11.文化翻译讲义-文化与翻译关系及文化因素处理
Unit 3 Cultural Translation
Lesson 13 Introduction: Culture vs. Translation
1. W arming-up: Try translating the following
王治奎CE (1999：26-38)
1. 惭愧（不敢当；哪里，哪里）。
2. 欢迎，欢迎（幸会；久仰）。
3. 再会（保重；有空来玩儿）。
4. 请笑纳（别嫌弃；一点意思）。
5. 您太客气（让你破费；不好意思）。
6. 多谢（有劳您了；累您了）。
1. I‘m pleased that you think so. I‘m pleased to hear that. Y ou flatter me. Thank you for your compliment.
2. Glad to meet you. I‘m pleased to see you. It‘s such a pleasure to see you.
3. Good-bye. Take care. See you. Do come again.
4. I hope you will like it. Please accept it.
5. It‘s so lovely! Thank you for the gift.
6. Thanks. Many many thanks. I‘m much obliged.
傅敬民(2005：181-191)
1. Mrs. Smith was born Brown fifty years ago.
2. It was Friday and soon they‘d go out and got drunk.
3. On the first of April, you may send a fool whither you will.
1. 史密斯太太58岁，娘家姓布朗。
2. 星期五发薪日到了，他们马上就会出去喝得酩酊大醉。
3. 在愚人节，你可把傻子送到任何地方去。
2. Culture vs. translation
1) Definition and category
柯平(1993：75-97)
文化的概念
英国人类学家泰勒（Edward Tylor）在《原始文化》（1871）一书中首先定义的文化——―一个复合的整体，其中包括知识、信仰、艺术、法律、道德、风俗以及人作为社会成员而获得的任何其他的能力和习惯‖。简单说来，文化就是某一社会群体的整个生活方式。
文化人类学家们一般把文化划分成四大系统：
①技术——经济系统；②社会系统；③观念系统；④语言系统。
郭著章(1994：169-181)
广义论者认为：文化是个几乎无所不包的大范围、大概念。既有属于物质领域的，也有属于意识形态领域的。据此广义定义，美国著名翻译理论家尤金·奈达将语言文化特性分为五类：1. Ecology生态学；2. Material Culture物质文化；3. Social Culture 社会文化；4. Religious Culture宗教文化；5. Linguistic Culture 语言文化。
2) types
cultural equivalence
cultural overlap: same in referential meaning different in expressions, overlapped in referential meaning
cultural shock: same in denotative meaning(referential meaning or conceptual meaning, cognitive meaning), different in connotative, affective and associative meaning
cultural gap
刘文捷(2004：65-86/87-89)
人类各名族之间既有共性的一面，也有很多充满个性的差异。在跨文化交际中，两种语言所承载的文化特征往往既相互区别，又相互渗透，其对应关系主要表现为完全重叠、部分重叠、文化冲突乃至文化空缺。
一、完全重叠
to be on the thin ice 如履薄冰
to strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁
a bolt from the blue 晴天霹雳
to head a wolf into the house 引狼入室
to fish for praise 沽名钓誉
二、部分重叠
不同民族文化特征的差异体现在语言上便是表达形态的不同。这里，文化特征的部分重叠是指表达相异、但所指相同或相似的语言现象。
1.所指相同，习惯相异
①It was , as Bill afterwards expressed it, ―during a moment of temporary mental apparition‖, but we didn‘t find that out till later.
(From O. Henry, the Ransom of Red chief) 恰如后来比尔说的那样，那阵子简直是“一时鬼迷心窍‖。不过，我们直到后来才明白了这个道理。
这里说的是两个美国流浪汉，一时糊涂想出了绑架儿童的点子，后来才明白自己干了件蠢事。Apparition在源语中是鬼魂或幽灵出现的意思，mental apparition在此相当于汉语中―鬼迷心窍‖，如果保留源语的表达习惯，直译为―心中出鬼‖的话，就很容易引起读者不该有的推测、怀疑甚至误解。
2. 所指相同，角度不同
①He knows the terrain of this locality like the back of his hand.
他对这一带的地形了如指掌。
英汉两个民族在观察同一个事物时，其角度往往不尽相同。同样是以手设喻，英语的视角落在手背上，形容对情况非常清楚，就好像指着自己的手背给人看一样；汉语的视角却落在了手掌心。以身体设喻时，英汉两语的视角也时有差异，如：英语说The children crowd around my feet，汉语则说―孩子们围在膝前‖；又如，英语说laugh till sides ache，汉语则说―笑得肚子疼‖，英语说walk the corridors of power，汉语则说―掌权‖等等。
3. 所指相同，表达各异
①―We might have fine weather for our holiday.‖
―Y es, and pigs might fly!‖
―这次度假可能会碰上好天气。‖
―是呀，太阳还会从西边出来呢！‖
隐喻是人们认知世界的一种方法，不同民族思维方式不同，他们就同一喻义所选喻体也各不相同。该例中，英语民族用―猪会飞‖来喻指不可能发生的事，中国人则用―太阳从西边出来‖来表达同样的喻义。在英汉两语中，指称意义相同而喻体不同的情况还有很多，如：
spend money like water挥金如土
to kill two birds with one stone一箭双雕
to kick down the ladder 过河拆桥
a lion in the way 拦路虎
a black sheep害群之马
三、文化冲突
1. 字面意义相同，深层意义相左
英汉语言中有些表达的字面意义很相近，但受各自文化特性的制约，其深层含义却大相径庭。如：It is a wise father that knows his child.字面上看，似和汉语的―知子莫若父‖如出一辙，意义上显得非常接近。但事实上，这句话想要表达的是―即使做父亲的也不一定了解自己的孩子‖，和汉语的意思正好相反。再如：―骨鲠在喉‖看起来应该是have a bone in one‘s throat的对等语，但其实―骨鲠在喉‖在汉语里是指有话要说，非先吐之而后快；英语里的have a bone in one‘s throat表达的却是不想开口说话，于是就以骨头卡了喉咙作为不愿说话的借口。
2. 字面意思相同，感情色彩相异
例如：individualism，汉译为―个人主义‖。两者看似相同，
但其内涵却大相径庭。类似的例子还有：pragmatism≠实用主义；peasant≠农民；idealism≠唯心主义；conservative≠保守，等等。
3. 表层指称相同，联想意义相异
英语中的phoenix（凤凰）常和―出类拔萃的人；完美之物；死而复生的人或物‖等意思联系在一起。根据埃及的神话传说，在阿拉伯沙漠中生长着一种美丽孤独的不死鸟，每500年自焚为烬，在自灰烬中重生，循环不已，成为永生。而汉语中，凤凰是传说中的百鸟之王，雄为―凤‖，雌为―凰‖，其联想意义主要为―吉祥、罕见而珍贵的人或物‖。如：―凤毛麟角‖、―凤鸣朝阳‖等。
四文化空缺
American Dream——美国梦，指美国人标榜的立国精神，人人自由和机会均等。
Hippie/hippy——嬉皮士，指出现于20世纪60年代后期和70年代初期的颓废派青年，他们信仰和平，反对许多传统生活方式，留长发，实行群居，吸食毒品。
Blue laws——蓝色法规，指禁止星期日逛商店、工作等宗教认为是不道德的世俗活动的法规，等等。
Aunt Jemima——杰迈玛大婶，原为美国商业广告中的黑人厨娘，指对白人俯首帖耳的黑人妇女。
White elephant——指大而不当的东西。传说过去国王为了限制臣子的权利，便送之以白象。一方面，白象昂贵无比，另一方面养活它又要耗费巨大的财力。
练习（见参考译文Ⅱ-5）
将下列句子译成英文：
1 惭愧（不敢当；哪里，哪里）
2 欢迎，欢迎（幸会；久仰）。
3 再会（保重；有空来玩儿）。
4 请笑纳（别嫌弃；一点意思）。
5 您太客气（让你破费；不好意思）。
6 多谢（有劳您了；累您了）。
7 别客气（别见外；没什么）。
8 劳驾（请问；有劳您…）。
9 不见不散啊！
10 恭喜发财！
11 一路顺风！
12 该死！
13 没错。
14 没门儿！
Ⅱ-5
1. I‘m pleased that you think so. I‘m pleased to hear that. Y ou flatter me. Thank you for your compliment.
2. Glad to meet you. I‘m pleased to see you. It‘s such a pleasure to see you.
3. Good-bye. Take care. See you. Do come again.
4. I hope you will like it. Please accept it.
5. It‘s so lovely! Thank you for the gift.
6. Thanks. Many many thanks. I‘m much obliged.
7. Don‘t mention it. It‘s a pleasure. Not at all. Y ou‘re welcome. Never mind.
8. Excuse me…. Could you be so kind as to…Would you please…? May I trouble you…Would you mind…?
9. Please be there on time. Till then. See you.
10. Good luck!
11. Plain sailing. Have a good journey. May the favorable wind accompany you.
12. Damn it!
13. Y ou bet. No mistake. Certainly.
14. No way.
练习（见参考译文Ⅱ-6）
一、下列成语性词语含有比喻，基本意思相同，但比喻的形象在中文和英文中有区别。在英译文的空线上加上适当的词，以完成该习语的翻译。
（1）水中捞月to fish in the_______;
缘木求鱼to seek a hare in a _______‘s nest
（2）大海捞针to look for a needle in a _______stack
（3）一箭之遥at a _____‘s throw
（4）害群之马black_________
（5）守口如瓶dumb as an_________
（6）面如土色as white as a ________
（7）胆小如鼠as timid as a _________
（8）一模一样as like as two ______
（9）蠢得像猪as stupid as a ________
（10）瓮中之鳖like a rat in a _______
（11）天长地久as old as the________
（12）东张西望to look _________and ________
（13）犟得像牛as stubborn as a _______
（14）睡得死沉sleep like a _______
（15）对牛弹琴to cast_______ before ______
（16）一丘之貉______ of a feather
（17）掌上明珠the ________ of one‘s eye
（18）像落汤鸡as wet as a drowned ________
（19）满腹文章have a _________ crammed with knowledge （20）聋得像石头as deaf as a ______
（21）像没头苍蝇as blind as a _______
（22）无风不起浪no _______ without _____
（23）挂羊头卖狗肉cry up _______ and sell vinegar
（24）过牛马一样的生活live a _________ ?s life
二、下面是我国一些古典文学名著的书名的英译，试从文化角度加以评论。
1. 《红楼梦》（曹雪芹著）
(1) Hung Lau Mung or Dreams in the Red Chamber(Tr. Karl
A.F.Gutloff, 1842)
(2) The Dreams of the Red Chamber (Tr. R.Thom, 1842)
(3) The Hung Lou Meng (Tr. H.A.Giles, 1885)
(4) Hung Lou Meng or the Dream of the Red Chamber; A Chamber Notel (Tr. H.B.Joly, 1892)
(5) The Secret of the Red Chamber (Tr. W.A.Cornaby, 1919)
(6) Dream of the Red Chamber (Tr. C.C.Wang, 1929, 1958)
(7) The story of the Stone (Tr. David Hawkes, 1973)
(8) A Dream of Red Mansions (Tr. Y ang Xianyi&Gladys Y ang, 1978)
2. 《水浒传》（施耐庵著）
(1) Water Margin (Tr. J.H.Jackson, 1963)
(2) All Men Are Brothers (Tr. Pearl Buck, 1933)
(3) Outlaws of the Matsh (Tr. Sidney Shapiro, 1959)
3. 《聊斋志异》（蒲松龄著）
(1) Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (Tr. H.A.Giles, 1880)
(2) Liao Zhai Chih Y i (Tr. C.F.R.Allen, 1873-76)
(3) The Chinese Fairy Book (Tr. Richard Wilhelm, 1921)
(4) Chinese Ghost and Love Stories (Tr. Rose Quong, 1946)
4. 《儒林外史》（吴敬梓著）
(1) Y u Lin Wai Shih（徐诚斌译，1940）
(2) The Scholars (Tr. Y ang Xianyi&Gladys Y ang, 1957)
Ⅱ-6
一、
(1)air,hen (2)hay (3)stone (4)sheep (5)oyster (6)sheet (7)hare (8)peas (9)goose (10)hole (11)hills (12)left and right (13)mule
(14)log (15)pearls,swine (16)birds (17)apple (18)rat (19)mind
(20)post (21)bat (22)smoke,fire (23)wine (24)dog
二、（omitted）
3) Interaction between culture and translation
温秀颖(2001：192-194, 199-200)
原语文化对翻译的影响。
打起黄莺儿，
莫教枝上啼；
啼时惊妾梦，
不得到辽西。
（唐：金昌绪《春怨》）译文1：Oh, drive the golden orioles
From off our garden tree!
Their warbling broke the dream wherein
My lover smiled to me.
(Tr. Fletcher)
译文2：Drive the orioles away,
All their music from the tree…
When she dreamed that she went to Liao-hsi
To join him there, they wakened her.
(Tr. Bynner)
译文3：Drive orioles off the tree,
For their songs awake me.
From dreaming of my dear,
Far off on the frontier.
(Tr. Xu Y uanchong)
译语文化对翻译的影响。孔慧怡在《翻译·文学·文化》一书中指出：―过去中国的翻译研究，一直以语言分析和文本对照为主要任务，很少涉及翻译活动如何在主体文化（即译语文化，编者注）里运作的问题。‖然而一个不争的事实是，主体文化对翻译活动具有极大的制约，甚至起决定作用。具体表现在：①影响翻译选材的决定；②影响对原作的理解；③影响翻译方法（如直译、译语；异化、归化等）及策略（如小说译剧本；诗歌译散文等）的选择；④影响对译作的评价（共时的，即翻译作品问世前后的评价；历时的，即翻译作品的历史地位评价）。认识不到这一点，或对其认识不足，就无法解释翻译实践中的诸多客观存在，能够说明此论不假的例子可以说数不胜数，最有名的一个莫过于大卫·霍克斯在翻译《红楼梦》时将―红‖该―绿‖之举了。为了进一步说明这一问题，我们再来看孔慧怡举的《福尔摩斯探案集·海军密约》中的一个例子：
she was a striking looking woman, a little short and thick for symmetry, but with a beautiful olive complexion, large dark Italian eyes, and a wealth of deep black h air. … ―The Adventure of the Naval Treaty‖
译文1：安娜貌颜昳丽，肤色雪白，柔腻如凝脂，双眸点漆，似意大利产。斜波流媚，轻盈动人，而鬓发压颜，厥色深墨，状尤美观，形体略短削，微嫌美中不足。（《海军密约》，程小青译）
译文2：见其身矮而壮，面如橄榄，睛黑如意大利人，发黑如漆，面色如霞。（《英包探勘盗密约案》，张德坤译）原文中描述的是一个性格坚强的南欧美人，她的容貌和英语文化中坚强女性的外在特征是一致的，但在译文1中，她变成了典型的中国式美女：皮肤雪白细腻、体态娇小、额前于刘海，对比一下曹雪芹笔下的美女：―不一时，只见三个奶妈并五六个丫鬟，拥着三位姑娘来了。第一个肌肤微丰，身材合中，腮凝新荔，鼻腻鹅脂，温柔沉默，观之可亲……‖她们何等相似啊。而在译文2中，她则变成一个粗笨的女人，无论如何在中国读者的心目中也无法产生美女的联想，对于这种译文产生的原因，孔慧怡分析道，这种情况的产生有两种可能性：第一，是译者本人完全受到中国传统文化对女性所定的规范限制，根本看不出原著的描写有独特的地方；第二，是译者虽然了解原著所写的女性特色，却也同时理解到，他的目标语读者并没有接受这种特色的文化背景，因此决定作出翻译上的文化转移，这一分析清楚地说明，在翻译实践中，译入语文化在自觉或不自觉地影响译者的翻译抉择。
3. Strategies to deal with culture in translation
1) Strategies
陈秋劲(2005：90-106)
A.归化的理由
根据郭建中（2000）分析，在采取归化策略时，译者主要基于以下几个理由：
1.一般说来，把源语的语言规范强加给目的语是不现实的；同样，把源语的文化体系强加给目的语文化也是不现实的。
2.文化冲突会导致各种形式的误解，所以，译者在将一种文化移植到另一种文化中去的时候，应该仔细权衡，避免可能引起文化冲突的做法。
3.如果译文表达的内容和形式在译语读者的知识范围以内，无疑可以使读者更好地理解译文。
4.不应对译语读者的想象力和接受能力期待过高，强行要求译语读者理解源语作者的世界；译者应对源语的文化模式进行调整和规范，尽可能地使它接近译语读者的文化现实。
5.在一种文化中有效的方式，在另一种文化中不一定就同样有效。在翻译中，即使保留了原文的全部形式和内容，也不等于译语的读者能得到和原文读者相同的感受，因为译语读者在理解时往往会从自己的文化视角出发。
归化的例子
例1 天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。
译文The weather and human life are both unpredictable.
B.异化
catch-22 第二十二条军规
the stick and the carrot 大棒加胡萝卜的政策
win-win situation 双赢局势
crocodile tears 鳄鱼的眼泪
异化的可行性
目前仍然有不少人担心英语的读者无法理解和接受某些中国文化特有的现象，这实际上是一个认识的误区。典型的例子是―龙‖的联想意义，传统认为，龙在中国人的心目中是神圣、高贵、强大的象征，而在西方人的眼里，龙是凶残、邪恶的怪物。但如果我们看一下好莱坞的影片Shrek（《怪物史莱克》），看守城堡的巨龙是一个睫毛长长、含情脉脉的形象，为了寻找自己所爱的驴子不惜长途跋涉。2001年，美国的库伯·肯尼安出版公司出版了一本中国古代诗词的翻译集，书名就是Silk Dragon（《丝龙》），其中的意图十分清楚：丝绸和龙都是中国文化身份的象征。
异化的例子
对句子的翻译问题可能更为复杂一些，但很多源语文化中特有的表达是可以直接翻译过去的，不会造成理解的困难。
例1Too many cooks spoil the broth.
译文厨子多了煮坏汤。
例2 A stitch in time saves nine.
译文及时缝一针，可以顶九针。
例3We don‘t like others to see our dirty laundry.
译文脏衣服不给外人看。
例4这就又应了那句老话，强龙斗不过地头蛇。
译文It is as the old saying goes—the powerful dragon is no match for the snake crawling on the ground.
例5一个好汉也要三个帮，一个篱笆也要三个桩。荷花虽
好，也要绿叶扶持。
译文An able fellow needs the help of three other people; a fence needs the support of three stakes. With all its beauty, the lotus needs the green of its leaves to set it off.
例6那时，周喻是个―青年团员‖，当东吴的统帅，程普等老将不服，后来说服了，还是由他当，结果打了胜仗。
译文Zhou Y u, who was old enough to be a member of the so-called Y outh League, was appointed commanding general of the Wu army. Cheng Pu and other battle-seasoned generals protested but were later persuaded into accepting his command, and in the end, the battle was won.
文内补偿和文外补偿
在异化的策略下，我们有文内补偿和文外补偿两种做法，文内补偿是在文内添加解释性成分，不借助注释。
例1太祖母的三寸金莲憋足了力气，咚咚就是两下。这两句总结性的批判在我们后背扯开了一道缝隙，八百里冷风直往里头飕。（《祖宗》）
译文Great-Grandmother‘s tiny three-inch bound feet—her golden lotus—must have burst with energy as they kicked out twice, decisively opening a crack behind us as a cold wind blew in from eight hundred miles around.(Tr. John Balcom)
文外补偿是在文内直接带入源语的文化形象，在文外加注释。
例2Y et, as plastic has become more dominant, the backlash against it has grown visceral and vehement. The very endurance for which plastic was celebrated now haunts it. It is the ―Rasputin of modern materials,‖ says Fenichell. ―Y ou can break it, chop it, dice it, shred it, burn it, and bury it, but still it refuses to die.‖
The Molding of the World Time 译文然而随着塑料的日益普及，反对它的呼声也越来越强烈。曾使塑料声名大振的耐久性现在成了困扰它的问题。芬妮切尔形容塑料是―现在材料中的拉斯普延‖，他说, ―你可以将它砍断、切碎、烧毁、埋掉，可它仍然不会消失。‖
拉斯普延（1871~1916）是俄国的宗教狂，以顽固著称。
例3 ―我们绍生可用功拉，还是两倒杠呢，年年考试得奖状。‖（梁晓声《黑纽扣》）
译文―Our Shaosheng studies very hard,‖ Mother puts in, ―and he wears two dashes.He gets a certificate of merit every year.‖
Two dashes is one of the three signs indicating a leader in the Y oung Pioneer, an organization for superior students at primary school. (Translator‘s note)
例4 ―你胸中根本就没有竹子，怎么画竹子？‖
―问题是胸有成竹也未必能当官，我看当官也就是撞大运。‖
―幼稚。‖（张欣《流年》）
译文―If you don‘t have a bamboo in mind, how can you paint it?‖
―The point is that having a bamboo an mind doesn‘t necessarily make one a good official. In my opinion, being an official means trying one‘s luck.‖
―Don‘t be childish.‖
―have a bamboo in one‘s mind‖ is a Chinese proverb meaning having a well-thought-of plan. (Translator‘s note)
C.不译
翻译是翻译原文的意义，不译就是布进行原文的翻译，音译词就是不译。不译并非不能译，而是异化的极端体现。在某些特殊情况下不译比翻译更为合适，更有效果。各国的词汇都不乏不译的例子。比如汉语中的CEO, MTV, E-mail, CPU, DVD, BP机；英语中的bonsai（盆景），tofu（豆腐）, mahua（麻花）等。杜争鸣（2000）认为，与直译、意译相比，不译的文化含义更为明显。它表明，任何一种名族文化现象，既是该名族特有的，又是人类所共有的。各名族的文化可以相互移植、融合，从而形成全球主义文化观。语言与文化一样，都是开放的系统，都具有自由的包容性和重组的可能性。最近几年，翻译圈内不译的倾向开始凸显，不译的例子明显增多。这种趋势和提倡异化的呼声有直接关系，同时通俗文化的影响在某种程度上也起了推波助澜的作用，比如流行歌曲中常常夹杂着外来词汇，这种做法在电视剧《网虫日记》的片头曲中表现得十分典型：烦了的时候我会email你，email你
大家一起联网打游戏，打游戏
Game over了我会安慰你，安慰你
Internet是我们永远的栖息地……
失恋的朋友请你看着我，看着我，
我的性格够不够http!
2) Some Basic Translating Methods
成昭伟（2006：81-）
The Treatment of Cultural Components in Translation According to Newmark,
Most culture-specific words are easy to detect, since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated, but many cultural customs are described in ordinary language, where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive- functional equivalent.
That is to say, as is often the case, the translator has to make appropriate adaptation in his treatment of cultural components.
Generally speaking, a translator may take the following methods into consideration in a concrete cross-cultural situation：
A. Literal Translation
（1） This small country has long been regarded as a Trojan horse in southeast Asia by its master.
很久以来，人们一直把这个小国家看作其主子安置在东南亚的一具特洛伊木马。
（2） To say the truth, so Judas kist his master. And cried, “all hail!”when as he meant all harm.
说老实话，我这一吻，好比犹大吻耶稣，口里喊“祝福”，心里说“叫你遭殃”。
（Though 特洛伊木马and 犹大吻耶稣are allusions of Western origin，they are not something strange to most educated Chinese now.）
The truth is that cultural distinctiveness clings very close to words. In fact, the cultural contexts of words are the keys to understanding the meanings of texts, even as the syntagmatic verbal contexts of words are the keys to understanding the meanings of words in a source text. Below are some more examples with surface similarity but actual cultural differences in illustration of ―faux amis‖(false friends) or cultural ―traps‖ in translation:
(1)child’s play≠儿戏
（The English expression is used to indicate”something very easy to do “or “something not very important”.However, the Chinese means”to do something rather carelessly”.）
(2)to eat one’s (own) words≠自食其言（食言自肥）
（In English, if one has to “eat his words”, he retracts them in a humiliating manner. So the idiom means “to be forced to take
back one’s words, usually accompanied by a sense of humiliation”. An example: After all his boasting that he would drive the other company out of business, Mr. Angus had to eat his own words for the other company flourished more than his did. [安格斯先生曾大言不惭地吹嘘要把另一家公司挤垮，但那家公司却比他们还要兴旺，他只好惭愧地承认前言有失。]
The latter, the Chinese, means“to go back on one’s word; i.e. to break one’s promise. Mao Zedong once wrote,蒋先生不但食言自肥，而且还派遣四五十万军队包围边区……That is to say, Chiang Kaishek not only broke his promise, but adopted some mean hostilities. However, the meaning is seriously distorted in the following version: Mr. Chiang Kaishek has not only eaten his words, but he has gone so far as to…Mr.Chiang admitted his mistakes shamefacedly? What a slip！）
（3）out of sight, out of mind≠眼不见，心不烦。（cf.眼不见，容易忘。）
（4）A miss is as good as a mile≠差之毫厘，谬以千里。（cf.错误在小也是错，死里逃生也是生。）
（5）Beggars are no choosers. ≠饥不择食。（cf.无权选择。）（6）Lock the stable door after the horse has been stolen. ≠亡羊补牢，未为晚矣。（cf.亡羊补牢，为时已晚。）
（7）Once bitten, twice shy. ≠一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。（cf.吃一堑，长一智。）
B. Annotation
1）Transliteration plus a generic word or some explanatory words, e.g.
(1)Aids—艾滋病
(2)Benz—奔驰车
(3)pizza—比萨饼
(4)hamburger—汉堡包
(5)sauna—桑拿浴（源于芬兰的一种蒸气浴）
(6)气功—qigong(a system of deep breathing exercises)
(7)太极拳—taijiquan(a kind of traditional Chinese shadow boxing)
(8)磕头—kowtow(to kneel, touching the ground with the forehead, as a token of homage or deep respect among the Chinese)
2) Literal translation plus a footnote or an endnote, a note for reference at the foot of a page or at the end of an article.
(1) Of twelve adults adept at polysyllabic discourse who were polled recently, only three declared they could say February correctly, that is to pronounce the first as well as the second r…So February, not April, is the cruelest month. Thank Heaven it is now March.(New Y ork Times)
最近一次民意测验表明，在十二个擅长多音节词发音的成年人当中，只有三个声称可以正确地读出“二月”（February）一词，即能发好第一个和第二个r音……因此，应该说最残酷的月份是二月而不是四月。谢天谢地这会儿已经到了三月。
(The underlined line involves an allusion from T. s. Eliot‘s poem‖ The Waste Land‖, which begins with ―April is the cruelest month…‖Here a note is needed to make up for the semantic loss in its literal translation:
出自爱略特的长诗《荒原》中的开篇诗行：“四月是最残酷的月份……”，原诗描述了四月对万物产生的近于残酷的催生作用。此处为典故活用。）
（2）庆父不死，鲁难未已。战犯不除，国无宁日。这个真理，难道现在还不明白吗？（毛泽东《南京政府向何处去？》）“Until Ching fu is dong away with , the crisis in the state of Lu will not be over.‖ Until the war criminals are eliminated there will be no peace in the country. Isn‘t this truth clear enough now?
(Who is 庆父？What is his relationship with 鲁难？If the allusion is rendered literally without offering any background knowledge to its Western readers, the rich historical connotation here can hardly be fully appreciated by them. Hence a note: According to Tso Chuan, an ancient Chinese historical work dealing with the important events of the S pring and Autumn Era [770B. C.-476B. C.] Ching Fu, a noble in the state of Lu, repeatedly stirred up internal strife and murdered two reigning princes of the state. The saying in the text was then current among the people of Lu, and Ching Fu‘s name has since become a byword for those who stir up internal strife.)
C. Contextual Amplification
(1) It was Friday and soon they would go out and get drunk. (J.Braine: Room at the Top)
星期五发薪日到了，他们马上就要上街去喝个酩酊大醉（In Britain salary is paid weekly, usually on Friday. A Chinese reader who is unaware of this might wonder what Friday means on earth to the people in the statement.）
(2) V asco da Gama and Columbus enlarged the world and Copernicus enlarged the heavens.(Reader’s Digest)
达·伽玛绕好望角抵达印度，哥伦布西行发现新大陆，从而世界为之扩大；哥白尼创立“太阳中心学说”，从而宇宙为之扩大。
(Needless to say, such a version is satisfactory to most Chinese readers because the additional historical information facilitate their correct understanding.)
Sometimes a tag phrase or comment that brings out the wit or humor may be added directly after a literal translation of Chinese sayings. Consider:
(1) 盲人瞎马—blind man on a blind horse—rushing headlong to disaster.
(2)赔了夫人又折兵—give one’s enemy a wife and lose one‘s soldiers as well—suffer a double loss instead of a gain.
(3)一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃—a Chinese saying about monks fetching water: One monk, two buckets; two monks, one bucket: three monks, no bucket, no water —more hands less work done.
As for the last saying, one might add,‖ this is somewhat like the English ?too many cooks spoil the broth‘.‖ Indeed, a tag phrase is often most effective if there is one ready made in English.
D. Paraphrase
(1) It‘s not easy to become a member of that club —they want people who have plenty of money to spend, not just every Tom, Dick and Harry.
要加入那个俱乐部可不容易—他们要的是有钱的阔佬，不是一般老百姓。
（“Tom”, “Dick”and “Harry”are used to refer to common British and American names. Here they are used to refer to common people. If they are rendered literally into 汤姆，迪克and 哈里，a Chinese reader may take them for three persons instead of a specific expression.）
(2)He‘s all thumbs, not fit for the job.
他笨手笨脚的，干不了这活。
（“All thumbs”is an idiom created bu an ancient English writer, who once said, “Ah, each finger today is a thumb, I think,”Here it refers to a clumsy person.）
(3) 春风杨柳万千条，六亿神州尽舜尧。（毛泽东《送瘟神》）
Spring winds move willow wands, in tens of millions;
Six hundred million we shall all be sage-kings! (Tr. Arthur Cooper)
(舜and 尧in this poem are two worthy kings in ancient China, and the term 舜尧has long been a symbol of able and virtuous persons in the country. Needless to say, the transliteration of such a term, i. e. Y ao and Shun, would sound rather strange to naive speakers of English .Even though a note is added, there is still a feeling of scratching an itch from outsid e one‘s boot. Cooper wisely paraphrases the term, which gives expression to his high degree of intercultural awareness.)
E. Shift of Perspective
(1)“狗不理”（包子）”Dog Won’t Leave”(cf. *Dog Won’t Follow Its Master)
(2)他们是连襟。Their wives are sisters.
(3)Blossom Jackson will never forget that November night when at ten minutes to nine her sister-in-law pounded on the door of her small Brooklyn house screaming, ―They have killed Jackson.‖
布劳森?杰克逊永远忘不了那天晚上的情景。那是十一月份的一个晚上，差十分九点，孩子他姑在纽约布鲁克林区他们的小小住宅前使劲敲门，一面喊道：“他们把杰克逊打死了。”33 （From the very term”sister-in-law”, it is very difficult for one to tell whether she is Jackson’s younger or elder sister. The translator ingeniously solves the kinship problem from the child’s angle.）
F. Adaptation
Adaptation here refers to the translation procedure where the translator replaces a social cultural from the SL with a reality specific to the culture of the TL in order to accommodate the expectations of the target audience. Examples are:
(1)‖We might have fine weather for our holiday.‖
“Y es, and pigs might fly!‖
“这次度假可能会碰上好天气.”
“是呀，太阳还会从西边出来呢！”
(Westerners generally use the saying “pig might fly”to suggest something impossible. Interestingly, a ready in Chinese is 太阳从西边出来。Thus adaptation is a relevant approach here.)
(2)‖Jack has been sentenced to t here years‘ imprisonment.‖
“Give a dog a bad name.‖
“杰克被判处三年徒刑。”
“欲加之罪，何患无辞呢。”
（”To give a dog a bad name”is an English idiom, which means “to force one a bad reputation that can never be washed away”. It chance that in Chinese there is a similar idiom 欲加之罪，何患无辞，hence we can borrow it here and let the original image “dog”alone. After all ,the literal translation 这下可给了这条狗一个坏名声sounds rather absurd to most Chinese readers , who tended to regard the dog as a necessary evil.）
(3)想是翟家着奴才，走下乡狐假虎威着实恐吓了他一场。（吴敬梓《儒林外史》第一回）
It‘s all the fault of his rascal Chai. He goes down to the villages like a donkey in a lion’s hide, and he must have scared this painter fellow out of his wits. (Tr. Y ang Xianyi & Gladys Y ang)（Here 狐假虎威becomes “like a donkey in a lion’s hide”, and both expressions actually mean “(to) bully people by flaunting one‘s powerful connections‘‘. The version can be easily understood by Westerners because in their own culture it is the lion that is called ―the king of beats‖symbolizing courage and power while a donkey is generally viewed as a low form of life, foolish and stubborn. Thus the translator doesn‘t have to take much trouble in introducing the Chinese fable here. The version and the original are different in approaches, but are equally satisfactory in result.
One thing we must bear in mind here, however, is that the cultural flavor of TL must be somewhat weaker than that of the SL; otherwise a version might offer its reader an absurd feeling of anachronism. Consider the following example:
(1) ―How could our John fall in love with such a girl?‘‘ Mrs. Taft was surprised.
―Why not? Beauty lies in the lover’s eyes, as the saying goes.‖
*塔夫托太太感到惊讶，“我们的傻约翰怎么会爱上这样一个女孩子呢？”
塔夫托先生温和地笑道：“有啥大惊小怪的？俗话说得好，情人眼里出西施嘛。”
（Is there also a 西施in the English world? If not, is Mr. Taft so learned that he knows the Chinese allusion fairly well? When a Chinese reads the version, most likely he or she will put forward such question. To avoid the so-called culture shock, we had better change 西施here into a general term, such 美人。）
(2) 大伯笑呵呵地对我说：“我们北方人都喜欢睡炕，你也讲究点儿吧。俗话说，‘入乡随俗’嘛。”
*Uncle said to me smilingly, ―We northerners like to sleep on our kangs. Y ou will have to put up with it.. As the proverb goes, ?do as the Romans do‘ ‖.
(Seeing the version above, a Westerner must feel rather surprised at the fact that even a Chinese rural uncle is so familiar with his native proverb, Here 入乡随俗can be rendered into ―do as the local people do‖.)
So far we have discussed several basic translating methods with emphasis on cultural content. Though the discussion is carried out separately, the practice is often synthetic and complicated. Nothing in the world is immutable and a translator should never stay in a rut in his job. He must proceed from the concrete cross-cultural situation and adopt the most appropriate method so as to decide whether or how to establish cultural equivalence between the source text and the target text. As Newmark observes:
There are no cast-iron rules in translation. Everything is more or less. There is an assumption of ‘normally’ or ‘commonly’ behind each well-established principle; as I have stated earlier, qualifications such as ‘always’, ‘never’, ‘must’ do not exist—there are no absolutes.
成昭伟（2006：81-）
Alienation and Naturalization
It is absolutely clear that translation is not a matter of words only, but that it is a matter of making intelligible a whole culture. In fact, all approaches to cultural components in translation may fall into two main strategies: SL culture-oriented and TL culture-oriented, or rather, alienation and naturalization, though a compromise solution is often required. Accordingly, there appear two quite opposite schools of the thought.
Alienation
As a strategy of translating, alienation means taking the reader
over to the foreign culture, making him see the cultural differences. Rather than leaving ―the reader in peace as much as possible,‖ and ―moving the author towards him,‖ thus naturalizing what is foreign, the translator should in the German philosopher and translator Friedrich Dchleiermacher‘s (1768-1834) opinion leave ―the author in peace, as much as possible,‖ and ―move the reader towards him.‖A translation should therefore sound ―foreign‖ enough to its reader for that reader to discern the workings of original language that expresses the language game, the culture of which the original was a part, shining through the words on the translated page.
As Schlciermacher‘s counterpart, the American scholar Lawernce Venuti differences between foreignising and domesticating as two main strategies of translating. He is very much in favor of the former because it promises ―a greater openness to cultural differences, whether they are located abroad at home (and)they may thus well be worth the risks.‖ He complains that
the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target language, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslated. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original.
In a word, this school insists that the ―otherness‖of the SL culture be highlighted in the target text.
Naturalization
Naturalization, on the other hand, means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Supporters of such a strategy hold that whatever is strange, difference or ―other‖ has to be naturalized into the target language and culture so that it is immediately understandable and acceptable. According to them, translation means producing a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees.
Nida can be said to be a representative figure of the school. In 1964, he put forward a famous definition ―dynamic equivalence‖(―functional equivalence‖later), which has been treated in terms of the ―closest natural equivalent‖. According to him, what is important in translation is the extent to which receptors correctly understand and appreciate the translated text, that is, ―readers‘ response‖. Then, what is an ideal equivalent? The answer he gives is ―functional isomorphs‖. His argumentation reads thus:
Isomorphs are only an extension of the semiotic concept of iconicity, matters of likeness.
We may define functional isomorphs on the basis of the means for accomplishing essentially the same results within different systems. This means that for the English idiom to hit the celling Spanish may employ tomar elcielo en las manos, literally, ―to take the sky in the hands.‖Similarly，for the English expression to grow like mushrooms it appropriate in Chinese to talk about “growing like bamboo shoots.”
From such a perspective, Nida concludes that as far as a concrete cultural problem is concerned, literal translation might be a flimsy idea. He says:
Those who insist on literal translation are likely to produce some cultural howlers. In translating a very sensitive poem in Indonesian about seeking truth in the context of Islam, a translator produced in English a literal rending of the original, namely, ―groping about under the green blouse‖. In the original text the phrase the green house referred to Islam, but English readers saw only erotic implications in the statement.
To naturalize the cultural content of the original, most producers of this type translation will take the French translator Gaspard de Tende‘s(1618-1697)advice:
If you want to make a good translation, then you must not only make everybody speak according to their habits and inclinations, but you must also see to it that the way they express themselves is rendered in simple and natural terms, which have already passed into current usage.
Once we begin to naturalize, however, we realize that we can not just stop at words. Rather, as the French translator Nicolas parrot d‘Ablancourt (1660-1664) puts in what is probably the first statement of the well-known principle of ―dynamic equivalence‖:
I do not always stick to the author’s, nor even to his thoughts. I keep the effect he wanted to produce in mind, and then I arrange the material after the fashion of our time. Different times do not just require different words, but also different thoughts, and ambassadors usually dress in the fashion of the country they are sent to, for fear of appearing ridiculous in the eyes of the people they try to please.
In brief, this school holds that the essence of translating lies in establishing cultural equivalence. As the Austrian scholar Michele kaiser-cooke uncompromisingly claims:
Translation is … a process of conceptual restructuring within the conventions of the target culture. Culture knowledge in this broad sense is the very essence of translatorial expertise and it is this that translators base their decisions on….What people say and how they say it is culturally determined, on the very fundamental cognitive level, which means that conceptual and semantic restructuring is always necessary.
A dispute between the two schools
Thus there appear two different points of view concerning the treatment of cultural components in translation, namely, alienation and naturalization. Which is preferable? Both sides raise sufficient reasons to defend their own preference.
Those who are in favor of alienation adduce the following reasons:
1.it is quite necessary to cultivate TL
readers’ cross-cultural awareness, that is,
an awareness of the otherness and differences
of others, or rather, of foreign cultures in
all their complexity;
2.owing to their wisdom and imagination, TL
readers do possess the capacity for noticing
and consequently, for understanding and
tolerating the otherness of forging cultures
and their literary products;
3.alienation can promote open-mindedness
beyond one’s own cultural border,
contributing to a better understanding
between different people;
4.if a translating fails to make intelligible
SL cultural phenomena, it is not “faithful
to the original”.
The school of naturalization, correspondingly, also brings forward some seemingly valid reasons:
1.alienated translations generally fail to
anticipate the ground on which the target
text will fall, that is, they “forget” the
target receptor and his specific background.
This is why such translations do not serve to
develop an understanding between cultures.
They cannot be described as representing
responsible translational actions either;
2.generally speaking, most target addressees
expect to read a text in a recognizable,
familiar form;
3.translating means communicating. To achieve
a better understanding between cultures,
translators must take into account texts’
“communicative value”and pay more
attention to “readers’ response”. In other
words, they should strive to transmit an
image of the source culture to the target
receptors
4. that corresponds to the image the source
culture would claim for itself;
5.though those exotic translations meet an
existing demand, the way they are usually
done does not transmit anything like the
image of the source cultures, but rather
fosters existing stereotypes and prejudices
among the target public.
Comments in the two strategies
The question of how one should translate has been asked again and again, and it has been answered differently in the literature. The dispute on alienation and naturalism, as a matter of fact, goes hand in hand with the following seemingly contradictory alternative demands made of translation which have been summarized and stated in the form of simple juxtapositions by the British scholar Savory:
1. a translation must give the words of the original;
2. a translation must give the ideas of the original;
3. a translation should read like an original work;
4. a translation should read like a translation;
5. a translation should reflect the style of the original;
6. a translation should possess the style of the translation;
7. a translation should read as a contemporary of the
original;
8. a translation should read as a contemporary of the
translation;
9. a translation may add to or omit form the original;
10. a translation may never add to or omit from the original;
11. a translation of verse should be in prose;
12. a translation of verse should be in verse.
These juxtapositions, together with the dispute on alienation and naturalization, actually suggest that the translator is in the middle of two demands that seem almost impossible to reconcile. As a scholar by the name of G. Week says:
On one side, the author calls out to him (the translator): respect my property, don‘t take anything away form me, and don‘t attribute anything falsely to me. On the other side, the audience demands: respect out taste, give us only what we like and how we like it.
Commenting on the two main translation strategies, we should realize that the dispute itself is valueless when we wish to fulfill the two aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy. Translation calls on a theory in action; the translator reviews the criteria for the various options before he makes his selection as a procedure in his translating theory does is, first, to identify and define a translation problem (no problem, no translation theory!); second, to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem; third, to list all the translation procedures; finally, to recommend the most suitable translation procedure, pulse the appropriate translation. Translation theory is pointless and ster ile if it doesn‘t arise from actual problems. In practice if not in profession, both strategies may be justified in their own right if we take into account the following four factors: (a) the type of texts; (b) the significance of cultural flavor in the source text; (c) the purpose of translation; and (d) the readership.
1. the type of texts
According to Karl Buhler (1879-1963), a famous German linguist, the three main functions of language are the expressive, the informative—he called it ―representation‖—and the vocative (―appeal‖) functions: these are the main purposes of using language.
The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. For the purpose of translation, we think the characteristic ―expressive‖ text-types include:(a) serious imaginative literature; (b) authoritative statements; (c) autobiography, essays, personal correspondence.
The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. The format of an informative text is often standard: (a) a textbook; (b) a technical report; (c) an article in a newspaper or a periodical; (d) a scientific paper; (e) a thesis; and (f) minutes or agenda of a meeting.
The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee. We use the term ―vocative‖ in the sense of ―calling upon‖ the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to ―react‖ in the way intended by the text. Some typical vocative texts are: (a) notices; (b) instructions; (c) publicity; (d) propaganda; and (e) pervasive writing (requests, cases, theses).
Newmark refers to ―expressive‖ as ―sacred‖ texts; ―informative‖ and ―vocative‖, following Jean Delisle, as ―anonymous‖, sin ce the status of their authors is not important. Thus he thinks that
Cultural components tend to be transferred intact in expressive texts; transferred and explained with culturally neutral terms in informative texts; replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts.
This actually suggests two different approaches to cultural problems involved in translation, namely, alienation and naturalization.
Since personal components, which are often characterized as ―idiolect‖ or ―personal dialect‖, constitute the―expressive‖ element of an expressive text, we shouldn‘t normalize them in a translation. For example, while translating Mao Zedong‘s works, we had better render literally the Chinese saying he used 又要马儿跑，又要马儿不吃草into ―you want the horse to run fast an d you don‘t let it graze‖, which not only represents Mao‘s literary style but introduces to Western readers Chinese linguistic culture.
The English version of an introduction to Jigong(济公) in his museum in Lanxi of Zhejiang province is a naturalized one: 济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴—Jigong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor. Here in the instruction Jigong is compared to Robin Hood, a well-known character with a strong sense of justice in Western culture, then a native speaker of English will find little difficulty in understanding why Jigong endears himself so much to the Chinese people.
Since few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative, and most include all the three functions with emphasis on one of them, there is ample scope for the two strategies to play their roles in our translation practice.
2. the significance of cultural flavor in the source text
though Nida has the greatest esteem for his ―dynamic equivalence‖, or rather, ―the closest natural equivalent‖, he has never treated it as a cast-iron rule. He wisely notices the significance of cultural flavor in the source text, especially when some cultural objects or events have been endowed with great symbolic values. Nida point s out, ―the most serious problems involved in transfer derive from the fact that the same objects or events may have quite different symbolic values.‖ To illustrate this point, he gives such an example:
one Bible translator in New Guinea was full aware of the fact that sheep and lamb are either unknown or unappreciated in New Guinea, but pigs are highly valued. He therefore thought that perhaps one could render sheep by ―pig‖ an lamb by ―piglet‖ or ―little pig‖. He had clearly overlooked the fact that sheep are regarded in the Bible as so-called ―clean animals‖ while pigs are ―unclean animals‖; in fact, very much taboo. Speaking of Jesus as the ―little pig‖ of God would certainly by a serious lapse in cultural congruence.
If a cultural object in the source text, however, catties little symbolic value other than some necessary information, surely we can adopt the method of naturalization if it blocks a target reader‘s comprehension. Here are two examples:
(1)the man who waters his grass after a good rain is carry ing coals to Newcastle.(Adam Makkai: A Dictionary of American Idioms)刚刚一场及时雨，那人却又为草坪浇水，真是多此一举。
(2)这位小姐，德性温良，才貌出众，鲁老先生和夫人因无子息，爱如掌上明珠。（吴敬梓《儒林外史》第十四回）I know the young lady, and she is virtuous, gentle and beautiful. Because Mr. and Mrs. Lu have no son, the girl is the apple of their eye.
3. the purpose of translation
Before translating we shall ask what kind of function the text marked as a ―translation‖ is intended to achieve. Is it meant to inform the readers about the contents or the cultural features of the original? Is it intended to appeal to the readers‘ own aesthetic sensi tivity or to offer them an ―exotic‖ setting? Generally different answers to such questions lead to different guidelines for the translation process. This is to say, it is the purpose of translation, the application or use the translation is intended to have in the context of the target situation that determines the practical transfer methods. In a word, ―the end justifies the means.‖
A typical example to illustrate this point is that both the Y angs‘ (Y ang Xianyi& Gladys Y ang) and Hawkes‘ English versions of the Chinese Classical novel Hong Lou Meng possess their own artistic charms and strong points. Aiming at a faithful translation throuth which Westerners can acquire some knowledge about traditional Chinese culture, the Y angs usually adopt the SL culture oriented method; in order to avoid cultural conflicts between the two languages and improve the translation‘s readability, Hawkes generally prefers the TL culture-oriented method –hence an interesting contrast (version a, the Y angs‘; version b, Hawkes‘)：（3）世人都晓神仙好…（第一回）
（3a）all men long to be immortats …
(3b) men all know that salvation should be won …
(in version a, 神仙is redered literally into ―immortals‖, a term is Chinese Taoism. However, ―salvation‖ in version b is a concept in Christianity which plays an important part in Western culture.)
(4) 真是―天又不测风云，人有旦夕祸福‖。（第十一回）
(4a) ―Truly, ―storms gather without warning in nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight.‖‖
(4b) ―I know ―the weather and human life are both unpredictable.‖‖
（While the Yangs manage to retain the original image, Hawkes adopts the method of free translation and tells his readers directly what the Chinese saying actually means.）
(5) 谋事在人，成事在天。（第十一回）
（5a）Man proposes, Heaven disposes.
(5b) Man proposes, God disposes.
(While introducing an English proverb here, the Y angs change flexibly the ―God‖ in it into ―Heaven‖ so as to retain the original‘s religious flavor. As a contrast, Hawkes leaves the English proverb intact so that the Chinese saying can be readily understood by his people, let alone the fact that he has changed a Chinese believing in Buddhism into one believing in Jesus.)
(6)癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉。（第十九回）
(6a) A toad hankering for a taste of swan.
(6b) A case for ―the toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky‖.
(In version b, t he original image ―swan‖ is replaced by ―goose‖ to fit in with Westerners‘ aesthetic standard, for in their culture, swan and goose have long been given different associative meanings, which can be seen clearly from the English idiom ―a swan among geese‖. More often than not, the match in the Chinese saying sounds rather absurd t a native speaker of English.)
4. the readership
On the basis of the variety of language used in the original, we attempt to characterize the readership of the original and then of the translation, and to decide how much attention we should pay to the TL readers, as different readers usually require different kinds of translation. We may try to assess the level of education, the class, age and sex of the readership if these are marked. This calls objectively for the justification of the two translation strategies concerning cultural problems.
For example, while explaining to a foreigner studying Chinese
what the saying 她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌means, surely we can render it literally into ―Her beauty is striking enough to make fish sink, wild geese alight and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame‖ so as to introduce the peculiar linguistic culture in it. For a common Western reader, however, the simple expression ―Her beauty is beyond description‖ may be more acceptable. Likewise, 倾国倾城can be translated into either ―Her beauty is such as to overthrow cities and ruin states‖ or ―She is exceedingly beautiful‖ if we take different target readers‘ demands into consideration.
5. further studies
Combining the analysis above, we may conclude that both the SL culture-oriented strategy and the TL culture-oriented strategy play their roles in translation practice. While the former offers TL readers an exotic atmosphere, the latter improves the acceptability of a translation. They are not contradictory be complementary, because the treatment of cultural components in translation usually requires various modes of operation, and no translation can be a purely alienated or naturalized one. As far as a concrete cultural problem is concerned, the translator may choose a practical method depending on a comprehensive analysis of such factors as the type of texts, the purpose of translation and the readership. It is these factors that decide the necessity and feasibility of a method. Sometimes he may attempt to adopt a reasonable compromise, as the famous English scholar Benjamin Jowett claims, ―All translation is compromise—the effort to be literal and effort to be idiomatic.‖ For instance, the English proverb ― The leopard cannot change its spots‖ can be translated into 豺不改其斑，人难移本性instead of a ready Chinese equivalent 江山易改，本性难移so as to represent the original image and meaning simultaneously. What is important is that the translator must cultivate a high degree of cross-cultural awareness and be able to recognize the similarities and differences between two cultures.
In brief, translation strategies concerning cultural components arise from the following procedures:
1.In a first step, a particular translation problem (for instance, a play on words) is analyzed with regard to the factors mentioned above;
2.the analysis lead to decision whether the translation has to be adapted to target culture norms and conventions or whether it should reproduce source-culture conventions used in the source text;
3.this decision sets limits to the range of linguistic means to be used, from which the translator chooses the one which fits into the special context, such as text-type, register, style, exc.
4.if there is still a choice between various means, the translator may decide according to individual stylistic preferences.
The definitions of alienation and naturalization still need a little clarifying here. Though an alienated translation is written at the author‘s linguistic level, it is never the case of a ―dead‖ translation as one might claim. Common sense tells us that any translation is not a purely technical change in the form of language but that it requires the translation process. As for naturalization, which is written at the readership‘s level, it never means that one can render the original contents arbitrarily and simply ―change a foreign subject matter into a Chinese one and change a foreigner into a Chinese ‖ as Lu Xun once criticized. A translator must constantly bear in mind that since the original text serves as the only starting point of all his work, he can only make use of his dynamic role or the advantage of the target language within limits.
Up to now, it seems that the TL culture-oriented method has got the upper hand. The patrons who commission a translation, publish it or see to it that it is distributed is the link between the translator‘s text and the readers the translator wants to reach. Catering to the demand of most common readers, they usually pay m ore attention to the text‘s readability and acceptability. In the famous German writer Goethe‘s (1749-1832) words, ―if you want to influence the masses, a simple translation is always best.‖ Besides, the fact that the term alienation is sometimes unjustly blamed as a kind of ―dead‖ translation has forced not few translators to give up the attempt.
Generally speaking, people who don‘t have previous knowledge of the foreign culture they deal with in specific intercultural situations tend to project their own cultural frame of reference on the foreign culture, that tend to interpret and evaluate foreign behavior in accordance with their own culture. However, the more one learns about another culture, the less one will turn to one‘s own culture for comparison. I nstead, one will become increasingly more able to use the foreign culture itself as a frame of reference, that is, perceive and interpret it in terms of itself, although (methodologically speaking) one‘s own culture will always remain the ―deepest‖ level o f comparison.
Different cultures are exerting an ever-increasing influence on our daily life now, and it is an inescapable truism that our would is getting smaller and our life must necessarily change. With the increasingly frequent contacts of culture and the rapid development of cultural diffusion, however, it is quite possible that the SL-oriented method will become more and more acceptable. As far as a specific cultural background is concerned, what once sounded rather strange may be quit understandable today. Such knowledge can be acquired by living in the other culture, by watching undubbed films or by reading texts produced in that culture – but all this obviously requires knowledge of the language of this culture. The other way of gaining knowledge of others is through alienated translations. These translations stand for the original: they replace it. In this sense, if possible, the otherness of a foreign culture had better be retained in translation, though more often than not it is necessary to provide some supplementary footnotes to identify the different cultural values involved.
Since the otherness of another culture exists objectively, our ultimate consideration should be recognition of the cultural achievements referred to in the SL text, and respect for all SL countries and their cultures. While rendering the otherness of another culture intact, we should aim at its intelligibility to the target reader. Undoubtedly this is a difficult task, but it is worth our efforts. Here it is perhaps illustrative to quote a passage from Shakespeare‘s Hamlet (Act Ⅲ, Scene Ⅱ) concerning the purpose of playing:
…the purpose of playing, whose end, both at first and now, was and is, to nature, to show virtue her own feature, show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure.
Here what the ―mirror‖ reflects is not only the appearance of the nature but also certain objective social reality. Likewise, a translator should render the cultural peculiarities in the SL text as things really are and try to make the target reader see where the peculiarities lie in that culture. For example, not bad as it is to render the English proverb ―Among the blind the one-eyed man is the king‖ into a ready Chinese one 上中无老虎，猴子称大王, we
have to admit that it is somewhat inferior to the version 盲人国里，独眼为王, for the latter not only is characterized by a unique expression, but sounds fairly acceptable to the target reader.
If we push the discussion a little further, we will see that the method of naturalization is more or less a restricted one because it doesn‘t account for those cases where implicit source text values should remain implicit or where comprehensibility is not the aim of translation at all. For instance, a naturalized translation of Ulysses is certainly out of the question. Moreover, strictly speaking, intersexuality in its various functions can only ―work‖ within a cultural or literary system. Even when a work has been translated into a target language or belongs to the so-called ―world literature‖, an allusion to a translated text would seldom be able to produce the completely ―same‖ effect as a quotation from a work that belongs to the literary canon of the readers‘ own culture. Therefore, alienation, the SL culture-oriented method, should be given priority to if possible.
What do we mean by ―if possible‖ here? Needless to say, all cultural universals can be treated literally in translation. With regard to cultural disparities, alienation is also a feasible strategy so lon g as they don‘t block the target readers‘ correct comprehension. Here is another example from Hong Lou Meng: 巧媳妇做不出无米的粥来，叫我怎么样呢？（第二十四回）The two versions for the underlined part are: (a) Even the cleverest housewife can‘t make bread without flour; (Tr. Hawkes) (b) Even the cleverest housewife can‘t cook a meal without rice. (Tr. the Y angs) Though we know very well that westerners seldom eat rice, common sense tells us that they do know what rice is and see its use. Besides, it is hard to imagine that people in ancient China ate Western bread rather than rice for their meals. In this sense, version b is obviously a cut above the former.
Translation is not just a window opened on another world, rather, it is a channel opened, though often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the native culture and challenge it. As a culture transcending process, translation is an important way of forming cultural identities and of positioning cultures. It is one of the best means of bringing about reconciliation between cultures, and although this takes time we should not give up hope.
Notes
35. lefevere, A. 2004. translation/ history/ culture: A Source Book. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. P.5
36.Schaffer, C. & Kell-Holemes, H. 1995. Cultural Functions of Translation. Clevedon: Multiligual Matters. P.4
37. Nida. 1993:121.
38. Wilss, W. 1996. Knowledge and Skills in Translator Behavior. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. P. 85
39. Lefevere. 2004: 6.
40. Ibid.
41. Wilss. 1996: 89 .
42. Savory, T.H. 1968. The Art of Translation . London：Cape.P.54
43. Schaffer &Kell_Holemes.1995:5
44. Newmark.1988:9
45. For a detailed analysis, see Newmark.1988:39_44.
46. Newmark.1988:9.
47. According to Newmark, only semantic and communicative translation fulfills the main aims of translation. In general, a semantic translation is written at the author‘s linguistic level, a communicative at the readership‘ s. Semantic translation is used for ―expressive texts‖, communicative for ―informative‖ and ―vocative‖ texts. This opinion indicates indirectly that alienation and naturalization coexist in a translator‘s job as two main strategies.
48. Nida, E. A. 1982, Translating Meaning. California: English Language Institute Press.pP.73.
49. Ibid.
50. Nida.1982:74.
51. The‖ skopos‖ as the German scholar V ermeer terms it.
52. ―将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。‖See Chen Fukang.1992:301.
53. Lefevere, A. 1992. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Lierary Fame. Lodon: Routedge.P.116.
54. …… 演戏的目的，从前也好，现在也好，都是仿佛要给自然照一面镜子；给德行看一看自己的面貌，给荒唐看一看自己的姿态，给时代和社会看一看自己的形象和印记。（Tr. Bian Zhilin）
刘文捷（2004：65-86/87-89）
一、将下面各句译成汉语，注意其中的文化因素。
1 He whose belly is full believes not him who is fasting.
2 She was the top student in English, the apple of Mrs. Larrvee‘s eye.
3 I‘ve told him that he‘s heading for trouble, but he doesn‘t listen –it‘s just water off a duck‘s back.
4 I should explain at the outset that I am from Britain, but my Florida-born wife Lisa is as American as apple pie.
5 The town‘s blue laws were recently repealed and now you can buy liquor on a Sunday.
6 The sudden chilly breeze brought gooseflesh to her arms and legs.
7 We caught the red-eye from LA and got to New Y ork at five this morning.
8 The danger is certainly a lion in the path, you can go ahead or turn back . Which will you do?
9 After winning the leadership election she held out olive branch to the other candidates by offering them senior positions in the party.
10 He has only untutored strength, like a bull in a china shop.
11 At present, the superpowers are armed to the teeth with nuclear weapons, placing the people of the whole world under their nuclear threat.
12 A misbehaving minister is regarded as a government‘s Achilles heel and is expected to resign.
13 If you try to cover up your misdeed with a fig leaf, you will only make it more conspicuous.
14 It is a six of one and half-a-dozen of the other.
15 Money makes the mare go.
16 An old dog like him never barks in vain. Whenever he backs, he always has some wise counsel worth listening to.
17 Government threats to cut the budget by 50% are hanging over the Opera House like a sword of Damocles.
18 She strutted like a peacock, looking down her nose at everyone.
19 It brings one to the 64000-dollar question: how and by what standards are films selected these days?
20 He is an expert on weaseling. I‘ve seen him take his pen and go through a proposal or resolution and weasel every strong word in it.
一．将下面各句译成汉语，注意其中的文化元素。
1.饱汉不知道饿汉饥。
2.她是英语二班的尖子，拉里维太太的掌上明珠。
3.我已经告诉过他，他将面临麻烦，但他不听----我的忠告正像是鸭背上的落水，毫无影响。
4. 我一开始就说明我是一个英国人，但在佛罗里达出生的我的妻子丽莎却是个如苹果馅饼般地道的美国人.
5. 突然起了凉风，她的手臂和腿上都起了鸡皮疙瘩。
6. 城市里的蓝色法规最近已经被废止了，现在星期天也可买到酒了。
7.我们乘洛杉矶的夜间航班，今天早晨五点到纽约。
8.这危险当然是拦路虎，你可以勇往直前，也可以往后退缩，你准备怎么办？
9.在争夺领导权的选举中获胜后，她给予了其他候选人党内高级职位，以此向他们表达和解的愿望。
10.他有力气，可是没有经过训练。像一头钻进瓷器店里的牛，一动就闯祸。
11.目前，超级大国用核武器武装到了牙齿，把全世界人民都置于他们的核威胁之下。
12. 一个品行不端的部长被认为是政府的致命弱点，因而被要求辞职。
13. 要是想用遮羞布掩盖你的罪行，那只能是欲盖弥彰。
14．半斤八两，难兄难弟。
15. 有钱能使鬼推磨。
16. 像他这样的行家里手，从来不会随便发表意见，一旦发表，总有高见值得一听。
17.政府扬言要削减50%预算使歌剧院感到危险临头。
18.她昂首阔步，活像只孔雀，谁也瞧不起。
19.这把人们引到最重要的问题上来，即如今电影是如何选择的，依据的标准是什么？
20. 他是个“耍黄鼠狼伎俩”的高手，我曾见过他拿出笔来，从头到尾修改一项提案或决议，把每个有分量的字都改得不可捉摸。
蒙兴灿（2005：26-40）
3，运用意译的方法，把下列句中的斜体部分的词语或者句子翻译成汉语：
(1)She is born with a silver spoon in her mouth; she thinks she can do what she likes.
(2)To break the ice, Ted spoke of his interest in mountaining climbing, and they soon had a conversation going.
(3)It is obvious that this was merely a case of robbing Peter to pay Paul. There was no real clearing up of the outstanding debt.
(4)The man who waters his grass after a good rain is carrying coals to Newcastle.
(5)Franklyn:‖…He…assures me his visit is quite disinterested; but why should he come if he has no axe to grind?‖(B. Show: Back to Methuselah)
3.
1.她生长在富贵之家，认为凡是可以随心所欲。
2.为了打破沉默，特德说起了自己对爬山的爱好，然后很快就有了谈话内容。
3.很明显，这个是拆了东墙补西墙的办法，这么大笔债务，要彻底还清是不可能的。
4.感刚一场及时雨之后，那人还在给草坪浇水，这不是多此一举么。
5.富兰克林：“他向我保证说他的访问是没有私心的；可他要不是别有用心，为什么上这来？‖
4.运用直译法保留下列句中的文化形象。必要的话可以添加文内或文外注释。
(1)。He never forgets---like an elephant.
(2).‖Y ou have strength. it is untutored strength.‖ Like a ball in
a china shop.‖ he suggested and won a smile.
(3). ―It is said Jane had fa llen in love with Jack.‖
―Y es, but she says she hand hesitated for a long time before she finally walked into love.
(4).Y our nose is a complex air conditioner. It controls the heat and humidity of the air you take in. It also filters out unwanted substances.
(5).My play, on the other hand, is a cycle of scenes, which deals with life under the Nazis. So far I have written 27separates scenes. Some of them fit roughly into the ―realistic‖ pattern X, if one shuts one eye. Other do not ….(Bertolt Brecht: Against George Lukacs)
4.
1).他绝对忘不了，他的记忆力和大象一样可靠。
2).“你有的是力量……可是那是未经驯化的力量。”“像一头瓷器店里的牛，一动就会闯祸。“他自己这么补充一句，赢得对方的微微一笑。
3）“据说简坠入情网，爱上杰克了。”
“是的。不过他说，她犹豫了好一阵最后才慢慢走进情网的。”
4）你的鼻子是一台复杂的空调，控制着你吸入空气的湿度和温度，同时也过滤不需要的物质。
5）另一方面，我的话剧则是反映纳粹统治下人们生活的一组场景。迄今为止，我已经写就27个场景。如果人们睁一只眼，闭一只眼的话，他们当中的一些可以归到某个“现实主义”的格局里；另一些则并不行……
司显柱（2006：181-187）
一．翻译下列句子，注意划线词语的归化译法
1.Two grapes, who would have thought a pair of tainted red grapes could so much economic and political pandemonium.
2.It is his albatross to be involved in the scandal.
3.The National Aeronanties and Space Administration had called it a ―successful oriented‖schedule to get the space shuttle flying again, but the odyssey of ―Discovery‖ was best with various problems.
4.The chief exponents of psychie feelgood tent to come from Asia. California and the psychological sciences, no one of which has an impressive record at making people feel good.
5.Jonny announced that he was in ―fat city‖and everything was sware.
6.For one brief shining moment. Betsy Nagelsen found tennis Camelot. But then her bright future flickered out.
7.He assures me his visit is quite disinterested; but why should be come if he has no axe to grind?
8.The man who waters his grass after a good rain is carrying coals to Newcastle.
9.In the missile museum, 25 miles south of Tucson, visitors take an hours tour of Armadeddom. Complete with sound effects.
10.Mac Ardle was the only man there who had not been affect by the pandemonium of the factory.
1.两颗葡萄。谁能想到，两颗污染的葡萄竟会在经济和政治上引起如此大的混乱？
2.同这一丑闻有牵连，是他无法摆脱的苦恼。
3.国家航空和航天局曾将航天飞机再度发射称作一个“十拿九稳”的计划，但是“发现者”号的旅程一波三折，问
题重重。
4.鼓吹精神上绝对满足的主要代表人物往往来自亚洲，加利福尼亚以及分门别类的心理学，实际上没有一种心理学卓有成效地使人产生良好感受，达到精神上的满足。
5.约翰尼宣称“生活非常富裕”而且万事如意。
6. 贝特西纳杰尔森曾在网球界红极一时，可是，她那光辉的前程只是昙花一现，瞬息即逝。
7. 她向我保证说她的访问是没有私心的，但是如果不是他别有用心，她为什么要到这来？
8. 刚刚一场及时雨，那人却又为草坪浇水，岂不是多此一举。
9. 导弹博物馆座落在图森市以南25英里处。游客在这里经历一小时的世界末日决战的情景。全程配以影响效果。
10. 麦卡德尔是那里唯一没有受到喧嚣混乱影响的人。
二．翻译下列句子，注意划线词语的异化用法。
1. They were only crying crocodile tears at the old man‘s funeral because nobody had really liked them.
2. When the host gave some pictures to them, they didn‘t realize that they were receiving a modern Trojan horse: microphones and radio transmitters were hidden in the picture.
3. The new spirit had animated the prose of Chateaubriand and poetry of Lamartine: but it was the spirit only: the form of both these writers retained most of the important characteristics of the old tradition .It was new wine in the old bottles.
4. He is a wolf in sheep‘s clothing.
5. In any event, administration officials aren‘t likely to say or do anything in public that might damage the U.S. Israeli special relationship. Israeli is the Teflon country.
6. Behind the Australian flags ,rises the shell burst of the opera house ,which has became as familiar an icon for Sydney as the Parthenon or Statue of liberty for cities half a world away.
7. Glasnost unleashed, like Prometheus unbond, can ignite a holocaust as easily as it can warm a conversation, and the shift from a planned economy to a market economy may work only if the central government is willing to loosen its stranglehold on commerce.
8. One way to prevent the European Community from becoming a modern Tower of Babel would be to make English the Community‘s sole official language.
三．1.在老头子的葬礼上，他们只不过挤了几滴鳄鱼的眼泪，因为在老人生前，没有人真的喜欢他。
2. 东道主向他们赠画时，他们并没有意识到他们是在接受一具现代特洛伊木马，那画框里暗藏麦克风和无线电发报机。
3. 新精神使夏多布里昂的散文和拉马丁的诗获得生气，但是精神如此，这两位作家使用的形式仍保留旧传统的许多重要特点，成了旧瓶装新酒。
4. 他是一只披着羊皮的狼。
5. 在任何情况下，美国政府官员在公共场合不可能说出或做出任何损害美国与以色列的画和事，以色列是个具有“特氟龙”式保护膜的国家。
6. 远远耸立在澳大利亚旗帜后方是蛤蚌半开造型的细腻感染剧院。这座故剧院的建筑是细悉尼的象征，正如半个地球以外的巴特农神殿及自由神像是另外两个城市的象征。
7.“开放”的力量一旦敞开发挥，就会像解放了的普罗米修斯一样，即可能鼓励对话，也可能同样轻而易举地引起一场大灾难。同时，要从计划经济转入市场经济，中央必须解除对商业的严格管理。
8. 防止欧洲共同体成为现代的巴别通天塔，有一个办法，那就是把英语当作共同体唯一官方语言。
郭著章（1944：169-181）
二，将下列汉语熟语意译成英语。
1.想入非非
2.真相大白
3.掩耳盗铃
4.热锅上的蚂蚁
5.坐观形式
6.开门揖盗
7.大王不在，小鬼跳梁
8.大雨倾盆
9.老牛不喝水，不能强按头
10.狗胆包天
11.狗苟蝇营
12.狗急跳墙
13.狗屁不通
14.狗血喷头
15.狗眼看人低
二．
1.to have one`s head full of bees.
2.the eat is out of the bag.
3.the eat shuts its eyes when stealing cream.
4.a cat on hot bricks
5.wait for the eat to jump.
6.that`s like putting the cat near the goldfish bowl.
7.when the cat`s away, the mice will play.
8.it rains cats and dogs
9.a man may lead a horse to the water, but he cannot make him drink.
10.monstrously audacious
11.ingratiate oneself with sb. to gain one`s ends
12.a cornered beast will do sth. desperate
13.unreadable rubbish
14.let loose a stream of abuse against sb.
15.be a bloody snob
中西语言文化差异与英汉互译
中西语言文化差异与英汉互译 【摘要】不同的国家有着不同的语言文化，翻译与文化有着密可不分的联系。文化的共性使翻译成为可能，但其语言文化的个性又给翻译活动设置了障碍。我国汉族文化与英、美等西方文化之间存在很大差异，这种差异造成思维方式不同，具体体现在汉、英两种语言上的互译上。因此，在当今全球化竞争日益激烈的形势下，把中英文翻译地更准确更贴近两种语言文化氛围是十分必要的。 【关键词】思维方式；差异；英汉翻译 0.引言 翻译作为语际交际是语言的转换过程，同时也是文化交融的过程。在很大程度上，它与文化因素、背景知识有很大的关系。翻译作为沟通两种不同语言的桥梁，在跨文化交际中起着不可或缺的重要作用。然而，不同的语言文字有着其自身的文化内涵：一种语言文字中的某些含义，有时候很难通过译文用另一种语言文字传达给读者，而翻译中所失去的恰恰就是跨语言文化的内涵与微妙。正因为如此，翻译工作者就要从提高自身的素质方面出发，努力创造出既符合我国国情，又符合英语特点，并能让英语国家人们读懂和理解的英语表达法。 1.中西语言文化差异 由于中西方文化差异的影响，英语重形合，而汉语重意合。由于中国传统的思想把人与自然看成是一个有机的整体，从而形成了汉民族汉语重意合和具象思维的特点。西方的哲学家认为人类可以征服自然，这使得他们常把观察的视点放在动作的承受者上，所以，英语中存在大量的被动语态。另外，汉民族的思维受道家和儒家思想的影响，汉语常用人称作主语，经常会用“有人”“人们”“大家”等泛指人称或省略主语的无主句。同时在对待时间的态度上，中国人以过去为取向，无论人们做什么都要考虑此事过去是否做过，而西方人尤其是英美人则习惯未来取向，主张一切着眼于未来。从而决定了中国人偏重顺向的和螺旋式的思维，而西方人则偏重于逆向和直线式的思维。英语具有明显的词形变化、形式多样的语法形式。而汉语无词形变化，语法形式的表达主要依靠词汇手段。英语可通过动词的屈折变化来体现不同的时态，而汉语因无词形变化需借助于词汇手段即表示时间的副词来交代动作发生的时间。英语是形合语言，这源于西方人习惯于分析，逻辑和推理，思维模式呈线性。反映在语言上是注重形态变化和语法结构，多用关联词语体现句子内部和句子之间的关系，结构较明晰。而汉语是意合语言，中国人讲注重整体和谐，具有直观性、综合性和整体性特点，汉语思维重综合和意会，反映在句子成分和结构上相对不明晰，这些差异在语篇衔接上有所体现，作为在作者和读者之间起到桥梁作用的译者，应该了解英汉语篇连接上的差异，需要使用一些翻译策略，使译文通顺连贯。 2.差异与英汉互译
关于英汉互译中的文化差异现象及处理方法
关于英汉互译中的文化差异现象及处理方 法 " 论文关键词：历史文化差异宗教文化差异习俗差异思维模式审美观 论文摘要：翻译是在接受语中制造出原语信息的最近的自然等值物，首先是在意义方面，其次是在文体方面。翻译不仅仅是语言符号的转换，更是文化模式的交流。每个民族都有自己的文化，在历史、习俗、思维和宗教多方面都具有特殊性。译者要仔细在两种文化中寻找对应的表达方式，做出各种必要的转换，以传递原文中真实的文化信息。 Nida说“翻译是在接受语中制造出原语信息的最近的自然等值物，首先是在意义方面，其次是在文体方面。”翻译不仅仅是语言符号的转换，更是文化模式的交流。语言是文化的一部分，是社会发展、历史衍变的产物，作为文化的载体、信息传递的工具，地位举足轻重。不同民族具有不同的地域文化、历史文化和宗教文化,这些文化差异导致英汉表达法的不同。要掌握一种语言就要熟悉其背后的文化特殊性,就要洞察本民族文化与其他民族文化的差异。为使译文读者得到和原文读者基本相同的文化信息，在翻译中遇到两种文化的差异时，译者就要仔细在两种文化中寻找对应的表达方式，做出各种必要的转换，以传递原文中真实的文化信息。 1.1 历史文化差异
历史文化是由特定的历史发展进程和社会遗产的沉淀而成。不同的历史渊源使各民族间形成了相互不同的性格气质和生活方式。中华文化博大精深,孕育了丰富的具有浓厚民族色彩和鲜明文化个性的成语和历史典故。如“三个臭皮匠,抵上一个诸葛亮”, 诸葛亮在中国家喻户晓，他是智慧的象征。但西方人未必知道他。若直译为“Three cobbles equal Zhuge Liang.”译文读者就会很迷惑,因此,应采取直译和增译相结合的方式,译为“Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Chuge Liang the mastermind. ” 或者采用意译的方式译为, “Two heads are better than one.”与英语中的“Two hands are better than one.”相对应。 西方也蕴藏着大量的历史文化典故。如Achilles’ heel、Penelope’s web、a Pandora’s box等。儒教、道教、佛教是中国的三大宗教，在中国民众中有深远的影响。英美人多信仰基督教,认为世界是上帝创造的,世上的一切都是按上帝的旨意安排的，翻译时应注意。如，《红楼梦》中刘姥姥说“谋事在人，成事在天”。Hawkes 译为“Man proposes, God disposes.”（谋事在人，成事在于上帝。）这就把刘姥姥的宗教错认为是基督教了。杨宪益的翻译“Man proposes, Heaven disposes. ”，则更为贴切，更符合刘姥姥的信仰。 1.3 习俗差异 风俗文化是指贯穿于日常社会生活和交际活动中由民族的风俗习惯形成的文化。中国人见面寒暄多问“你到哪儿去？”“你干什么
从奈达的五类文化因素谈英汉文化词的对比及翻译_陈琳琳
从奈达的五类文化因素谈英汉文化词的对比及翻译 陈琳琳 （湖北大学外语学院 湖北武汉 430062） [摘 要]语言植根于文化中，人们的世界观反映在他们的语言里。文化因素对语言的影响波及词汇层、语言层直到语境层。本文基于奈达的五类文化 因素来谈汉语文化负载词的文化伴随意义及其翻译问题。笔者认为，在处理文化 因素时，应考虑译作在预期读者中的可接受性，从而实现翻译的跨文化交际功能。 [关键词]文化负载词；文化伴随意义；翻译目的；读者因素 1.语言、文化与翻译 在西方关于“文化”的众多定义中，19世纪最有影响的定义是 人类学家Edward Tylor在《原始文化》（1871）中提出来的。据《文 化学辞典》（1988），Tylor给文化下的定义为：“Culture is that complex whole which includes Knowledge，belief，art，moral，law，custom，and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”（所谓文化或文明乃是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及包括作为社会成员的个人获得的其它任何能力、习惯在内的一种综合体。） 语言与文化密不可分。语言是文化的载体，同时它也受到文化 的制约。正如Juri Lotman 所说：“没有一种语言不是根植于具体的 文化之中的；也没有一种文化不是以某种自然语言的结构为中心 的。”（Susan Bassnett：2004）而在在洪堡特那里，语言反映世界 观。（潘文国，）语言反映人们的文化认知，也有着传达文化意义的 功能。因此，在翻译中如果不谨慎处理，会给跨文化交际带来困难。 从读者接受的角度来讲，不能传达文化意义的翻译无法在读者中引 起应有的文化共鸣，这对原作来讲是一个很大的损失。因此，在处 理翻译中词汇的文化伴随意义时，我们一定要考虑到读者因素，只 有这样才能达到相应的翻译目的，发挥翻译的跨文化交际作用。 例如，随着2008北京奥运会应运而生的“福娃”，这五个可爱 的娃娃，名字分别是“贝贝”“晶晶”“欢欢”“迎迎”和“妮 妮”，看到他们，中国的民众就会想到“北京欢迎您”，作为吉祥 物的这五个中国小精灵承载了中国公民想要传递给世界人民的“和 平、友谊、进步、和谐”等理念。但是“福娃”最初的译名 “Friendlis”仅有“友好、友谊”的指称意义，并没有传达给外国人 上述所承载的特殊的民族文化特色，不利于我们借助奥运会这一盛 会宣传我国的民族文化。因此可以采用异化翻译的策略，翻译成Fuwa，另外附加注释。这样，外国读者在看到Fuwa时才会具体地把它和那五个可爱的中国吉祥物联系在一起，进而联想到它们的特殊文化意义。Fuwa保留了“福娃”的文化蕴含意义，达到了更好的翻译效果。 翻译的最大困难往往不是语言本身，针对语言所承载的文化底 蕴，我们应坚持“文化传真”的翻译基本原则。无论我们采取何种 翻译策略，都应既考虑原文的文化特色，又顾及译作的可读性。 下文在奈达五类文化因素的基础上，浅谈翻译中如何应对词语 搭配的伴随意义传达问题。笔者认为，在处理这类问题时，译者可 根据自己的翻译目的和预期读者来选定相应的翻译策略。 2.奈达的五类文化 奈达将语言中的文化因素可以五类：（1）Ecology生态学；（2）Material Culture物质文化；（3）Social Culture社会文化；（4）Religious Culture宗教文化；（5）Linguistic Culture语言文化。 2.1生态文化。生态文化包括动植物、地理环境、气候变化等 等。从地理位置上讲，中国是个大陆国家，地大物博，幅员辽阔。 而英国是个岛国，四面环水，因此在英语中有这样的表：all at sea （不知所措），burn one’s boats（破釜沉舟），sail before the wind （顺风航行）等。而汉语中呢，有“挥金如土”来形容一个人花钱 大手大脚，英语中则说spend money like water.汉语中形容一个人很 能喝水或喝酒，说他“牛饮”，英语中则说drink like fish. 从生态环境讲，不同民族对动物的喜好各异。汉语里，“狗”总带有贬义，比如汉语里常用“狐朋狗友”来比喻勾结在一起的一帮坏人；用“狼心狗肺”来比喻一个人心肠像狼和狗一个凶恶狠毒。与此相反，英美国家人士却常把狗看作是人类的朋友。英语中关于狗的表达几乎都是褒义的，如“lucky dog”（幸运儿），“Every dog has his day”（人人皆有得意日），“Love me，love my dog”（爱屋及乌），“Barking dog never bite”（会叫的狗不咬人）等。 在《红楼梦》中，有这样一段话： “他素昔眼空心大，是个头等刁钻古怪的丫头，今儿我听了他的短儿，‘人急造反，狗急跳墙’，不但生事，而且我还没趣。……” 杨宪益、戴乃迭和霍克斯的译本对狗的传译迥然不同： 杨译：“…‘Desperation drives men to rebel and a dog to jump over a wall.’…” 霍译：“…，it will be a case of ‘the desperate dog will jump a wall，the desperate man will hazard all’；…”（转引自：邵志洪，2005） 在这里两种译文看上去差别不大，都有直译的成分。原文中，宝玉的丫鬟将红儿比作狗，应该含有侮辱的涵义。杨宪益和戴乃迭的译文针对的国内读者，所以不必大费笔墨去解释“狗急跳墙”的比喻意义，读者应该能明白文字背后隐含的意义。而霍克斯的读者是英文读者，他们无法理解这个习语的意思，但译者添加了desperate 一词，应该能很好地传达原作的意思。 2.2物质文化。物质文化指的是不同的文化里特有的物质产品，它们都是文化的载体。比如中国的长城，各国独特的食物和衣着等等。比如中国的饺子、混沌、包子、豆腐等等，在英语中都没有对应的表达。因此，现在大家都似乎都能接受它们的音译名了，这样才体现了它们的“中国特色”。 请看一下例句：“人家是醋罐子，他是醋缸，醋瓮！……” 杨译：“…If other women are jealous，she’s a hundred times…” 霍译：“…They call jealous people “vinegar bottles”，don’t they? Well，she’s not just a bottle full of vinegar； she’s a storage jar – a whole cistern – full of it! …”（转引自：邵志洪，2005） 汉语里形容一个人爱嫉妒，叫吃醋。因此，醋缸子、醋瓮还有爱嫉妒的文化伴随意义。杨译采用了意译的手法，保留了原文的文化意义，但丢弃了文化形象，对原文来说是种损失。霍译采取了直译和增译的手法，既保留了原文里文化特色，有成功地传达了原文的意思，笔者认为比杨译更出色。 2.3社会文化。社会文化包罗万象，涉及到人们生活的方方面面。比如说风土人情、传统、社会规则、宗教信仰、道德准则、历史背景、意识形态等等。比如不同的文化有不用的节日和庆祝风俗，不用的打招呼的方式，不同的称呼方式，另外还有人们赋予颜色词不用的含义。不同文化里的人们对颜色的认知是不同的。 在汉语里，红色总是和“吉利”“好运”“喜庆”相连，是个有着褒义词，中国文化把婚丧嫁娶称作“红白喜事”。过年要贴对联，对联写在红纸上。哪家有人娶媳妇嫁女儿都要、贴大红喜字。再比如：“开门红”（to begin well/to make a good start），本命年要穿红色的衣服来避邪等等。但是英语文化里，红色却有着截然不用甚至相反的文化伴随意义。西方文化中，红色总是和革命、激进和血腥联系在一起，带有政治色彩。英语“see red”表示“火冒三丈”或“大发脾气”，“to wave a red flag ”是做“惹人生气的事”。汉语中的“眼红”用来形容一个人有嫉妒心理，而相应的英语表达却是green-eyed。例： （1）辜负了，红粉朱楼春色阑。 杨译：Her power and red chamber，her youth and beauty wasted. 144
浅论文化与翻译的关系
简析文化与翻译的关系 论文摘要：如何破除不同文化背景下的语言障碍，更有效地传达原作所表达的意思一直是人们关注的焦点。本文从中西方文化在思维差异、文化心理、宗教信仰、自然环境及生活习俗等几个方面，阐明文化差异对英汉翻译的影响。 论文关键词：翻译文化意识文化与思维 1．引言 朱光潜先生认为，外国文学中的联想意义在翻译中最难处理。因为它在文学语境中有其特殊的含义，这种含义在词典中是查不到的，但对于文学来说却又十分重要。这就要求我们必须了解一国的风俗习惯和历史文化背景，否则在做翻译的时候就会有无法下手的感觉。(朱光潜，1996：184)。英国文化人类学家爱德华·泰勒在《原始文化》(1871)一书中，首次把文化作为一个概念提了出来，并表述为：“文化是一种复杂，它包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及其作社会上习得的能力与习惯。”可见文化的覆盖面很广，它是一个复杂的系统。语言作为文化的一个组成部分，反映出一个民族丰富多彩的文化现象。 翻译之所以不那么容易，乃是因为语言反映文化，承载着丰厚的文化内涵，并受文化的制约。一旦语言进人交际，便存在对文化内涵的理解和表达问题。这就要求译者不但要有双语能力，而且要有双文化乃至多元文化的知识，特别是要对两种语言的民族心理意识、文化形成过程、历史习俗传统、宗教文化及地域风貌特性等一系列互变因素均有一定的了解。正是以上这些互变因素，英汉民族的语言文化才体现出各自特有的民族色彩。 2．影响翻译的文化元素 2．1宗教 大家都知道，《圣经》在西方的文化生活中扮演着源头的角色。相关数据表明：绝大多数的美国人仍然信信仰宗教。而中国人则长期受到儒家学说的影响，即使在中国广为流传的佛教，也是一种受到深刻世俗影响的多神论，这就不同于西方人大一统的一神论宗教观念。中国人信仰佛教·道教，在语言中就有“玉帝”、“佛祖’’等词语，而西方则人信仰基督教，所以就有“上帝”一词。汉语中的“谋事在人，成事在天”，在英语中就有两种不同的译法，即“Man propose，Heaven disposes”；或者是‘‘Man Dropose，God disposes”。它们的差异就在于对“天”字的不同翻译。“天”在中国的传统文化中具有浓厚的佛教·道教色彩，而“God”则具有明显的基督教色彩。后者的归化变译法固然利于西方读者的理解与接受，但不利于“天”这一独具中国特色的文化内涵的传播。英语深受宗教的影响，主要体现在一些成语中，如It’s in God’s hands(听天由命)等。翻译中对于宗教知识的掌握是十分必要的。以汉语中的“临时抱佛脚”这个成语为例，如果简单地翻译成“to embrace Buddha’S feet in one’S hour of need”就会让西方读者感到奇怪，为什么在有需要时要抱佛主的脚呢?这样做有什么用呢?如果我们稍加处理的话，西方读者理解起来就是另外一回事了“to embrace Buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need——seek help at the last moment”。(包惠南，2003：20)。 2．2文化心理 由于不同的民族使用的语言是不一样的，而且它们的历史和文化也是各不相同的。所以各个民族在其长期的发展过程中，在各具特色的历史条件下形成了自己的民族特色。这对一个民族的心理的形成有着巨大的影响。历史文化的不同主要在一些历史典故以及许多忌讳和好恶的差异上得到体现。以数字“9”为例。这个数字在中国古代的意义很特别，因为它代表着至高无上的意义：即九九归一，一统天下之义。而“4”这个数字由于和汉语中的“死”读音相近，所以很多人现在还是不喜欢这个数字，尤其是电话号码。相当多的人不愿意要以“4”为尾号的号码。至于“8”这个数字由于与发财的“发”谐音而深受一些人的热捧。而在西方人的意识里，4、8和9只是极普通的自然数符号，并不具备这些特殊的意义。众所
论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响
论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响 院系 专业班级 姓名 _ 学号 年月日
目录 摘要 (2) ABSTRACT (3) 引言 (4) 一、绪论 (6) (一) 文化的概念 (6) (二) 翻译的概念 (6) 二、分论 (6) (一) 文化内涵的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 1 宗教文化的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 2 历史文化的差异对翻译的影响 (8) (二) 生活方式的差异对英汉翻译的影响 (6) (三) 价值观的差异对翻译的影响 (10) 三、结语 (11) 参考文献 (12)
文化（culture)是一个内涵丰富而又复杂的概念。语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化的载体和核心，也是文化赖以语言传播的物质表达形式。翻译是两种语言之间的转换活动，是信息和思想的交流，是语言表达的艺术再创造，而不是文字上的对译。语言与文化的密切关系注定了翻译与文化的密切关系。翻译是把一种语言转换成另一种语言。不言而喻，两种语言转换的过程中必然涉及到两种文化。翻译实质上是不同文化间的交流。 本文在阐述文化和翻译概念的基础上，试从中西文化的相似和差异性，包括不同的文化内涵、生活方式以及价值观等方面，对此问题进行深入的分析和探讨，指出两种语言翻译中应注意的文化问题。 关键词：英汉翻译；文化因素；影响
Culture is a complex conception. Language is a very important part of culture. It is the core of culture. Translation is a transfer activity of two languages. It is the exchange between information and thoughts, but not the direct translation. The close relationship between the language and the culture means the close relationship between the translation and culture. In fact, translation is a kind of tool for us to communicate. This article tries to point out the problem, what cultural factors should be noticed during the translation, will be analyzed and discussed from the aspects of similarity and difference of eastern and western culture, including different cultural connotation, life-style, outlook on values in foundation of explaining idea of culture and translation. Key words: English-Chinese Translation; Cultural Factor；Effects
英语翻译与中外文化差异的关系研究
英语翻译与中外文化差异的关系研究 伴随中外学术交流的频繁展开，英语作为中外交流的桥梁，越来越受到关注。翻译工作者只有把握好中西文化之间的差异，才能让英语翻译表达更为准确，才能从根本上提升英语翻译人员的翻译能力，更好地展现语言的魅力。基于此，文章主要分析了英语文化对英语翻译效果的影响。 标签：英语文化；翻译效果；影响 一、文化和翻译的内涵 语言不仅是文化的载体，也是文化的重要组成部分。文化的形成需要相当长的时间，需要经历长期的历史沉淀。其内涵主要包括两个内容：精神文化和物质文化。文化不是一成不变的，它会随着社会的发展而不断发展，此外，文化也是不同的。基于流畅性和准确性的翻译是一种改变语言信息的文化行为。翻译产生于不同文化背景的人迫切需要沟通和交流的背景下，同时可以促进社会的发展和进步。文化与翻译之间的关系非常密切。任何翻译都与文化密不可分，英语也不例外。经验丰富的英语翻译和翻译研究人员都重视翻译与文化之间的关系。在英语翻译过程中，虽然理解了原文的意义，但远不止简单的语言理解，因为语言是文化的重要组成部分，因此，语言会受到文化的影响。在英语翻译过程中，译者对段落理解的准确性主要取决于他或她对文化的理解程度。 翻译是语言转换的过程，但由于翻译具有许多社会功能，是社会活动的重要组成部分，因此它本质上是一种社会活动，也是一种心理活动。在不同的文化背景下，不同时期的翻译功能存在一定的差异。因此，译者必须在翻译过程中理解翻译的功能及其相关的社会背景和文化。只有这样，译者才能正确处理英语文化因素对英语翻译效果的影响，并在英语翻译中成功传达。否则译者很容易犯下社会语用错误。可以说，如果不考虑文化因素，翻译工作无法进行，没有文化的翻译将是苍白无力的。 二、英语文化对英语翻译效果影响 1.社会历史背景对英语翻译效果的影响 每个国家的历史都不同，所以不同国籍的人会有不同的行为和態度。与此同时，民族语言的发展是由社会发展过程和民族的一切历史文化背景决定的，尤其是思维方式差异的影响更加突出。中国人的思维方式受到儒家文化的影响，强调“和谐”，主要体现在句型流畅。英语更加侧重分析，句型主要是基于主语和谓语为主，再加以短语及从句。译者应注意用英语句子表达的文化含义，而不是字面翻译，以达到文化交流的目的。 2.环境对英语翻译效果的影响
论语言文化与翻译技巧
2009年4月 第6卷第4期 Journal of Hubei University of Economics(Humanities and Social Sciences) 湖北经济学院学报（人文社会科学版） Apr.2009Vol.6No.4 一、英汉互译应注意文化差异 众所周知，文化差异是翻译中的一大障碍。任何译者都必然会遇到它。这是因为不论笔译还是口译都是借助语言来完成的；而语言本身就是文化信息的载体与容器。 [1] 而且语言与 文化密不可分，即“语言与文化的联系既多样又广泛。毫无疑问，学者、作家及社会活动家的写作活动是民族文化的重要因素，它对语言规范的发展有着影响。”从翻译的角度来看，文化差异往往通过对两种不同语言文字的比较与对照得到真实的体现，而译者必须尊重各民族语言文化的同时，还必须考虑各民族的适应度和可接受度。在交际时，译者必须介绍该民族文化在语言交际中的差异，否则就造成很大的笑话。据说一个由于文化的差异，而造成语言交流时的误解故事，即一个很流行的故事就是有位中国官员携妻子访美，在与美国员相遇寒暄时，双方都忽视了对方的语言文化差异而造成语义误解的尴尬局面。从这个事例中我们可领悟道译者在口笔译时都必须从不同的文化背景，文化常识等知识的角度去理解其语言语义。比如译者所进行的是英译汉，他或她就须首先想到本民族读者所特有的语言文化，照顾其身份与利益，扬长避短，使一些难为本民族读者所接受的文化因素尽量离他们远一些，或提醒他们以批判的态度待之，在可让译文适合欧化的同时，注意使用规范的词与句，要尽可能地从汉语中去寻找现成或规范的部分，有时即便无计可施也得设法为之，这就是翻之技巧。当然还可采用加脚注的办法，其目的都是为了消除文化上的障碍，理解上的困难。 如：“You don ’t want to lose Larry altogether,do you ?” She shook her head. S.Maugham:THE RAZOR ’S EDGE,p.256. “你不想完全失掉拉里，是吗？”她点头。 周煦良译：《刀锋》，第245页。 [2] 从译文看，译者很了解原语的文化背景，并善于处理文化差异所造成的理解障碍，即将shook 摇头译成点头。摇头是英美人同意否定句问话的习惯，译者为了使中国读者不至误会，而译成了点头。这里的文化差异在于：回答否定句时，英美人是着眼于所问的内容，而中国人则着眼于问话本身的正确与 否。所以译者的译文是恰到好处的。达到了使广大读者也无理解困难或异议。 就语言文化本身来言，一民族的文化之所以是另一民族理解和翻译的障碍，是因为它事先未为这个民族的人所了解。不管是英译汉还是汉译英，译者除了重视东西文化之间的差异外，还应重视其它翻译技巧。如“读者对等”“归化、异化”等等。 就“读者对等”而言，它是奈达有名的“灵活对等”理论的一个极为重要的部分。而众多的奈达的研究者们看中的只是他的语言形式、语言风格、语言神韵的对等，对“读者对等”这一部分采取视而不见的态度。而谭载喜在《奈达论翻译》一书中从读者反应这一角度对奈达的理论又进行了卓有成效的概括与研究。他在《翻译的性质》这一章中，特别强调论述了这一点，奈达主张，从读者的角度来看翻译，则必须引进另一观点，要看译作能否被读者所理解、衡量它的标准不仅在于译文中词句能否被理解，还在于读者对整个译文会产生什么样的反应。[3]这无疑告诉了翻译工作者在英汉互译时不仅要注重读者的反应，也要注意语义上的对等原则。 二、英汉互译应注意语义上的对等原则 1.最切近对等原则的实现 语言文化的差异，使双语翻译中绝对对等的实现难以完全达到，然而在可能的范围内尽量地贴近则是可以达到的。当然英语属印欧语系，汉语属于汉藏语系，双语的表达方式有不尽相同的地方，在这种情况下，一个成功的翻译者要学会灵活地加以变通，准确地再现原语的精神，追求最切近对等原则的实现，从而实现对等。例如： （1）鸳鸯道：家生女儿怎么样？牛不吃水强按头。（《红楼梦》四十六回） “It makes no odds ”,said Faithful,“You can take an ox to the water,but you can ’t make him drink (Hawkes) “What difference does it make?You can ’t force an ox to bend its head to drink ”,said Yuan yang.(Yang) 霍克斯将英谚中“You can take a horse to the water,but you can ’t make him drink ”作了变通，这样既保持了汉语谚语 的表达力，也成功地达到了对等。对西方读者而言，也是一点 论语言文化与翻译技巧 王芳，张君 (湖南工业大学外国语学院，湖南株洲412008) 摘 要：语言是交际的工具,是文化信息的,若忽略了语言与文化,无论怎么说都难以获得成功的译文；同样是 翻译，译文还有高下优劣之分。好的译文不仅符合作者的原意，还能传达其微妙之处，使读者能很好理解原文要旨，感受其风格等。本文试图用一些例证，以印证语言文化与翻译技巧的重要性。 关键词：文化；翻译；技巧 122··
浅谈英汉翻译中的文化因素
Contents 1 1.0 Introduction of culture (1) 2.0 Language, Culture & Translation ......................................... .2 2.1 Idioms (2) 2.1.1 English and Chinese idioms sharing the same meanings and cultural images (2) 2.1.2 English and Chinese idioms sharing the similar meanings but different cultural images (3) 2.1.3 Translation of idioms not restricted to only one version (3) 2.2 Communications with peopl e of different background (4) 2.2.1 Communications in a restaurant (4) 2.2.2 An embarrassing answer (4) 2.3 Animals that bear different cultural connotations (5) 2.4 Colors that have different cultural bearings (6) 2.4.1 B lue (6) 2.4.2 White (6) 2.4.3 Black (7) 3.0 Conclusion (7)
英汉翻译中文化差异的深入探讨
英汉翻译中文化差异的深入探讨 [摘要]：在翻译过程中，由于不同的民族在历史地理、宗教信仰、风俗习惯和价值观念上都各不相同，因此许多事物的形象在不同的语言中就有差异[关键词]：翻译；文化差异；归化；异化 所谓翻译，是指从语义到语体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语信息。这就是说源语信息的再现应是翻译工作的首要出发点，其次考虑译语中选择最适当的对等语。 在欧洲，翻译实践有长远的历史。有人甚至认为，欧洲文明源于翻译，罗马帝国，下至今天的欧洲共同市场。都要靠翻译来进行国际贸易。有人说，用古希伯来语写的《圣经》和用阿拉伯写的《福音》，如果没有先译为希腊文和拉丁文，后来又译为中世纪和近代诸语言的话，2000年来的犹太基督教文化就不会产生，因而欧洲文化也不会出现。自翻译《圣经》起，将近2000年来，欧洲的翻译活动一直没有停止过。 各民族的历史文化是由各自特定的历史发展进程和社会遗产的积淀而形成的。英汉民族的历史发展进程不同，因此所形成的历史文化内涵就必然有差异。即使是在同一种文化下。也会出现不同的亚文化，所以说文化之间的差异是绝对的。但是这种差异也包含着相似性，也并不排除完全重合的情况，否则翻译就无法进行。因此，我们说不同民族在文化上是“绝对歧异，相对相似”，正因为中国的龙和西方的dragon在某种程度上有一定的相似，所以最初的翻译者就把两者基本等同起来，比如，中国龙取蛇身，而dragon在西方其实就是大蛇serpent，这是其一；其二，两者均为虚幻神化之物。然而究其文化根源，正如本文开篇所述，两者在本质上实乃截然不同。因此，在翻译这类具有民族文化特色的词语时。我们就必须慎之又慎，在归化异化等翻译手法中寻求最佳的词语和表达方式。 所谓归化，即归化翻译法(domesticating translation)是指抓住原文语用意义，从目的语中选取与原文语用意义相同的表达来翻译。而异化，也就是异化翻译法(foreignizing translation)则是保留原文的表达结构和表达方法，甚至包括形象，将异国文化的表现法介绍到目的语中转换方法。 一般说来，归化翻译法侧重目标语读者的可接受性，实质上是将原语文本纳入到目标语文化体系框架下进行转换，最大限度地打破文本的地域性。使得译文容易为目标语读者理解和接收，然而，“归化”是将一种文化中的独特成分转化为另一种文化中人们所熟悉的内容，表面上避免了文化冲突，实现了文化的交流，实际上这样就往往造成了对原语文化的损害，从而不利于文化之间的渗透与融合。因为不同文化拥有的共核非常小，那么文化间的空缺和不对称(包括相似部分)就占主体地位。所以译者在翻译中就不可避免的经常使用“异化”。虽然异化翻译法可能会由于文化上的空缺导致暂时的不可理解或难于接受，但是从长久的
中英语言与文化比较
浙江大学（2011-2012）学年秋冬学期 《中英语言与文化比较》课程期末论文 姓名祖木热提古丽·牙生学号 3100105234 班级人文1012 成绩 Cross-cultural Comparison of Chinese and English Public Service Advertising 《中英公益广告的跨文化比较》 摘要：公益广告以社会关注的问题为核心，通过媒介以广告的方式引起公众注意并改变公众的态度和行为促进社会健康持续发展。在公益广告设计中，修辞手法的广泛使用是公益广告的一个重要特征。由于受自身民族语言文化的制约与影响，英汉公益广告又各自有风格特点。本文通过英汉广告修辞手法的比较，以期在公益广告理解与翻译中，把握其自身的特点。 关键词：英汉公益广告,修辞手法,比较与翻译 一、引言 公益广告亦称公共服务广告、公德广告，是以为公众谋利益和提高福利待遇为目的而设计的广告；是企业或社会团体向消费者阐明它对社会的功能和责任，表明自己追求的不仅仅是从经营中获利，而是过问和参与如何解决社会问题和环境问题这一意图的广告，它是指不以盈利为目的而为社会公众切身利益和社会风尚服务的广告。它具有社会的效益性、主题的现实性和表现的号召性三大特点。亚里士多德在《修辞学》一书中将修辞定义为 “ 一种能在任何一个问题上找到可能的说服方式的功能”，因此在广告语言里运用修辞是再适合不过了。“从大量的广告作品实例来看，凡属优秀的广告作品，无一不有十分精美的语言文字，修辞格式是语言文字艺术之花，绝大多数语言文字精美的广告作品，又都成功地运用了修辞格式”。公益广告创作者为了能更好地传播主题，达到其说服教育的目的，常常要用一些修辞手段使其语言更加准确、鲜明、生动而且有力。 英汉公益广告中都使用大量的修辞手法赋予广告极强的艺术性。因此在翻译公益广告时既要重视功能性又不可忽视艺术性。失去语言的魅力也就失去了广告的魅力。广告译文能否与原文在语用上等效取决于广告修辞手法的传译。由于这些广告都是基于本民族语言特点及文化内涵形成的，所以传译往往较难。 二、英汉公益广告的修辞手法与翻译 公益广告的真实性与思想性要通过艺术的形式才能表达出来，所以说，广告的艺术性才是广告的灵魂，成功的公益广告应具有一定的艺术感染力。艺术的感染力不仅体现在图片上，语言的感染力也非同小可，其中修辞手法就是赋予公益广告艺术感染的常用方法，因此下文将分别从英语和汉语的公益广告中欣赏修辞与试析翻译公益广告修辞的沿用与转换。 （一）英语公益广告中常见的修辞与翻译 1.头韵，英语语音修辞手段之一，它蕴含了语言的音乐美和整齐美，使得语言声情交融、音义一体，具有很强的表现力和感染力，从应用范围，结构特征及审美值三个方面对其进行分析讨论，将有助于我们理解和欣赏这辞格。英语的公益广告中为了达到理想的语音美的效果，会使用头韵修辞手法，如：“Loose Lips Sink Ships.”这是二次大战期间美国保密防谍的标语。在翻译这则广告时，欲在译文同样使用头韵的修辞传达原文的语意功能几乎是不可能的，因此在处理这句标语时，我们不妨利用汉语中的文化或不同的修辞使译文同时具备功能性与艺术美，如译文“一言不慎，千帆尽沉”中采用汉语的四字格，“祸从口出”中的习语，以及“三思而后言”中仿拟修辞手法的使用都能从不同的角度译出原文的语意和美感。 2.脚韵，脚韵也类似汉语中的押尾韵，指词尾音素重复。在英国，男士们都比较绅士，在用完抽水马桶后通常会被期待着将坐垫放下，以表示对女性的尊重和体谅，所以在有些地方就会有这样一条公益广告，“Please be sweet，put down the seat.”其中采用的就是以/e/音结尾的“sweet”和“seat”。这样一种温馨提示使得男士的举手之劳让女士都能从中受益，使社会更加和谐。在翻译句广告时应将其语音功能放在首位，其次追求其形式美。故此提示语译文“麻烦放下坐垫，谢谢您的关照”中用“麻烦”、“谢谢”礼貌体，以及句式字数上的对应来实现语言的魅力，最终达到公益广告为公众服务的效能。 3.强调，指采用修辞手法（Stylistic Devices）来表现句中相对重要的概念。这种修辞手法主要通过以下途径来实现词序或位置、对照或对比、重复、省略、语气、固定句式或结构。由于文化背景不一样，西方国家主张个性张扬，这也使得西方的公益广告中出现强调“you”的作用，如美国一则家喻户晓的以Smoky Bear
英汉文化差异对翻译影响
芊芊浅谈英汉文化差异对翻译地影响 翻译作为语际交际, 不仅仅是语言地转换过程, 而且也是文化移植地过程[ ].在很大程度, 它与文化因素、背景知识有很大地关系.王佐良曾说:“翻译地最大困难是两种文化地不同.”吕淑湘也说, 翻译家必须是一个杂家.“杂”就是指知识要广博.可见,解决好翻译中地文化差异问题,了解背景知识是保证译作成功地关键. 英汉文化差异对翻译地影响主要表现在以下几个方面: 一、观察与思维上地差异对翻译地影响 英汉两种语言在观察与思维上是存在着差异地: 面对同一物体, 用以概括地概念也有出入, 因而语言表达方式也不同.如对颜色地观察和使用,就有不同地概念.英语“ ”在汉语中不叫“黑茶”, 而叫“红茶”;“”是“黑面包”, 而不是“棕色面包”.汉语地“青衣”,“青天”同是一个“青”字, 翻译成英文就只能分别译作“ ”和“ ”.汉语“黑眼睛”, 英语为“”; 英语地“ ”, 汉语为“挨打后出现地黑眼圈”; 汉语“黄色影片”, 英语为“ ”(蓝色风光片) ;汉语地“红眼病”,英语为“ ”.此外,英汉两种语言在逻辑思维上也存在着差异.例如: 英文句子. 若直译为“考试时你不要太细心”.那就大错特错了.因为从句法上看,它是一个双重否定结构, 从思维方式上看, 它是一种逆向思维.其正确译文是: 考试时你要特别细心.因此,对于这一类因思维差异而引起地表达不同地概念, 译者同样要越过表达形式地局限进行意义上地对等翻译.个人收集整理勿做商业用途 二、信仰地差异对翻译地影响 欧美人信基督教地居多, 认为上帝() 可创造一切,因而有. (上帝帮助自助地人) 地说法.而中国人则信仰佛教,相信“佛主”在左右着人世间地一切,与此有关地词语如“借花献佛”,“闲时不烧香,临时抱佛脚”等.如果译者缺乏对这种文化个性地深刻了解, 就难以鉴别句子地文化内涵,对译文地准确性产生重大地影响.个人收集整理勿做商业用途 三、环境地差异对翻译地影响 英汉民族生存环境地差异在语言中地一个表现是习语地运用.习语地产生与人们地劳动和生活密切相关.由于地理方面地差异, 习语承载着不同地民族文化特色和文化信息.如英国是一个岛国,历史上航道业曾一度领先世界, 而汉民族在亚洲大陆生活繁衍, 人们地生活离不开土地.例如, 形容花钱大手大脚, 英语是,而汉语是“挥金如土”.英语中有许多关于船和水地习语, 在汉语中没有完全相同地对应习语, 如’ (奋力图存) (不知所措) 等等.个人收集整理勿做商业用途 另外, 在汉语地文化氛围中, 中国人心目中地东风是温暖地, 是春天地风, 只有西北风才是寒冷地.而英国地处西半球, 北温带, 海洋性气候, 报告春天消息地却是西风, 看下面地例子: ?(在许多冬日里我
文化差异对英汉翻译的影响
[摘要]文化对语言的形成、发展和变化产生着深刻的影响。语言与文化有着紧密的关系。中西文化的差异可以在各自的语言上从不同的方面反映出来,并且对英汉翻译过程中的语义理解和传达产生一定的干扰和影响。本文主要从地理环境、历史背景差异,社会风俗习惯差异和宗教文化差异这三个主要方面,分别论述了中西文化差异对英汉翻译造成的影响,提示大家要充分了解中西文化背景,在真正理解原文内涵的基础上,精确译出原文。 [关键词]文化差异英汉翻译 文化是人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和,如文学、艺术、教育、科学等等。而语言是人类思维的外在形式,人们通过语言来表达内心的丰富思想,进行相互间的思想感情交流。文化对语言的形成、发展和变化产生着深刻的影响。事实上语言并不是一种隔离的现象孤立地存在,语言是文化的一个整体的部分。文化是语言的内容,语言是文化的载体,语言与文化是密不可分的。中西文化之间存在着差异,可以体现在地理环境、社会习俗、宗教信仰、历史典故等多方面。这些差异可以在各自的语言上从不同的方面反映出来,并且对英汉翻译过程中的语义理解和传达产生一定的干扰和影响。所以在英汉翻译活动中,必须要考虑到中西文化差异的问题,从各自文化的角度充分理解原文的涵义,并采取适当的语义表达方式,精确地译出原文。在本文中,将从以下几个主要方面分别探讨文化差异对英汉翻译的影响。 一、地理环境、历史背景差异对英汉翻译的影响 由于所处的地域不同,相应地就有不同的自然条件和地理环境。地理环境的不同会引起文化上的个性和差异,形成一些独特的文化概念。这些文化差异都会体现在语言中,对英汉翻译产生一定的影响。例如,中国东临大海,西部为高山,所以在中国,“东风”是“春天的风”,“西风”却是凛冽的。而英国的地理环境与中国相反,英国西临大西洋,报告春天消息的却是西风。西风在英国人心中是温暖宜人的。英国著名诗人雪莱的《西风颂》就是对温暖西风的讴歌:“It’s a warm wind, the west wind, full of bird’s cries”(那是温暖的风,温暖的西风,伴随着百鸟欢唱)。在英汉翻译中要充分理解这些差异,才能更好地理解原文。再如,英国的天气变化无常,所以人们见面爱谈论天气。“Lovely day, isn’t it? ”(天气多好啊)。而中国人见面打招呼则会说,“去哪儿啊?”,“吃饭了吗?”。 与地理环境一样,中西文化的历史背景也会反映在语言中。在英语中,与Dutch有关的词语往往带有贬义。如Dutch act(自杀),Dutch courage(酒后之勇),I got mad and I talk like a Dutch uncle.(我勃然大怒,于是就严厉地训人),If it is the fact, I’m a Dutchman(如果这是事实,我就不是人)。因为在17世纪初,英国和荷兰曾经激烈交战二十多年,使英国大伤元气,所以英国普通民众对荷兰人恨之入骨。这一历史背景,使英语带有了民族性,理解了这一点,我们就不难理解这些英文的真正含义了。 二、社会风俗习惯对英汉翻译的影响 在社会风俗习惯方面,欧美人和中国人也存在很多差异,这对翻译也造成了一定的影响。同一件事物,不同的文化背景,看法大相径庭。比如,龙是古代汉族人崇拜的图腾形象,象征着吉祥、尊贵、权势和奋发向上。我们自称是龙的传人,意思是一个伟大而杰出的民族。龙是比喻皇帝,凤是比喻皇后。在汉语中,有关龙和凤的词语大都是褒义的,如藏龙卧虎、龙飞凤舞、生龙活虎、龙凤呈祥等。但是在英语中,dragon却含有不好的意思。这是因为在《圣经》中