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借鉴-Kinin
借鉴-Kinin

Kininogenase activity of Thalassophryne nattereri ?sh venom

Mo

?nica Lopes-Ferreira a ,*,Jose ′Artur da Silva Emim b ,1,Vitor Oliveira c ,Luciano Puzer c ,Maria Helena Cezari c ,Mariana da Silva Arau

′jo d ,Luiz Juliano c ,Anto

?nio Jose ′Lapa b ,Caden Souccar b ,Ana Maria Moura-da-Silva a

a

Laboratory of Immunopathology—Instituto Butantan,Avenida Vital Brasil,1500,Butantan,

05503900Sa

?o Paulo,SP ,Brazil b

Department of Pharmacology—Natural Products Section,Escola Paulista de Medicina,

Universidade Federal de Sa

?o Paulo,R.Tre ?s de Maio 100,04044-020Sa ?o Paulo,SP ,Brazil c

Department of Biophysics,Escola Paulista de Medicina,Universidade Federal de Sa

?o Paulo,R.Tre ?s de Maio 100,04044-020Sa ?o Paulo,SP ,Brazil

d

Department of Biochemistry,Escola Paulista de Medicina,Universidade Federal de Sa

?o Paulo,R.Tre

?s de Maio 100,04044-020Sa ?o Paulo,SP ,Brazil Received 26April 2004;accepted 26July 2004

Abstract

Accidents caused by the venomous ?sh Thalassophryne nattereri are characterized by edema,intense pain and necrosis at the site of the

sting.This study assessed the nociceptive and edematogenic activities of T.nattereri venom after injection into the mouse hindpaw and determination of the paw licking duration and weight.Subplantar injections of the venom (0.1–6m g)induced a dose-related increase of the paw licking time and paw swelling with maximal values at 3m g (209.5?57.5s and 135.0?6.8mg,respectively).Pretreatment of mice with either indomethacin (10mg/kg,i.p.),a cyclooxygenase inhibitor,dexamethasone (1mg/kg,s.c.),a steroid anti-in?ammatory agent,cyproheptadine (1mg/kg,i.p.),antagonist of serotonin receptors or L -NAME (100mg/kg,s.c.),inhibitor of nitric oxide syntase,did not affect the venom-induced nociceptive and edematogenic responses.Injection of the opioid analgesic fentanyl (0.1mg/kg,s.c.)reduced the paw licking time induced by 1m g venom by 84%of control,without affecting the paw swelling.Both nociceptive and edematogenic responses were reduced after treatment with a speci?c tissue kallikrein inhibitor (TKI,100mg/kg,i.p.)by 78%and 24%from control values,respectively.Administration of a speci?c plasma kallikrein inhibitor (PKSI 527,100mg/kg,s.c.)did not affect the venom-induced nociceptive response,but it decreased the paw edema by 15%from control.After injection of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril (100mg/kg,i.p.)the venom-induced nociceptive end edematogenic responses were increased by two-fold.The role of kallikreins possibly present in the venom was further assessed by hydrolysis of human kininogen and kininogen-derived synthetic peptides,showing the release of kallidin (Lys-bradykinin).The hydrolysis was inhibited by metal chelating agents but not by serino-,aspartyl-or cysteino-proteinase inhibitors.The data suggest that a protease with tissue-kallikrein-like activity plays a major role in nociception and edema induced by T.nattereri venom and this should be considered to achieve ef?cient treatments for human accidents with this venom.

#2004Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Thalassophryne nattereri ;Edema;Nociception;Speci?c tissue kallikrein inhibitor;Lys-bradykinin

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd15780563.html,/locate/biochempharm

1.Introduction

Animal venoms are usually very complex mixtures of toxic proteins and peptides that evolved in certain species all along animal phylogeny.These toxins bind with high af?nity to physiological targets of the preys/predators causing immobilization,necrosis or death.Although,?sh venoms have evolved to interact with sea animals,it is observed that human accidents also occur.The accidents caused by?shes are frequent and represent a public health problem in some regions of Brazil,particularly in the north and northeast states where the accidents are caused by Thalassophryne nattereri?sh,popularly known as ‘‘niquim’’.

Human accidents occur by contact with the?sh spines located on their dorsum and both sides of the head,and connected to the venom glands.Envenoming symptoms include severe edema and pain followed by a fast settling necrosis,both in human victims and experimental animals [1].The number of accidents occurring in Brazil is uncer-tain.It is estimated that hundreds of accidents occur every year and the incidence is underestimated because patients seldom look for medical care due to its lack of ef?cacy. Current treatment of T.nattereri accidents includes anti-in?ammatory and analgesic drugs,antibiotics and immer-sion of the lesioned tissue in warm water.These procedures do not reduce the acute symptoms of the accidents being effective only for prevention of secondary infections.Most accidents occur in the?shing communities and,due to the lack of ef?cient therapy,it may take weeks or even months for complete recovery of the victims.

T.nattereri venom is composed of proteins endowed with proteolytic and myotoxic properties,but devoid of phospholipase A2activity[2].Analysis of its local effects showed a myotoxic effect with muscle damage and dif?-cult regeneration[3].Blood?ow at microvessels was also impaired with stasis and presence of thrombi in venules, focal transient constrictions in arterioles,and increased vascular permeability.Venom lacked a direct pro-coagu-lant activity,but exerted a strong cytolytic action on platelets and endothelial cells in vitro[4].A better under-standing of the mechanisms regulating the acute-in?am-matory events could lead us to the development of ef?cient therapeutic strategies.

This study aimed to examine the nociceptive and edematogenic activities of T.nattereri venom in mice and to determine the effects of antagonists of major mediators involved in both responses.Our results showed that the venom-induced nociception and edema were not affected by either steroidal and non-steroidal anti-in?am-matory agents or a serotonin inhibitor,but they were reduced after administration of a speci?c tissue kallikrein inhibitor.We also showed the presence of tissue-kallik-rein-like activity in the venom suggesting that a protease plays a major role in edema and nociception induced by T.nattereri venom.2.Materials and methods

2.1.Animals

Male Swiss mice(18–22g)were housed in a room with controlled temperature(22?28C)and lighting(lights on from6:00a.m.to6:00p.m.),with free access to laboratory chow and tap water.All experiments were performed between10:00a.m.and5:00p.m.and the animals were cared in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the International Association for the Study of Pain[5].The experiments were conducted under approval of the Insti-tuto Butantan Animal Investigation Ethical Committee.

2.2.Venom

The venom was collected from fresh specimens of T. nattereri from the openings of the spines by applying pressure at their bases.The venom was either immediately used or kept frozen atà208C.For pharmacological tests, venom solutions were prepared in phosphate buffer saline (PBS:NaCl135mM,KCl2.7mM and phosphate buffer 10mM,pH7.2).Protein content was determined by the method of Bradford[6],using a standard curve with known concentrations of bovine serum albumin(sigma)as absor-bance reference.Venom samples were further diluted in PBS for the appropriated concentration corresponding to the dosages used in each experiment.

2.3.Evaluation of nociception and edema

For nociceptive tests,each mouse was kept in an obser-vation chamber(acrylic box,12cm?12cm?12cm) mounted with a mirror at a458angle beneath the?oor[7]. After a10min adaptation period,the animals were injected with the venom(0.1–6m g,s.c.)into the intraplantar region of the hind foot paw in a?xed volume of PBS(30m L).The contralateral paw(control)was injected with an equal volume of the vehicle.Each animal was then returned to the observation chamber and the amount of time spent licking or biting each hind paw was recorded for30min and taken as the index of nociception[8,9].After2h venom injection,the animals were killed by cervical dislocation under light ether anesthesia and both hind paws were cut off at the ankle joint and weighed.The difference in weight(milligrams)between the hind paws was used as an index of paw edema[10].

The effective anti-nociceptive dose of indomethacin was determined in the acetic acid-induced writhing test in mice as previously reported[11].Mice were treated with indo-methacin(10mg/kg,i.p.),30min before injection of1.2% acetic acid(0.1mL/10g,i.p.)[12]and the number of abdominal constrictions was counted cumulatively for 30min.The tested anti-in?ammatory dose of dexametha-sone(1.0mg/kg,s.c.)was determined after60min treat-ment of mice on the ear edema induced by topical

M.Lopes-Ferreira et al./Biochemical Pharmacology68(2004)2151–2157 2152

application of10m L croton oil solution(2.5%)as detailed elsewhere[11].

2.4.Enzymatic assays

The peptidase activity of T.nattereri venom was deter-mined using internally-quenched?uorogenic substrates containing sequences derived from human kininogen as described previously[13].The hydrolysis of the?uoro-genic peptidyl substrates at378C in tris-buffer pH7.4 containing NaCl100mM was followed by measuring the ?uorescence at l em=420nm and l ex=320nm in a Hitachi F-2000spectro?uorometer.The1cm path-length cuvette containing2mL of the buffer was placed in a thermo-statically controlled cell compartment for5min before the venom solution was added followed by the substrate addition,and the increase in?uorescence with time was continuously recorded for5–10min.In assays using dif-ferent inhibitors,a pre-incubation time in the presence of the respective inhibitor was applied before the substrate addition.The slope was converted into mols of hydrolyzed substrate per minute based on the?uorescence curves of standard peptide solutions before and after total enzymatic hydrolysis.The concentration of the peptide solutions was obtained by colorimetric determination of2,4-dinitrophe-nyl group(17,300Mà1cmà1,extinction coef?cient at 365nm).The venom concentrations for initial rate deter-minations were chosen at a value intended to hydrolyze less than5%of the substrate present in the reaction.The inner-?lter effect was corrected using an empirical equa-tion as previously described by Araujo et al.[13].

2.5.Peptide synthesis

The internally quenched?uorogenic(IQF)peptides containing EDDnp attached to glutamine and ortho-ami-nobenzoyl/dinitrophenol groups as donor–acceptor pairs were synthesized by solid-phase strategy.An automated bench-top simultaneous multiple solid-phase peptide synthesizer(PSSM eight system from Shimadzu)was used for the synthesis of all the peptides by the Fmoc-procedure. The?nal de-protected peptides were puri?ed by semi-preparative HPLC using an Econosil C-18column(10m m, 22.5mm?250mm),and a two-solvent system:(A)TFA/ H2O(1:1000)and(B)TFA/acetonitrile(ACN)/H2O (1:900:100).The peptide was eluted at a?ow rate of 5mL/min with a10–60%gradient of solvent B over30 or45min.Analytical HPLC was performed using an Ultrasphere C-18column(5m m,4.6mm?150mm)with solvent systems A and B at a?ow rate of1mL/min and a 10–80%gradient of B over20min.The HPLC column eluates were monitored by their absorbance at220nm (Shimadzu UV–vis detector)and by?uorescence emission at420nm following excitation at320nm(Shimadzu RF-353?uorescence detector).The molecular weight and purity of synthesized peptides were checked by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry(TofSpec-E,Micromass) and/or peptide sequencing using a protein sequencer PPSQ-23(Shimadzu Tokyo,Japan).

2.6.Determination of cleaved bonds

The cleaved bonds were identi?ed by isolation of the fragments by HPLC and either by comparing the retention times of the produced fragments with synthetic peptides encompassing the expected hydrolysis products or by molecular mass determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectro-metry.

2.7.Bradykinin detection by radioimmunoassay(RIA) T.nattereri venom(3m g)was incubated with human high or low molecular mass kininogen(200nM)in50mM tris-buffer,pH7.41,0.1M NaCl in a?nal volume of 100m L for10min at378C.Kinin was extracted in ethanol (four times the reaction’s?nal volume)for10min at708C. Solutions were freeze-dried and dissolved in200m L of egg albumin buffer(0.1%egg albumin in0.01M phosphate buffer,pH7.0,0.14M NaCl,0.1%NaN3,30mM EDTA, 3mM ortho-phenantroline).Aliquots(50m L)were incu-bated with100m L of antibody anti-Bradykinin(1:80,000) [14]and100m L of[125I]-labeled Tyr-bradykinin for20h at48C.Four hundred microliters of0.1%bovine g-glo-bulin in0.01M phosphate buffer,pH7.0,0.14M NaCl, 0.150.1%NaN3and800m L of25%polyethyleneglycol 6000solution were added to the samples,which were incubated for10min at48C.Finally,the samples were centrifuged at2000?g for20min at48C;the super-natants were removed and the pellets submitted to radiation counting[15].

2.8.Drugs and chemicals

The following drugs were used:fentanyl(Jassen Farm-ace?utica),dexamethasone(Decadron–Prodome),indo-methacin(Indocid–MSD),cyproheptadine,L-NAME, and https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd15780563.html,I was obtained by peptide synthesis in solution using anhydride procedures and tert-butyloxycar-bonyl-amino acids,puri?ed in silica gel and characterized by HPLC as previously described[16,17].PKSI527was provided by Dr.Yoshio Okada,Faculty of Pharmacy Sciences,Kobe-Gakuin University,Kobe,Japan.Drugs solutions were administered30min before the venom, except dexamethasone and captopril,which were given, 60and120min,respectively,before venom injections.All drugs were dissolved in sterile saline(NaCl0.9%),except indomethacin and cyproheptadine which were dissolved in sodium bicarbonate(5%)and dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO), respectively;TKI was dissolved in Tween80(40:1)and further diluted in saline.In enzymatic assay,the following inhibitors were used:trypsin-like serine proteases(TLCK), chymotrypsin-like serine proteases(TPCK),all serine

M.Lopes-Ferreira et al./Biochemical Pharmacology68(2004)2151–21572153

proteases (PMSF),cysteine proteases (E-64),aspartyl proteases (pepstatin A),and metalloproteinases (EDTA and o -phenantroline).2.9.Statistical analysis

All results were presented as means ?S.E.M.of at least six animals in each group.Differences among data were determined using one way analysis of variance (ANOV A)followed by Dunnett ’s test.Differences between two means were determined using unpaired student ’s t -test.Data were considered different at p <0.05.

3.Results

3.1.Nociceptive and edematogenic effects of T.nattereri venom

Plantar injection of T.nattereri venom (0.1–6m g)into the mouse right hind-paw induced a dose-related increase of the paw licking duration that reached its maximum at 3m g (209.5?13.9s),and was slightly diminished at the highest dose (Fig.1a).After 30min treatments,the mean paw weights increased proportionately to the dose up to 3m g (from 35.0?6.0to 135.0?2.8mg)and stabilized

thereafter,re ?ecting the associated venom-induced noci-ception and paw edema (Fig.1b).

To assess the mechanisms involved in both nociceptive and edematogenic responses,the venom effect was tested at a dose (1m g)that induced submaximal levels of noci-ceptive response and paw edema,in the presence of antagonists of the major related pharmacological path-ways.These antagonists were tested at doses effective as anti-nociceptive and anti-in ?ammatory in the same animal model [11].

3.2.Effects of antagonists of nociceptive and in?ammatory mediators

Previous treatment of mice with the opioid analgesic fentanyl (0.1mg,s.c.,dorsal region)reduced the paw licking time induced by injection of 1m g of T.nattereri venom by 84%of control (from 185.0?21.0to 29.6?3.6s,n =6),without changing the paw swelling (from 128.1?7.5to 129.2?9.7mg,n =6).

In those mice treated with indomethacin (1mg/kg,s.c.),a non-steroidal anti-in ?ammatory agent,the venom-induced paw licking time (218.0?40.6s,n =6)and swelling (117.7?9.1mg)induced by 1m g venom were not signi ?cantly different compared to control values (181.0?18.7s and 122.8?6.2mg,respectively).At the same dose indomethacin reduced the acetic acid-induced writhing in mice by 52%of control (from 18.5?3.0to 8.8?2.1writhes/30min (n =6).

Treatment of mice with dexamethasone (1mg/kg,s.c.),a steroidal anti-in ?ammatory drug did not in ?uence the venom-induced nociceptive response (207.0?23.7s)or the paw edema (114.8?10.9mg).An equal dose of dexamethasone,however,was effective in reducing the mouse ear edema induced by croton oil by 82%(from 8.8?1.0to 1.6?0.6mg,n =6).

The paw licking time and edema induced in mice by 1m g venom were not either affected by treatment of mice with cyproheptadine (1mg/kg,i.p.),an antagonist of ser-otonin receptors (124.5?13.6s;107.8?7.6mg,n =6),or L -NAME (100mg/kg,s.c.),a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor,(145.8?8.3s;96.1?7.3mg,n =6)compared to control values (149.0?16.5s and 106.2?4.9mg,respectively).

3.3.Effects of kallikrein inhibitors

Treatment of mice with a speci ?c tissue kallikrein inhibitor (TKI,100mg/kg,i.p.),at a dose previously shown to reduce the formalin-induced neurogenic and in ?ammatory pain in mice [11],reduced the venom-induced paw licking time and edema by 78%and 24%from control values (162.7?38.4s and 105.5?19.9mg,n =12),respectively (Fig.2).In contrast,pretreatment with PKSI 527(100mg/kg,s.c.),a plasma kallikrein speci ?c inhibitor did not affect the paw licking time,while it

M.Lopes-Ferreira et al./Biochemical Pharmacology 68(2004)2151–2157

2154Fig.1.Dose –response relationships of the nociceptive effect (a)and paw swelling (b)induced in mice by subplantar injections of single doses of T.nattereri venom (0.1–6m g)into the hindpaw.Symbols and vertical bars are means ?S.E.M.of the effects recorded in 6–10animals for each dose.

slightly reduced the paw edema(15%)induced by T. nattereri venom compared to control(106.2?4.9mg) (Fig.2).A lower dose of TKI(30mg/kg,i.p.)did not change the venom-induced nociceptive(147.0?26.2s) and in?ammatory responses(89.2?6.1mg).

To evaluate a possible involvement of the kallikrein-kinin system in the venom-induced local effects,mice were pretreated with the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibi-tor,captopril(100mg/kg,i.p.).This inhibitor prevents degradation of bradykinin,thus inducing potentiation of kallikrein effects.As shown in Fig.2,administration of captopril(3mg/kg,s.c.)increased the paw licking time and paw swelling induced by0.1m g T.nattereri venom in mice by two-fold(Fig.2).

3.4.T.nattereri venom cleaves synthetic substrates from human kininogen

To verify the presence of kinin releasing enzymes in the venom of T.nattereri,the enzymatic activity of the venom on synthetic substrates derived from human kininogen sequences was evaluated.Three internally quenched ?uorescent peptides containing the sequence related to the bradykinin region of human kininogen were used to assess the substrate speci?city requirements:(1)Abz-MISLMK RPQ-EDDnp,(Abz-Met-Ile-Ser-Leu-Met-Lys-Arg-Pro-Gln-EDDnp)corresponding to bradykinin N-terminal,(2)Abz-GFSPFR SSRQ-EDDnp(Abz-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-Phe-Arg-Ser-Ser-Arg-Gln-EDDnp),corre-sponding to bradykinin C-terminal,and(3)Abz-LGMISLMK RPPGWSPFR SSRIW-NH2(Abz-Leu-Gly-Met-Ile-Ser-Leu-Met-Lys-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Trp-Ser-Pro-Phe-Arg-Ser-Ser-Arg-Ile-Trp-NH2)peptide containing the entire bradykinin sequence.Hydrolysis of the two?rst peptides was observed by increase in?uorescence levels. Furthermore,HPLC analysis of the reaction products revealed fragments with the same retention time as the authentic synthesized fragments correspondent to cleavage of peptide(1)at the M–K bonds,the peptide(2)in R–S bond,and peptide(3)releasing KRPPGWSPFR(Lys-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Trp-Ser-Pro-Phe-Arg),which corresponds to Lys-bradykinin or Kallidin(Table1).The last fragment (from peptide3)was detected using tryptophane(W)as ?uorescent group and further analyzed by mass spec-troscopy,con?rming the molecular mass of Kallidin (Table1).

The hydrolysis of the synthetic peptides1,2and3was evaluated as described above in the presence of inhibitors of the major groups of proteolytic enzymes.The enzymatic activity was inhibited by metal-chelating agents(EDTA

M.Lopes-Ferreira et al./Biochemical Pharmacology68(2004)2151–2157

2155 Fig.2.Effects of speci?c inhibitors of tissue kallikrein(TKI,100mg/kg,

i.p.,injected30min before),plasma kallikrein(PKSI527,100mg/kg,s.c.,

injected30min before)and the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor

captopril(Capt,100mg/kg,i.p.,120min before)on the nociceptive

response in(a),and paw swelling in(b),induced by subplantar injections

of T.nattereri venom(Tn1–0.1m g)in mice.Columns and vertical bars are

means?S.E.M.of six animals in each group.(*)Different from corre-

sponding control(C)(p<0.05).

Table1

Cleavage sites of the hydrolysis by T.nattereri venom of the synthetic substrates derived from human kininogen sequence,determined by high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)and by mass spectrometry(MS)

Substrate Detected fragments

(HPLC retention time)

MW(calculated)Observed ion(m/z)

Abz-LGMISLM#KRPQ-EDDnp Abz-LGMISLM a––

KRPQ-EDDnp a––

Abz-GFSPFR#SSRQ-EDDnp Abz-GFSPFR a––

SSRQ-EDDnp a––

Abz-LGMISLM#KRPPGWSPFR#SSRI-NH2c KRPPGWSPFR b1226.71227

Abz-LGMISLM a

(#)Indicates the cleavage site.

a Cleavage sites determined by comparison of the retention time in the HPLC analysis of the reaction products with the corresponding synthetic fragments (Abz-LGMISLM,KRPQ-EDDnp,SSRQ-EDDnp,etc.).

b Fragment isolated in the HPLC analysis and submitted to MS analysis.

c To facilitate the detection(following the triptofan?uorescence)an

d th

e isolation o

f this fragment the Phe residue at this position(in the natural kininogen sequence)was replaced by a Trp residue(underlined residue)in the synthetic peptide assayed.

and o-PHE).In contrast,PMSF,TLCK,TPCK,E-64,and Pepstatin-A did not present inhibitory effect on action of whole venom.

3.5.Kinin release by T.nattereri venom

The ability of the venom to generate kinins from natural kininogen was evaluated by radioimmunoassay,incubating the venom with human high or low molecular mass kinino-gen.The results presented in Table2show that incubation of the venom with high molecular mass kininogen resulted in kinin levels similar to controls.In contrast,when incubated with human low molecular mass,kininogen venom induced the release of kinin(6300pg compared to13,500pg released by tissue-kallikrein enzyme),thus, con?rming the existence of venom peptidases with sub-strate speci?city and activity similar to tissue-kallikrein enzymes.

4.Discussion

The main symptoms of T.nattereri envenomation include local edema and excruciating pain that develop a few minutes after the accident.Current treatment for T. nattereri accidents using anti-in?ammatory drugs is inef-fective[1].Thus,a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating the acute in?ammatory events could lead us to the development of more ef?cient therapeutic strategies. This study investigated the nociceptive and edematogenic activities of the poisonous?sh T.nattereri in mice and the in?uence of major nociceptive and in?ammatory mediators on both responses.

Injection of T.nattereri venom into the mouse foot paw reproduced the edema and nociception observed in human accidents.Signi?cant inhibition of the nociceptive response was obtained after treatment with the opioid analgesic fentanyl.These drugs are known to produce analgesic effect as k and m agonists at spinal and suprasp-inal levels[18].

Pretreatment with the anti-in?ammatory agents dexa-methasone(steroidal)or indomethacin(non-steroidal)was ineffective on the venom-induced nociception and edema, indicating that eicosanoids generated from the arachidonic acid are not involved.These results may explain why the clinical use of these drugs has never led to any effect on patients stung by T.nattereri.Moreover,pretreatment with either cyproheptadine,a serotonin antagonist,or L-NAME, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor,did not affect the noci-ceptive and edematogenic responses,excluding thus a major role of serotonin and nitric oxide as in?ammatory mediators in the local effect of T.nattereri venom.In addition,in?ammatory signs measured by cytokine release and cell migration in the response to T.nattereri venom injury in mouse foot paw were very discrete[19],suggest-ing a dissociation of classical in?ammatory response and the symptoms of envenomation,including edema and nociception.

Both nociceptive and edematogenic responses of the venom were reduced by the tissue kallikrein inhibitor phenylacetyl-FSR-EDDnp(TKI),an antagonist previously shown to exert anti-nociceptive and anti-in?ammatory actions in experimental models involving injuries related to kinin formation by tissue kallikrein[11].In contrast,the plasma kallikrein inhibitor PKSI527did not in?uence the venom-induced nociceptive response,but it slightly decreased the paw edema.These?ndings indicated that pain and edema induced by T.nattereri venom could be associated with the kallikrein products.The role of kinins was further con?rmed after inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme with captopril,which increased both edema and nociceptive responses induced by the venom. Kinins are well known mediators of in?ammation.In this report,we show that kallikreins appear to be major mediators of nociception and important components on edema,independently of classical in?ammatory pathways. The role of kinins in venom-induced edema was suggested previously for wasp stings.However,in this case,hista-mine,serotonin and lipoxigenases derivatives were involved[20].Kinins were also reported to induce hyper-algesia after injection of Bothrops asper snake venom,and the effect was also inhibited by dexamethasone,suggesting the participation of arachidonic acid derivatives[21]. Rocha e Silva et al.and coworkers[22]described for the ?rst time a kinin-releasing enzyme using as model the venom of Bothrops jararaca.Since then,the presence of kallikrein-like enzymes has been extensively described in a large number of different animal venoms[23].Most of these studies,however,are related to the hypotensive effects of bradykinin.Recent studies also reported the presence of kallidin-releasing enzymes from Bitis arietans, Trimeresurus elegans,and Phoneutria nigriventer[24–28]. In this study,we also characterized the presence of a tissue-kallikrein-like enzyme in T.nattereri https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd15780563.html,ing in vitro enzymatic assays,venom samples hydrolyzed the human kininogen-derived synthetic peptides releasing Lys-brady-kinin;additionally,it also released kinins when pre-incu-bated with low molecular weight kininogen.

A series of protease inhibitors were used to verify the nature of the kinin-releasing enzyme presented in

M.Lopes-Ferreira et al./Biochemical Pharmacology68(2004)2151–2157 2156

Table2

Kinin-release by T.nattereri venom measured by radioimmunoassay

Sample Kininins(pg)

HK200

HK+Plasma kallikrein16,000

HK+T.nattereri venom240

LK530

LK+Tissue kallikrein13,500

LK+T.nattereri venom6,300

T.nattereri venom(3m g)was incubated with human high(HK)or low(LK)

molecular mass kininogen(200nM)in50mM tris-buffer,pH7.41,0.1M

NaCl for10min at708C.

T.nattereri venom.Surprisingly,the classical serinopro-teinase inhibitors did not interfere with peptide cleavage. Aspartyl and cysteine-peptidase inhibitors also failed in reducing enzyme activity.On the other hand,metal-chelat-ing agents as EDTA and ortho-Phenanthroline inhibited the hydrolysis of kininogen-derived peptides.This suggests that the kallikrein-like activity of T.nattereri venom could be attributed to metalloproteinases.However,this is in disagreement with the current classi?cation of kallikreins, which are classi?ed as serinoproteinases.The effect of chelating agents could also be explained by the necessity of metal ions for stabilization of the enzyme structure,which may occur independently of the class of proteinase.In order to characterize the T.nattereri venom tissue-kallik-rein-like enzyme,the component is currently being iso-lated and sequenced in our laboratory and this further work will certainly explain the nature of the enzyme.

In conclusion,the presented data indicate that nocicep-tion and edema induced by T.nattereri venom follow a peculiar in?ammatory mechanism where kallikrein pro-ducts play an important role and classical in?ammatory pathways appear to exert minor in?uence.These?ndings must be considered in order to achieve ef?cient treatment for human victims of this?sh.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Fundac?a?o de Amparo a` Pesquisa do Estado de Sa?o Paulo(FAPESP)and Brazilian Research Council(CNPq).

References

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01章思考题参考答案

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