英语语言学笔记3
Chapter ⅤSemantics
5.1 What is semantics?
The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
5.2 What is meaning?
Theory View Rep Remarks
Nominalism Words are just names or labels for
things.
Plato
Obvious
limitations
Conceptualism Language and the real world are
linked through the mediation of
concepts (semantic triangle).
Ogden and
Richards
The link
between L
and concept
Contextualism Meaning can be derived from
observable contexts (situational and
linguistic).
Firth
Reference
other than
sense
Behaviorism Meaning consists in the relation
between speech and physical entities
and events (S-r-s-R diagram)
Bloomfield
Behavioral
psychologist
5.3 Types of meaning
5.3.1 The traditional approach (Fries 1952)
Lexical: “meaningful” parts of speech (n. v. a. adv.)
Structural: other parts of speech, grammatical functions (SVOC),
Grammatical categories (tense, mood, etc)
5.3.2 The functional approach (Leech 1981)
Conceptual: logical, cognitive, or denotative content / basic, criterial (The word woman has three criterial semantic features: +human, +adult, -male.) Connotative: by virtue of what language refers to / referent (additional and non-criterial properties of WOMEN: skirt wearing, sensitive, emotional, etc) Social: of the social contexts of language use / stylistic (father, dad, daddy) Affective: of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer / emotive, evaluative (statesman and politician, collaborator and accomplice) Reflected: through association with another sense of the same expression / associative (cock-male sex organ, intercourse-sexual intercourse, 小姐、同志) Collocative: through association with co-occurrent words / collocational (rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid butter and sour milk)
Thematic: through the message organization in terms of order and emphasis / organizational (This book I have not read. I and you, you and I)
5.3.3 The pragmatic approach (Palmer 1976 and Lyons 1977)
Sentence meaning: the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence Utterance meaning: the realization of the sentence meaning in a context
5.4 Word meaning
5.4.1 Sense and reference (initiated by Gottlob Frege 1892)
Sense: the inherent, abstract and decontextualized meaning of words, including all their features. For example, a dog is a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.
Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world. The word dog in “The dog is barking” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the listener.
Relations between the two
·Sense means the abstract properties of an entity; Reference means the concrete entities with such properties
·Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.
·Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
·Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense. (Morning star and evening star, 总书记、国家主席和军委主席)
NOTE: Denotation is the literal meaning of a word or phrase, whereas connotation is the suggestive meaning of a word or phrase. A denotative meaning is the primary meaning, whereas the connotative meaning is the secondary meaning of a word or phrase.
5.4.2 Sense relations
Synonymy: sameness or close similarity of meaning
·dialectal synonyms: Autumn/fall, lift/elevator, lorry/truck
·stylistic synonyms: Daddy/father, start/commence, die/pass away
·emotive/evaluative synonyms: Collaborator/accomplice, statesman/politician ·collocational synonyms: Rotten tomatoes, addled eggs and rancid butter
·semantic synonyms: Amaze/astound/surprise
Antonymy: contrast or oppositeness of meaning
·gradable/comparative antonyms: Old/young, hot/cold
·complementary/absolute antonyms: Alive/dead, male/female
·relational/converse antonyms: Husband/wife, teacher/student, buy/sell
Hyponymy: meaning inclusion
Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and the lower terms, the members,
hyponym s. The members of the same class are co-hyponym s. Both a
superordinate and hyponyms may be missing, e.g. beard, moustache and
whiskers lack a superordinate, and uncles (伯伯、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父) and
rice（稻、谷、米、饭）.
Polysemy: the same one word with more than one meaning
The English language has an interesting history. (Kind)
BASIC is the language most programmers learn first. (Variety)
A dictionary is an invaluable aid in learning a new language. (System)
Homonymy: different words identical in sound or meaning, or in both ·homophones: night/knight, rain/reign, piece/peace, leak/leek
·homographs: bow (v. /n.), tear (v. /n.), lead (v. /n.)
·complete homonyms: fast快速的/禁食, scale鳞/刻度
Questions for discussion:
When two forms are identical both in sound and spelling, how can we tell whether they are two meanings of the same polysemic word, or two complete homonyms?
What we can depend on is the etymology of the words in question. A polysemic word is the result of evolution the primary meaning of the word. Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence, e.g. the form ball has the meanings of 球and舞会.
5.4.3 Componential analysis
Definition: the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features or semantic components, which are given as “present”, “absent” or “indifferent” with reference to feature.For example, the word “man”is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT +ANIMATE, +MALE.
Words involving a relation between two entities may be shown as follows: Father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
Daughter = CHILD (x, y) & -MALE (x)
V erbs can also be analysed in this way, for example,
Take = CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
Murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE x, (BECOME (y, (-ALIVE (y)))))) Advantage: better account for sense relations, for example, “man”and “woman”share the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, but differ in the feature of MALE.
Difficulties: i. many words are polysemous; ii. Binary taxonomy is sometimes rather vague, like girl and woman; iii. There are words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain, then there is the question of whether they are really universal.
Questions for discussion:
Multiple taxonomy: *METAL =gold #METAL=silver @METAL=copper etc.
Polarity: ^SIZE = large, vSIZE = small
5.5 Sentence meaning
The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.
5.5.1 Grammaticality and meaningfulness
Grammaticality: grammatical/structural meaning, governed by G rules
Meaningfulness: semantic meaning, governed by selectional restrictions
5.5.1 Principle of compositionality
Meanings of sentence components
Structural meaning (word order, hierarchical structure)
Thematic meaning
NOTE: there may be two other aspects: thematic meaning and social meaning
5.5.2 Sense relations (between sentences/sentence constituents)
X is synonymous with Y.
X: He was a bachelor all his life. .Y: He never married all his life.
X is inconsistent with Y.
X: John is married Y: John is a bachelor.
X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)
X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.
X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X)
X: John?s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.
X is a contradiction. .X: My unmarried sister is married.
X is semantically anomalous. X: The table has bad intentions.
X is a tautology. .X: The orphan has no father.
5.5.3 Predication analysis
Definition: the kind of analysis which involves breaking down predications into their constituents – arguments and predicates.
Predication: the basic unit of PA, the abstraction of sentence meaning.
Argument: the logical participant in a predication, usu, nominal elements.
Predicate: what is said about an argument or what states the logical relatio ns linking the arguments in a sentence.
For example: “Tom smokes”is said to consist of the argument “TOM”and the predicate “SMOKE”, and the predication can be written as TOM (SMOKE). So are “Tom has been smoking” and “Does Tom smoke”.
Two-place predication: KID, APPLE (LIKE)
One-place predication (containing one argument): TOM (SMOKE)
No-place predication: (BE HOT) (It is hot.)
(The end of ChapterⅤ)
Chapter Ⅵ Pragmatics
6.1 Basic Notions
6.1.1 What is pragmatics?
Definition: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication, or simply the study of language in use.
Related topics: deixis, speech acts, indirect language, conversation, politeness, cross-cultural communication, and presupposition
Questions for discussion:
Q: How is this branch of linguistics related to semantics?
A: What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantic in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context. 6.1.2 Context (environment of communication)
Definition: the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Components of shared knowledge: language knowledge, co-text knowledge, situational knowledge and world knowledge.
6.1.3 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
Sentence meaning: abstract, intrinsic, de-contextualized, conventional
Utterance meaning: concrete, variable, context-dependent, contextual
E.g. The sentence My bag is heavy can be a straight forward statement, an
indirect, polite request for help, or declining someone?s request for help.
6.2 Speech Act Theory
6.2.1 Perfomatives and constatives (Austin, 1962)
Performatives are unverifiable statements that are uttered to perform acts.
Constatives are verifiable statements that either state or describe.
6.2.2 Three kinds of speech act (Austin, 1962)
Locutionary act: of conveying literal meaning (What is done?)
Illocutionary act: of expressing the speaker?s intention (What is meant?)
Perlocutionary act: the effect of the utterance (What is effected?)
6.2.3 Classification of illocutionary acts (Searle, 1976)
Representatives: state, believe, swear, hypothesize, assert, claim, deny, etc.
Directives: request, ask, invite, suggest, advise, warn, order, tell, etc.
Commissives: promise, vow, undertake, pledge, refuse, guarantee, etc.
Expressives: apologize, boast, thank, congratulate, greet, etc.
Declarations: declare, appoint, fire, nominate, bless, christen, etc.
6.3 Conversational Principle and Implicature
6.3.1 The Cooperative Principle (CP)
“Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted pur pose of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” (Grice 1975:47) The maxim of quantity:
·Make your contribution as informative as required;
·Do not make your contribution more informative than required.
The maxim of quality:
·Do not say what you believe to be false;
·Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The maxim of relation: Make your contribution relevant.
The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous, and specifically:
·avoid obscurity ·avoid ambiguity ·be brief ·be orderly.
We will try to say things which are true, relevant, as well as informative enough, in a clear manner. Hearers will also try to interpret what is said to them in this way. 6.3.2 Violation of the Maxims and resultant implicatures
Conversational implicature is a non-co nventional implicature based on an addressee?s assumption that the speaker is following the cooperative principle.
Violation of the maxim of quantity
Boys are boys. CI: Boys are naughty and mischievous by nature.
Violation of the maxim of quality
He had a lioness at home. CI: His wife is dominant at home.
Violation of the maxim of relation
—What do you intend to do today? —I have a terrible headache.
CI: I don?t intend to do anything.
Violation of the maxim of manner
—Shall we get something for the kids? —Y es. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
CI: I don?t want the kids to know we are talking about getting them ice-cream.
Questions for discussion:
How to distinguish conversational implicatures from lies, two forms of violation of the CP?
Both conversational implicature and logical implication are something left unsaid. How are they different?
6.3.3 Characteristics of implicature
Calculability: CI can be inferred on the basis of some previous information.
Cancellability (defeasibility): CI changes as context changes.
a. John has three cows. CI: John has only three cows.
b. John has three cows, if not more. CI: John has at least three cows.
Non-detachability: CI is attached to the semantic content of the utterance.
John’s a genius / a big brain said ironically will implicate John’s an idiot.
Non-conventionality: different from the conventional meaning of words John has three cows necessarily entails John has three animals and may implicates John can get 100 RMB.
We may summarize CI as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.
6.3.4 The Politeness Principle
Leech (1983) proposed the Politeness Principle which is formulated in a general way from 2 aspects:
1) to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs
2) to maximize the expression of polite beliefs
To be specific, there are six maxims:
Tact maxim: minimise cost to other; maximise benefit to other
Generosity maxim: minimise benefit to self; maximise cost to self
Approbation maxim: minimise dispraise of other; maximise praise of other Modesty maxim: minimise praise of self; maximise dispraise of self
Agreement maxim: minimise disagreement between self and other; maximise agreement between self and other
Sympathy maxim: minimise antipathy between self and other; maximise sympathy between self and other
Questions for discussion:
Q: What is politeness?
A: Politeness is the major social constraints on human interaction regulating participants? commu nicative behavior by constantly reminding them to
take into consideration the feelings of the others. (He Zi?ran 2003) 6.4 Relevance Theory (Sperber and Wilson, 1986)
6.4.1 Relevance (of an input, in a context)
The greater the cognitive effects, the greater the relevance
Cognitive effects:
a. Strengthening existing assumptions;
b. Contradicting and eliminating existing assumptions;
c. Combining with existing assumptions to yield contextual implications.
The smaller the processing effort, the greater the relevance.
Processing effort: The effort of perception, memory and inference needed to represent the input, access a context and derive the cognitive effects (of that
input, in that context).
6.4.2 Outline of Relevance T heory’s Approach to Pragmatics:
Utterances automatically create expectations of relevance.
Different interpretations of an utterance are relevant in different ways.
A rational hearer would choose the interpretation that best satisfies his
expectations of relevance.
6.4.3 Cognitive Principle of Relevance
Human cognitive processes are aimed at processing the most relevant
information available in the most relevant way. Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of relevance, or achieve the greatest possible cognitive effect using the smallest effort.
Covertly manipulating the mental states of others
a. I yawn …accidentally?, intending you to notice and conclude that I am tired or bored.
b. I …accidentally? leave my empty glass near you, intending you to notice and offer me
another drink.
This is covert manipulation, because I intend you to come to a certain conclusion without recognising that this is just what I intended.
Overtly manipulating the mental states of others by use of an ‘ostensive stimulus’
a. I yawn in an ex aggerated way, intending you to realise that I want you to think I?m tired.
b. I touch your arm, hold up my empty glass and say …My glass is empty?.
Here, I intend you to recognise that I intended you to come to a certain conclusion.
6.4.4 Communicative Principle of Relevance
Every utterance (or other ostensive stimulus) / every act of ostensive communication communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance.
Ostensive communication (or inferential communication): Communication involves the speaker?s making clear his intention, as well as the hearer?s inference of the speaker?s meaning.
Presumption of optimal relevance: Presumption of optimal relevance: (a) The utterance is relevant enough to be worth the addressee?s processing effort; (b) The utterance is the most relevant one compatible with the speaker?s abilities and preferences.
(The end of ChapterⅥ)
“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
英语语言学笔记讲解
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b516842127.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
英语语言学概论复习
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
英语语言学概论笔记
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义 The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。 2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence. Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another. 所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。 尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。 语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。 3.Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段 b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段 c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段 Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak. 大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。 Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.
英语语言学概论复习考试
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an