹。(5) 方位名词前。如： thenorth of the Yangtze River 长江以北地区 (6) 在序数词和形容词最高级的前面。如： Who is the first?谁第一个? Sam is the tallest.山姆最高。 但是不能认为，最高级前必须加the，如： My best friend. 我最好的朋友。 (7) 在乐器前。如： play the flute 吹笛子 Way用法 A:I think you should phone Jenny and say sorry to her. B:_______. It was her fault. A. No way B. Not possible C. No chance D. Not at all 说明：正确答案是A. No way，意思是“别想！没门！决不！” 我认为你应该打电话给珍妮并向她道歉。 没门！这是她的错。 再看两个关于no way的例句： （1）Give up our tea break? NO way! 让我们放弃喝茶的休息时间？没门儿！ （2）No way will I go on working for that boss. 我决不再给那个老板干了。 way一词含义丰富，由它构成的短语用法也很灵活。为了便于同学们掌握和用好它，现结合实例将其用法归纳如下： 一、way的含义 1. 路线 He asked me the way to London. 他问我去伦敦的路。 We had to pick our way along the muddy track. 我们不得不在泥泞的小道上择路而行。 2. （沿某）方向 Look this way, please. 请往这边看。 Kindly step this way, ladies and gentlemen. 女士们、先生们，请这边走。 Look both ways before crossing the road. 过马路前向两边看一看。 Make sure that the sign is right way up. 一定要把符号的上下弄对。 3. 道、路、街，常用以构成复合词 a highway（公路），a waterway（水路），a railway（铁路），wayside（路边） way/time的特殊用法 1、当先行词是way意思为”方式.方法”的时候,引导定语从句的关系词有下列3种形式： Way在从句中做宾语 The way that / which he explained to us is quite simple. Way在从句中做状语 The way t hat /in which he explained the sentence to us is quite simple. 2、当先行词是time时,若time表示次数时,应用关系代词that引导定语从句,that可以省略; 若time表示”一段时间”讲时,应用关系副词when或介词at/during + which引导定语从句 1.Is this factory _______ we visited last year? 2.Is this the factory-------we visited last year? A. where B in which C the one D which 3. This is the last time _________ I shall give you a lesson. A. when B that C which D in which 4.I don’t like the way ________ you laugh at her. A . that B on which C which D as 5.He didn’t understand the wa y ________ I worked out the problem. A which B in which C where D what 6.I could hardly remember how many times----I’ve failed. A that B which C in which D when 7.This is the second time--------the president has visited the country. A which B where C that D in which 8.This was at a time------there were no televisions, no computers or radios. A what B when C which D thatThe way常见用法
The way的用法及其含义(二)
(完整版)the的用法
“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法
way 用法
The way的用法及其含义(一)
way 的用法
the-way-的用法讲解学习
way的用法总结大全
the_way的用法大全教案资料
the way 的用法
The way的用法及其含义(三)
way的用法
the way的用法大全
“the-way+从句”结构的意义及用法知识讲解
定冠词the的12种用法
Way的用法
way与time的特殊用法