英语词汇学各个章节的内容

Introduction 部分：

Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.

Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography

研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学

2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife

纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？

Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization

第一章：

What is word ?

词具有哪些特点？

词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.

以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

词的分类（classification of a word）

词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？

1) simple words 2) complex words

单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple

多音节词例子：

e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mail

What is the relationship between sound and meaning?

1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat

2)The relationship between them is conventional.

3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by

different sounds.

What is relationship between sound and form?

1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of

the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral

form, such as English language.

2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English

3)With the development of the language, more and more differences

occur between the two.

What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or

irregularity between sound and form?

1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was

adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to

represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do

double duty or work together in combination.

2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly

than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far

apart.

3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the

early scribes.

4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of

enriching the English vocabulary.

要记住以上四句话中的关键词：

1) influenced by Romans

2) Pronunciation changed

3) early scribes

4) borrowing

你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？

e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)

外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ?不一致。

What is vocabulary?

V ocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but

it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.

V ocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book,

a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)

What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics?

Three criteria : 1) By use of frequency2) By notion 3) By origin

By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary

By notion 可划分为：1) Content word 2) Functional word

Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)

Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. (

Functional words 的别称)

Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e.

stability

According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine

functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you

What are the characteristics of basic word stock?

1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polysemy 5) Collocability

要把握住…All national character?的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词

稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water …

e.g. machine, video, telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight

Stability is relative, not absolute.

根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？

1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra

2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon )

3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang )

4) Argot e.g. persuader

5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)

6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)

7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )

beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference

Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional word s ?

Answer : Content words

What is native words?

Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. (2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles , the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as Anglo-Saxon words.

(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language

什么叫borrowed words?

Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan word s or borrowings in simple terms.

(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary

(3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed. 什么叫Denizens?

Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English langu age. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, s uch as port from portus (L).

…Denizens?的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),

shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).

什么叫Translation-loans ?

Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English lang uage but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as … long time no see from ha ojiumeijian (Ch)

什么叫Semantic-loans ?

words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowe d , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,suc h as the word dream ,which originally meant ?joy? and …music?, and its modern meaning was borr owed later from the Norse.

第二章：The development of the English vocabulary

The Indo-European Language Family

It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be g rouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准）

What is the criteria to divide language families ?

The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar

(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)

Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.

…Indo-European?两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set

Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian

Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.

In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.

Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton

The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Romanian all belong to the Italic.

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages:

Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian language s. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.

With Vikings? invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English

language.

It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have

survived in modern English.

Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a

highly inflected language just like modern German.

重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England

古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )

古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)

Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？

.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )

如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period , modern period. *现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期（重要的选择或填空内容）

Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance

Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period

现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)

The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )

The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)

Growth of Present-day English V ocabulary

Three main sources of new words :

1)The rapid development of modern science and technology

2)Social, economic and political changes;

3)The influence of other cultures and language

2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development

1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing

2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）

Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer

外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 .

重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words .

恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色

Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though q uite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.

英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？答案：Modern English period

文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?答案：Early Modern English period

在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？

French, Latin, English in Middle English period

easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？

答案：Middle English , Dutch

在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？答案：Dutch (前年考题)

据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?

答案：50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )

第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt

, kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary

注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。

Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?

答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.

文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?

答案：Greek , Roman culture

某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English

十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry? Printing 这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization.

第三章复习:

The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)

The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)

In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vow el change is called (allomorphs)

Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation)

名词解释:

Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes.

In other words, the morphemes is ?the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,

e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context,

e.g. in cats in bags, matches

It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by z ero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish

简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)

答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes

Free morphemes :

1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.

2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.

3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root

.4) free morphemes are free roots.

bound morphemes:

1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound..

2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.

3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix

affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.

Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.

Derivational affixes:

1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.

2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.

root :

1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity .2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word

3) a ?root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes hav

e been removed?

stem :

1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a com pound like handcuff.

2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational

morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.

3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)

答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析?

Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence, Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are rem oved, nation as a free root, still remains

Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental me aning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .

问题：分析下面一句话: He is much cleverer than any other one in the village,

too heads are better than one.

请从构词角度分析以上的例子,

cleverer , better

cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes better ( good , well 的特殊变

化) It is allomorph of good and well.

第四章:

问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案:有七种:

1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening

5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending

有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion

问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension

问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing

问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation

要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:

a-, non, ir : negative prefixes de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes )

mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size

anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude

trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order

bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes

suffixation :

1. Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns 3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness,

4) Noun and adjective suffixes

注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释.

要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open

简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?

1) phonetic features 2) Semantic features 3) Grammatical features

最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds

What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?

问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?

*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)

Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion

Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion 问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？

答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive

简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)

问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?答案： Ifs and buts

blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)

问题：…blending?分为哪四类合成词？1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail 问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?答案：nouns

The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns;very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. 问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？

答案：There are four common types of clipping :

1) Front clipping2) Back clipping 3) Front and back clipping 4) Phrase clipping

要注意clipping 的例子

有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) ,

还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)

问题：什么是acronymy？

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social an d political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms

Acronymy 包含两类:

1) initialisms (不发音) e.g. BBC, VOA, TB

2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL

`Words from proper names 有四大类:

1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people

2. Names of placese.g. champagne, rugby

3. Names of books e.g. utopia

4. Tradenames e.g. cabal

问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？

e.g. diagnosis diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms

Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head

Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词)

Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )

重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift.

问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词？答案：compounding

问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：Adjectives compounds

问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？答案：有三类

1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed

问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )

问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:

1) Phonetic features 2) Semantic features 3) Grammatical features

问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?

答案：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）

问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？答案：composition

问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？答案：compounds

问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, open solid : blackmail , blackmarket hyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand

问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs

答案：有三类：1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3) Only intransitive

问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?答案：verb to noun e.g. catch 问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：

1) full conversion e.g. black , white 2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor

问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract

e.g. host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词）friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词）

问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )答案：true

问题 Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without any

change in sound and spelling true

外来词分为四类：

1) Denizens e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus

2) Aliens e.g. garage , decor

3) Translation -loans e.g. long time no see

4) Semantic- loans. e.g. dream

判断对错题：

1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther .答案：true

2The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional.T

3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms 答案：true

4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes.答题： false

重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.

E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）

选择题：

Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? .

a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language C

问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American?

A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress A

问题：…smog?它是…smoke , fog?合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？

A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation 答案： C ) blending

问题：以下的词哪些属于：

A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.

e.g. goldmine (compound word ) bike ( shortened form ) process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀) supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word ) driver ( derived word )dorm ( shortened form, clipping ) modernize ( derivation ) blackboard ( co mpound )bus ( shortened form )

(omnibus 多选)

What is the difference between content words and functional words, illustrate your point with exa mples ? ( 未考过)(可能会出现的题)

注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。

What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning? (复习要考虑的题) (论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of

the English vocabulary? ( 未考过)

答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。

(关键答好第一个特点:…All national character ，它又分为五个特点)

前四章复习的内容：

问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping?

A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo

答案：Motel: (blending)

问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ?

答案：50,000 to 60,000

问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素

分为哪两类？

答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes

选择题或填空：

Besides French words, English also absorb as many as 2,500 words in the

Middle English Period. (Dutch )

A word is a symbol that

B .

A ) is used by same community

B) represents something else in the world

C) both simple and complex in nature

D) Show different ideas in different sounds

The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called

degradation or pejoration.

Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability, but has limited

Productivity

问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗，以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？

1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )

2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning )

3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )

4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation )

5) headache (compound n + v )

6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么： bound morphemes )

7) preview ( prefix : 前缀)

8) receive ( bound root )

9) called ( inflectional affixes )

第五章：Word Meaning

The meanings of…Meaning? 指的是哪三个层次的内容?

意义中的含义的三个层次的划分:

What are the meanings of …Meaning??

1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept )

2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference )

3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference)

(Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept )

What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）

答: Arbitrary and conventional

名词解释: reference

名词Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .

They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.

2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .

3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.

4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.

重点: sense 的名词解释：

Sense : 1. … sense? denotes the relationships inside the language. … The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.?

2. Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.

*3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)

重点：What are the type of motivation？

1) Onomatopoeic motivation

2) Morphological Motivation

3) Semantic Motivation

4) Etymological Motivation

填空:

1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )

2. Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )

3. pen in old English , refers to the feather, but with the development of technology, fountain was invented , but the name of this material was kept up to this day, people still used the pen to refer to writting tool, this motivation is called (etymological motivation)

4. Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a914469560.html,conic answer (简短回答),

laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据(etymological motivation)

问题: pingpong ball , cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?

答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation

问题:at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river, 此时采用了哪一种理据构成?

答案: Semantic movtivation

论述题: 1. What are the types of motivation?

2. What are the types of meaning?

按大的分支来分分为: (1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning

分析题:*?The dog is chasing a cat?, analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning.

Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.

(语法意义上分析没考过, 但从词汇意义上分析考过)

语法意义指一个词的词性, 句中充当的成份, 句子的时态,单复数形式等.

1)?Dog, cat? are nouns, and ?chase? is transitive verb.

2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense.

3) ?The dog, a cat? are singular form.

问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?

Both ?pen and sword? are nouns.

?mightier? is an adjective, and ?than? is preposition.

The sentence is in simple present tense.

这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?

?Mightier than? is comparative degree.

?pen and sword? are in singular form.

?The pen? is subject, and ?sword? functions as an object to preposition ?than?.

?mightier? is predict ive.

重点名词解释:

Conceptual meaning:

1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.

2) Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language.

*Associative meaning :(一定要把它的四种分支答上)

1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.

2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated.

3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc.

4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.

问题: Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody, every situation and every time, analyze the statement?

答案: e.g. A child is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to his is nothing but ? a hell?, hence unfavourable connotatitions,

问题: 某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？

答案：e.g. A phrase like ?son of a bitch? which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ?friendliness? and ?intimacy? used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time.

问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?

答案:In some dictionaries, stylistic features are clearly marked as ?formal?, ?informal?, ?literary?, ?archaic?, slang?.

Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: ?frozen?, ?formal?, ?consultative?, ?casual? and ?intimate?.

问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?

答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal

注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.

在情感意义affective meaning, 考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类:(年年affective meaning 例子都考)

(1) appreciative meaning

(2) pejorative meaning

Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好: pretty , handsome

Green 搭配的例子记好: green on the job, green fruit , green with envy , green-eyed monster.

复习:

问题: Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?

答案:Complex

Morphological motivation

问题: 有reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确)

有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)

The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference.

问题: ?Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets?这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支? 答案: Grammatical meaning

问题: …frozen, …formal? , …consultative?, …casual? and …intimate? 这五个词是总结了什么的划分，是根据什么的划分?

答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos.

问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).

问题: ?Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car?，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？

答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different.

问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo , which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated.

问题：?Unexpected, expectation, expecting?, the se three words are (morphologically) motivated.

问题：?Hopeless, jobless, dislike?, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated) 问题：?East or west , home is best? and ?there is no place like home?. 这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？

答案: Connotative meaning

第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field

polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）Two Approaches to Polysemy:

1) Diachronic approach

2) Sychronic approach

Two Processes of Development

1) radiation

(1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.

(2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.

e.g. face, neck

2) concatenation

(1) meaning … linking together?, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning .

(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.

e.g. treacle

注意：这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）

问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?

答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations.

types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）

问题：Fruit 与apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？

答案：Hyponymy?

问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？

答案：Semantic field

问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象，那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。

比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？

答案：Contradictory terms

它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy

问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？

答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.

问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？

答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground）

e.g. huge / tiny（它们之间存在着big , small , quite big, quite small）

e.g. young / old

这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)

问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念时，它和slow 是一组反义词，这样的一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？

答案：polysemy

问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？

答案：Homophone

重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？

1) perfect homonyms

e.g. bank , bear

2) homographs

e.g. bow, sow

3) homophones

e.g dear, deer

right, write, rite

重点：Origins of Homonyms

1) Change in sound and spelling

2) Borrowing

3) Shortening

问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上?

1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms

重点问题：Homonymy 和Polysemy 的区别？

（未考过）

6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms

e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns )

humor, sarcasm or ridicule

重点：名词解释Synonyms

Types of Synonyms :

1) Absolute synonyms

2) Relative synonyms

重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源，配以例子说明就可以了)

1) Borrowing

2)Dialects and regional English

3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words

4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions

重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms )

1) Difference in denotation

2) Difference in connotation

3) Difference in application

antonymy : 反义关系

要点:反义词的三种类别的划分:

What are the different types of antonyms?

三种类别的名词解释都要记:

1) Contradictory terms

exclusive

特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem.

e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述)

2) contrary terms

关键词: two poles or extremes

middle ground

e.g. rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)

3) Relative terms

e.g. parent / child , predecessor/ successor

问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms?

1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition

特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g. read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.

2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.

(这个特点只适用于polysemous )

e.g. fast , dull

3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.

(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念)

e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一部分, 所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容)

dog / bitch ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, bitch是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,bitch是狗的一种,因此我们说bitch必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion)

(语义上的包容性还没有考过)

e.g. tall/short, old /young

4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.

The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中)

e.g. rain or sine

high and low

easy come, easy go

名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念)

Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.

2)That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.

3) These specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms.

Note: hyponyms 和subordinate 都是指下义词.

比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?

分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以tool 是一个superordinate , 而hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms. 再比如，human body, arm, legs, head 之间的关系，也是如此。

(用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考点)

hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)

注意: 上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系.

重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过)

Semantic Field: 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.

2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as …an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the …words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fiel ds.

3) According to Trier?s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields.

4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.

注意: 答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同.

复习第六章:

问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词( true or false )

问题: true

e.g. fast, dull

问题: 反义词分为哪三类:

1) Contradictory terms

2) Contrary terms

3) Relative terms

问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?

答案: Contradictory terms

问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?

答案:contrary terms

问题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错?

答: 错

husband and wife : relative terms

man and woman : contradictory terms

问题: empty 与vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉, empty表示的是修饰容积,容量, 没有填充物的空荡荡, 而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied, not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment, 而人去楼空的房间叫empty room, 请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)

答案:

Differnece in application :

Empty, vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are not the same.

Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some

place is not occupied.

问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明?

答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/ bitch

tall/ short, old /young

问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?

答案: diachronic approach

像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?

答案: radiation

e.g. face, neck

问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.

答案: diachronic approach

问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?

答案:contrary terms

Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below:

huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny

( 这种分析题目易考)

看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析?

答案:

这些词都属于furnature, furnature 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy.

第七章: Changes in Word Meaning

两个大的部分:

1. Types of Semantic changes (五种)

(1)extension

extension 又被称作generalization

e.g ?manuscript? original meaning ? handwritting---now ?any author?s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer

"barn" original meaning ? a place for stroing only barely?---now ?storeroom?

(2)narrowing

narrowing 又被称作specialization

e.g. "deer" animal---now just ?deer?

"corn" grain---now ?maize?only

?garage? any safe place---? a place for storing cars?

(3) degradation

degradation 又被称作pejoration

e.g. "boor" peasant---now a rude, ill-mannered person

"churl"peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person

"hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral

"villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel

(4) elevation

elevation 又被称作ameliration

e.g. "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated t o ?delight, pleasant?

"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ?high-ranking army officer?

"constable" keeper of horses---now means ?policeman?

(5) transfer

e.g. paper ( p140)

the lip of a wound ( associated transfer)

purse for ?money? (associated transfer )

clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )

2.Causes of Changes :

1)extra linguistic factors

(1) historical reason

a word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. e.g. " pen" feather in the past ---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens

increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors.

(2) class reason

elevation and degradation

(3) Psychological reason

The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words

Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.

e.g. "copperhead" on p.143

2)linguistic factors

The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.

The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.

The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.

语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English

2)technical terms

3)from proper nouns to common words

问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?

答案: Narrowing

问题: 词义缩小有几个特例?

答案:有三个特例

1) From common words to proper nouns

e.g. city ---> the City

pennisular --->the Pennisular

profit --->the Profit

2) shortening

3) material nouns

问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的:

1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?

答案: degradation.

2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?

答案: Narrowing

3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?

答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns ,

4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种

答案：Extension

5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?

答案：Extension

6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?

答案：Narrowing or specialization

7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?

答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason

8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?

答案：Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason ,

9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?

答案：Etymological motivation

10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?

答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason.

11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式?

答案:transfer (书140页)

12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?

答案: generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns.

13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?

答案: From common nouns to proper nouns

Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语

学习目标：

?掌握英语习语的概念、范畴、特点

?英语习语的分类原则

?领会英语习语在英语词汇中的作用

考核点

英语习语的特点、分类和应注意的问题

Major points in this chapter

l Characteristics of idioms

l Classification of idioms

l Use of idioms

习语是语言高度发展的标志之一。

习语包括固定短语和短句，这是英语特有的。

严格来说，习语是......

Idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements, e.g. fly off the handle (恼羞成怒)。

从广义上来说，习语包括colloquialisms 惯用语、catchphrases(短字句)，俚语、谚语等。

9.1 Characteristics of idioms特点

识记英语习语的定义

What characteristics do the following idioms share?

do sb. brown

show the white feather

a stitch in one saves nine

in the same boat

diamond cut diamond, crook cut crook

like cures like

fish in the air（缘木求鱼）

an odd fish (怪人)

miss the boat (错过机会)

pull one?s socks up（振作起来，鼓起勇气，加紧努力），

领会：语义完整性、结构稳定性

特点1. Semantic unity 语义完整

习语的语义是一个完整的不可分割的统一体，因此不能根据组成这个习语的各个单词的意思来理解习语，否则就会犯望文生义的错误。例如：

pull one?s socks up （振作起来，鼓起勇气，加紧努力）

切不可根据组成这一习语的四个部分，把这个习语理解为“提起自己袜子”

例如：

If you want to be considered for promotion next year, you?d better pull your socks up. 如果你想明年被提升，你最好还是加把劲。

know where the shoe pinches 知道困难所在

（误：知道鞋子在哪儿夹脚）。例如：

You didn?t experience that, so you don?t know where the shoe pinches. 你没有亲身经历过，所以你不知道困难在什么地方。

汉语习语（成语）也是如此。

这正如我们汉语中有大量的习语也不能按照字面意思去理解。

如“捅马蜂窝”的意思是“闯祸”；

“穿小鞋”的意思是“（受）打击，（受）排斥”等。

9.1.2 特征2. Structural stability 结构的稳固性

The structure of an idiom is unchangeable.

分四个方面

1. The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.

习语包括规定的词组和句子，其中的各个组成部分是固定的，它不像一般短语和词组那样可以任意替换、拆开。

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Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter9

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning ?9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning ?9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change ?9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning ―a little tail‖ or ―a fine brush‖, like our Chinese ―pen‖毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a ―pencil‖. atom==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally ―an particle too small to be divided‖. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split. B.Social cause 社会原因 Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses. Eg. feedback (Electr.) =means ―response‖ in common use ,as in ―The teacher likes to have feedback from his students‖; allergic(Med.)=means ―being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.‖ *A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use . Eg. energy=(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do work decline=(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms of C.Foreign influences 外来文化影响 A particularly important cause . eg. -pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals. -dream meant ―joy‖ in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.

英语词汇学 英语词汇学习题2及答案

试题二 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％） 1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example A. lewd → ignoran t B. silly → foolish C. last → pleasure D. knave → boy 2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of: A. humour B. sarcasm C. ridicule D. all the above 3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____. A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation 4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____. A. synecdoche B. metonymy C. substitution D. metaphor 5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____. A. adjectives B. attributes C. modifiers D. words 6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used. A. vocabulary B. grammar C. semantic pattern D. syntactic structure 7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ . A. addition B. replacement C. position-shifting D. variation 8. The word "laconic" is _____. A. onomatopoeically motivated B. morphologically motivated