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The origins of etiquette—the conventional rules of behavior and ceremonies observed in polite society—are complex. One of them is respect for authority. From the most primitive times，subjects（臣民） showed respect for their ruler by bowing， prostrating themselves on the ground，not speaking until spoken to， and never turning their backs to the throne. Some rulers developed rules to stress even further the respect due to them. The emperors of Byzantium expected their subjects to kiss their feet. When an ambassador from abroad was introduced， he had to touch the ground before the throne with his forehead. Meanwhile the throne itself was raised in the air so that， on looking up， the ambassador saw the ruler far above him， haughty and remote.

Absolute rulers have， as a rule， made etiquette more complicated rather than simpler. The purpose is not only to make the ruler seem almost godlike， but also to protect him from familiarity，for without some such protection his life， lived inevitably in the public eye， would be intolerable. The court of Louis XIV of France provided an excellent example of a very highly developed system of etiquette. Because the king and his family were considered to belong to France，they were almost continually on show among their courtiers （朝臣）。 They woke， prayed， washed and dressed before crowds of courtiers. Even large crowds watched them eat their meals， and access to their palace was free to all their subjects.

Yet this public life was organized so carefully， with such a refinement of ceremonial， that the authority of the King and the respect in which he was held grew steadily throughout his lifetime.

A crowd watched him dress， but only the Duke who was his first valet de chamber （贴身男仆）was allowed to hold out the right sleeve of his shirt， only the Prince who was his Grand Chamberlain could relieve him of his dressing gown， and only the Master of the Wardrobe might help him pull up his trousers. These were not familiarities， nor merely duties， but highly desired privileges. Napoleon recognized the value of ceremony to a ruler. When he became Emperor， he discarded the revolutionary custom of calling everyone “citizen”， restored much of the Court ceremonial that the Revolution had destroyed， and recalled members of the nobility to instruct his new court in the old formal manners.

Rules of etiquette may prevent embarrassment and even serious disputes. The general rule of social precedence is that people of greater importance precede those of lesser importance. Before the rules of diplomatic precedence were worked out in the early sixteenth century， rival ambassadors often fought for the most honourable seating position at a ceremony. Before the principle was established that ambassadors of various countries should sign treaties in order of seniority，disputes arose as to who should sign first. The establishment of rules for such matters prevented uncertainty and disagreement， as to rules for less important occasions. For example， at an English wedding， the mother of the bridegroom should sit in the first pew or bench on the right-hand side of the church. The result is dignity and order.

Outside palace circles， the main concern of etiquette has been to make harmonious the behaviour of equals， but sometimes social classes have used etiquette as a weapon against intruders，refining their manners in order to mark themselves off from the lower classes.

In sixteenth-century Italy and eighteenth-century France， decreasing prosperity and increasing social unrest led the ruling families to try to preserve their superiority by withdrawing from the lower and middle classes behind barriers of etiquette. In a prosperous community， on the other hand， polite society soon absorbs the newly rich， and in England there has never been any shortage of books on etiquette for teaching them the manners appropriate to their new way of life.

Every code of etiquette has contained three elements： basic moral duties; practical rules which promote efficiency; and artificial， optional graces such as formal compliments to， say， women on their beauty or superiors on their generosity and importance.

In the first category are consideration for the weak and respect for age. Among the ancient Egyptians the young always stood in the presence of older people. Among the Mponguwe of Tanzania，the young men bow as they pass the huts of the elders. In England， until about a century ago，young children did not sit in their parents‘ presence without asking permission.

Practical rules are helpful in such ordinary occurrences of social life as making proper introductions at parties or other functions so that people can be brought to know each other. Before the invention of the fork， etiquette directed that the fingers should be kept as clean as possible; before the handkerchief came into common use， etiquette suggested that， after spitting， a person should rub the spit inconspicuously （难以察觉的） underfoot.

Extremely refined behavior， however， cultivated as an art of gracious living， has been characteristic only of societies with wealth and leisure， which admitted women as the social equals of men. After the fall of Rome， the first European society to regulate behavior in private life in accordance with a complicated code of etiquette was twelfth-century Provence， in France.

Provence had become wealthy. The lords had returned to their castles from the crusades （十字军东征）， and there the ideals of chivalry （武士制度） grew up， which emphasized the virtue and gentleness of women and demanded that a knight （骑士） should profess a pure and dedicated love to a lady who would be his inspiration， and to whom he would dedicate his brave deeds，though he would never come physically close to her. This was the introduction of the concept of romantic love， which was to influence literature for many hundreds of years and which still lives on in a belittled form in simple popular songs and cheap novels today.

In Renaissance Italy too， in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries， a wealthy and leisured society developed an extremely complex code of manners， but the rules of behavior of fashionable society had little influence on the daily life of the lower classes. Indeed many of the rules，such as how to enter a banquet room， or how to use a sword or handkerchief for ceremonial purposes，were irrelevant to the way of life of the average working man， who spent most of his life outdoors or in his own poor hut and most probably did not have a handkerchief， certainly not a sword，to his name.

Yet the essential basis of all good manners does not vary. Consideration for the old and weak and the avoidance of harming or giving unnecessary offence to others is a feature of all societies

everywhere and at all levels from the highest to the lowest. You can easily think of dozens of examples of customs and habits in your own daily life which come under this heading.

1. Etiquette simply serves the purpose of showing respect for authority.

2. Louis XIV of France made etiquette very complicated to avoid familiarity.

3. People of all societies and social ranks observe the good manners of consideration for the weak and respect for age.

4. Napoleon discarded aristocratic privileges when he became Emperor of France.

5. Etiquette has been used to distinguish people from different classes.

6. In Europe， the newly rich have added new ingredients to etiquette while they are learning to behave appropriately for a new way of life.

7. After the sixteenth century， fights between ambassadors over precedence were a common occurrence.

8. Extremely refined behaviour had ______ on the life of the working class.

9. Basic moral duties are one of the_______of every code of etiquette.

10. According to the passage， the concept of romantic love was introduced in_______.

答案：I. N 2. Y 3. Y 4. N 5. Y 6. NG 7. N

8. little influence 9. three elements 10. twelfth-century Provence， France

Nearly everyone agrees that money doesn’t buy as much as it used to， no matter where you want to spend it. This is certainly true of the paper money that passes so quickly through one‘s hands. Inflation（通货膨胀） eats away at its buying power just as the steady appetite of waves chews at sand cliffs. But what about coins that seem to do very little except wear out your purses and pockets？ Unlike notes， metal money becomes more valuable the longer it is held， especially if it i s put away where it won’t get scratched or worn. Why is this？ One reason is that coins，being more durable， fall more readily into a category for collectors. Naturally， the rarer gold pieces must become more valuable as the price of this metal goes up.

But， curiously， one of the rarest coins in the world is not made of gold， but of the relatively cheaper silver. In 1804， the United States mint（造币厂） struck 19，570 silver dollars. That is what its records show. Today only six of this original number remain and these are unlikely ever to reach the auction market. So what happened to some 19，564 large silver coins， not the easiest sort of things to lose？ One of the more romantic theories is that they were part of the payment to Napoleon for the American territory then known as Louisiana. But they never reached France. Somewhere in the Gulf of Mexico， the ship transporting them was sunk， either by a storm

or by pirates （#￡&）。 The probable answer to the mystery is that they were melted down—since the silver value was greater than the actual value of the coin. What really happened to the rest will probably always remain a mystery. What is known is that whoever can come up with one will find himself instantly rich.

26. It can be inferred from passage that_______.

A. money buys as much as it did before

B. money does not buy as much as it did before

C. paper money buys more than metal money

D. metal money buys more than paper money

27. Which of the following is TRUE of a coin？

A. The longer it is held， the less valuable it becomes.

B. The more it wears out， the more valuable it becomes.

C. The less it gets scratched， the less it values.

D. The longer it lasts， the more it values.

28. According to this passage， one of the rarest coins in the world is made of A. silver B. gold

C. copper

D. paper

29. Coins become more valuable because_______.

A. they wear out your purses and pockets

B. the price of metal goes up

C. they fall more readily into a category for collectors due to their duration

D. both B and C

30. What really happened to some 19，564 large silver coins？

A. They were melted down.

B. They were sunk in the Gulf of Mexico.

C. It is still a mystery.

D. They were stolen by pirates.

To understand why someone becomes an optimist or a pessimist， it helps to understand what distinguishes them. Say you crash your car. Do you expect good things to happen after the accident—an easy recuperation （挽回损失）， a fat check from your insurer？ Or do you worry that your neck will hurt forever？

“Optimistic people tend to feel that bad things won‘t last long and won’t affect other parts of life，”.Seligman says. Pessimists tend to believe one negative incident will last and undermine everything else in their lives.

Also important， researchers say， is the story you construct about why things happen—your explanatory style. Optimists believe that bad events have temporary causes—“The boss is in a bad mood. ” Pessimists believe the cause is permanent—“The boss is a jerk. ”

This sense of control distinguishes one type from the other. Positive thinkers feel powerful. Negative thinkers， Seligman says，feel helpless because they have learned to believe they‘re doomed，no matter what. A young wife who’s told she‘s incapable of handling household finances might later become a divorce

woman who can’t balance a checkbook.

Such learned helplessness causes much harm on health. Studies show that optimists are better at coping with the distress associated with everything from sore throat to heart surgery. Furthermore， scientists at U. C. L. A. discovered that optimists have more disease-fighting T cells.

Pessimists also don‘t believe in preventive care. Visit a doctor and you might find out you’re sick！ My father was rushed to the emergency room for medical conditions that would have been easily treatable if he‘d seen a doctor sooner.

21. The word “undermine”（Para. 2） most probably means

A. go below

B. weaken

C. affect

D. destroy 2-2. “The boss is a jerk. ” These words are used here to show______.

A. how some bosses act displeasingly

B. how optimists explain some bad events

C. how pessimists think about the unhappy things around them

D. how the writer suggests people should do when facing something unpleasant

23. The example given about a young wife shows that______.

A. the dividing line between optimists and pessimists

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