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英语教学法总复习

Unit 1 Language and Learning

1. Views on language:

1) Structural view on language:

The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences. Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.This view on language limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary.

2) Functional view on language:

The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Learners learn a language in order to be able to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. This view on language adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do.

3) Interactional view on language:

The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts. This view on language says that to know how to do what one wants to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do so, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, the learner has to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.

2. Views on language learning

1) Behaviourist theory:

The behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioral psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire language (Harmer, 1983) The key point of the theory of conditioning is that “you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, respo nse, and reinforcement”(Harmer1983: 30) Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism.

2) Cognitive theory:

The term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these rules an infinite of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence, which enables him to produce language.

3. What is a good language teacher?

The main elements of a good English teacher are ethic devotion, professional qualities, and personal styles.(Then try to explain these three elements respectively according to your own understanding)

Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Task-based Language Teaching

1. Communicative Competence

1) Linguistic competence:

Linguistic competence is a term which is first mentioned by Noam Chomsky. It is understood as the tacit knowledge of language structure and the ability to use this knowledge to understand and produce language. For Chomsky, competence simply means knowledge of the language system: grammatical knowledge in other words.

2) Communicative competence:

Hedge (2000: 46-55) discusses five main components of communicative competence: linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic

competence, and fluency. (PP28-19)

Communicative competence entails knowing not only the language code or the form of language, but also what to say to whom and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Communicative competence includes knowledge of what to say, when, how, where, and to whom.

2. The goal of communicative language teaching (P16)

3. Three principles of communicative language teaching (P20)

a) the communicative principle: Activities that involve real communication promote

learning.

b) the task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful

tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982).

c) the meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the

learning process.

4. Communicative activities:

A sequence of activities represented in Littlewood (1981: 86):

Pre-communicative activities: structural activities and quasi-communicative activities

Communicative activities: functional communication activities and social interaction

activities (PP22-23)

5. Six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities (PP24)

6. Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)

1) Definitions of a task (PP27-28)

2) Four components of a task (P28)

3) The differences between tasks and exercises (PP28-30)

Unit 3 The National English Curriculum

1.Designing principles for the National English Curriculum (PP41-43, P310-311)

2.Goals and objectives of English language teaching (PP43-45, P312)

3.Performance standards for different levels of competence (PP47-48)

4.Challenges facing English language teachers (PP48-49)

Unit 4 Lesson Planning

1. Lesson Planning

It means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.

2. In what ways do the teachers benefit from the teaching plan? (P52-53)

3. Principles for good lesson planning (PP53-54)

4. Macro planning vs. micro planning (PP54-55)

5. Components of a lesson plan (PP55-60)

6. The three P’s model (P 59)

Presentation:the teacher introduces the new language items to be learnt. The teacher focuses the students’ attention on model sentences, dialogues or other types of texts

and checks their understanding of the new language items.

Practice: students are given the opportunities to use the newly presented language items in

a controlled framework. This may done by drills, or by repeating parts of the dialogue

presented in the presentation. This stage is intended to develop accuracy skills.

Production: students give free and extensive expressions by integrating the new language items with the old through activities, aimed at developing fluency skills.

Unit 5 Classroom Management

1. Classroom management (P67)

Classroom management involves teacher recognizing options, making decisions and putting them into actions.

2. Teacher roles (PP68-72)

3. Classroom instructions (PP73-74)

4. Student grouping (PP74-77)

1) whole class work (lockstep) 2) pair work

3) group work 4) individual study

5. Questioning in the classroom

1) Classification of question types (PP83-84)

2) Tips for making questioning more effective (PP85-86)

6. Dealing with errors

1) When to correct (P87)

2) How to correct (PP87-88)

Unit 6 Teaching Pronunciation

1. The goal of teaching pronunciation (PP92-93)

The goal of teaching pronunciation is not to teach learners to achieve a perfect imitation of a native accent, but simply to get the learners to pronounce accurately enough to be easily and comfortably comprehensible to other speakers.

Our realistic goals of teaching pronunciation:

Consistency

Intelligibility

communicative efficiency

2. Critical period hypothesis (PP92-93)

3. Aspects of pronunciation

Unit 7 Teaching Grammar

1. The role of grammar in language learning (PP102-104)

2. Prescriptive and descriptive grammar

Prescriptive grammar: how people think grammar should be used in order to produce accurate utterances.

Descriptive grammar: the description of how grammar is used by the people.

3. Grammar presentation methods:

Deductive method: the teacher presents the rule of the structure on the blackboard and explains it to the students. This would be followed by the teacher giving several examples and then asking the students to apply the rules themselves in some exercises.

Inductive method: The teacher does not explain the rule at the beginning, but presents various language forms and the students are left to discover or induce the rules or generalizations on their own.

The guided discovery method (PP105-106)

3. Grammar practice

Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. By doing mechanical practice, the students pay repeated attention to a key element in a structure. Substitution and transformation drills are most frequently used in mechanical practice.

Meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students “keep an eye on” the way newly learned structures are used in process. Meaningful practice usually comes after mechanical practice.

4. Further suggestions about teaching grammar:

1) Teach only those rules which are simple and which do not have too many exceptions.

2) Do not spend too much time on grammar points, which do not appear to be very useful

or important. Just make the students aware of the special features.

3) Wherever possible, teach grammar in context.

4) When presenting grammar, try to use charts, tables, diagrams, maps, drawings and realia

to aid understanding.

5) Avoid difficult grammatical terminology as much as possible.

6) Allow enough opportunities for practice.

7) Do not be frustrated by the student s’ mistakes and errors, which are inevitable in

language learning.

Unit 8 Teaching Vocabulary

1. Understanding vocabulary and vocabulary learning (P116-118)

2. What does knowing a word mean? (PP118-124)

3. Ways of presenting vocabulary (PP124-126)

3. Consolidating vocabulary (PP126-129)

Unit 9 Teaching Listening

1. Characteristics of the listening process: (P139)

Spontaneity, context, visual clues, listener’s response, speaker’s adjustment

2. Models of listening

1) Schema theory:

The term schema was first used by the psychologist Bartlett (1932), and has had an important influence in the areas of speech processing and language comprehension.

Bartlett argued that the knowledge we carry around in our heads is organized into interrelated

patterns.

Schema theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences.

2) Bottom-up model and top-down model (PP143-144)

3. Major Listening Skills

i. Listening for gist: to get a general idea of what one hears

ii. Listening for specific information: to pick out from the whole text what one regards as important or relevant, to concentrate only on the information one needs iii. Listening for detailed information: to obtain a detailed knowledge of a topic

iv. Inferring: to “listen between the lines” (listen for what is not directly stated, to decode what is indirectly expressed, including the relationships between speakers, the moods or attitudes of the speakers, the physical setting of the text, and so on)

Sources: a) intonation, b) the speaker’s choice of words, c) the speaker’s facial expressions, gestures or body movements

v. Note-taking (to combine listening and writing)

4. Principles for teaching listening (PP139-140):

F o c u s o n p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e r e s u l t

C o m b i n e l i s t e n i n g w i t h o t h e r s k i l l s

F o c u s o n t h e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f m e a n i n g

G r a d e d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l a p p r o p r i a t e l y

5. Three stages for teaching listening:

Pre-listening stage (PP144-146)

While-listening stage (PP146-151)

Post-listening stage (PP152-154)

Unit 10 Teaching Speaking

1. What are the characteristics of spoken language?

a. in fairly simple sentence structures

b. in incomplete sentences

c. in informal, simple or common vocabulary

d. with broken grammar, false starts, hesitation, fillers, etc.

e. with a high proportion of repetition or redundancy

f. largely unplanned organization

g. a low density of information

h. context dependent (Background knowledge is necessary to understand exactly what is

being expressed.)

2. Principles for designing a successful speaking activity

Maximum foreign talk

Even participation

High motivation

Right language level

Unit 11 Teaching Reading

1. What are effective readers?

1)Have a clear purpose in reading

2)Read silently.

3)Read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word

4)Concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts

5)Use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks

6)Perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate

7)Guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them

8)Use background information to help understand the text

2. Three reading models:

Bottom-up approach: The reader builds up the meaning of a text on the basis of decoding smaller units: first words, and phrases, then sentences and paragraphs, and finally working out the meaning of the whole text.

Top-down approach: The reader uses his or her knowledge of the topic or of the type of the text and makes predictions about what the text will contain, then he uses these predictions to check his understanding of the text. In this way, the reader gets a global view of the text before he dives into the details of it.

Interactive approach: The reader uses the above two approaches together, and the two ways interact with each other in the understanding of the text. That means the reader might predict the context of the text by using his knowledge of the topic (top-down), then look for key words (bottom-up) to check the prediction, or get the main gist of the text by skimming it quickly (top-down) and examine the writer’s ch oice of vocabulary for understanding the implied meaning.

3.Major reading strategies:

Skimming: the reader moves his eyes over the text very quickly just in order to get the main idea of the text, or sometimes decide whether it is worth reading more deeply or not.

Scanning: the reader locates a particular piece of information without necessarily

understanding the rest of a text or passage. For example, the reader may read through a

chapter of a book as rapidly as possible in order to find out information about a particular date, such as when someone was born.

Inferring: reading between the lines. Make use of syntactic, logical and cultural clues to

discover the meaning of unknown elements. Such as the writer’s opinions and attitudes

which are not directly stated in the text.

4. Principles for teaching reading:

a) The selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students.

b) Tasks should be clearly given in advance.

c) Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main

meaning rather than test the students’ understanding of trivial details.

d) Tasks should help develop student s’ reading skills rather than test their reading

comprehension;

e) Teachers should help the students not merely to cope with one particular text in front of

them but with their reading strategies and reading ability in general.

f) Teachers should help the students to read on their own.

5. Main reading activities (118-135)

Unit 12 Teaching Writing

1. Problems in writing tasks

a) They are mainly accuracy-based.

b) They are designed to practise certain target structures.

c) There is insufficient preparation before the writing stage.

d) There is no sense of audience

e) There is no sense of authenticity.

f)There is no opportunity for creative writing, particularly for expressing unusual or

original ideas.

2. Two different approaches to teaching writing:

Product approach

In the traditional ELT classroom, writing often goes this way: the teacher gives a topic or

a selection of topics, a set of requirements, and a time limit. The students finish the

task within the time limit and hand in the final product. The students’work is

evaluated based on the accuracy of the final product. The process which the students

go through while doing the writing task is virtually ignored.

Process approach

The 'process approach' is defined as 'an approach to the teaching of writing which stresses the creativity of the individual writer, and which pays attention to the development of

good writing practices rather than the imitation of models'. Thus, the focus shifts from

the final product itself to the different stages the writer goes through in order to create

this product. by breaking down the task as a whole into its constituent parts.

3. Features of process writing (P142)

4. Writing Processes

?Finding a Topic

?Narrowing your topic

?Developing a Central Idea, or Thesis

?Developing an Outline (using brainstorming),

?The First Draft

?Revising

?Proofreading

?Peer correction

?Rewrite

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