交通工程专业英语翻译

Unit1The Evolution of Transport交通工具的演化

The evolution of transport has been closely linked to the development of humankind throughout the earth?s history．Transport?s early function was to meet the basic need of hauling food supplies and building materials．But with the formation of tribes，then peoples，and finally nations，the societal and economic functions of transport became more and more complex. At first there was mobility required for individuals，clans，households，and animals to protect them against，and to escape from，the dangers of natural disasters and tribal aggressions，and in the search for the best places to settle．As tribal groups formed and gradually established their geographical identity，transport was increasingly needed to open up regions for development，to provide access to natural resources，to promote intercommunal trade，and to mobilize territorial defense．When the first nations came into being，transport played a major role in establishing national integrity．

交通工具的演变紧密相连的人类在整个地球的历史发展。运输署早期功能是满足基本需要搬运粮食供应和建材等领域。但随着部落，然后人民，和最后国家形成，运输的社会和经济功能变得越来越复杂。在第一次有流动性所需的个人、宗族、家庭和动物保护他们免遭，和逃避危险自然灾害和部落的侵略行为，并在寻找最好的地方定居。部落群体形成和逐步确立其地理特征，运输日益需要开放地区的发展，以提供对天然资源，促进族裔间的贸易，并调动本土防卫的访问。当第一次的联合国应运而生时，运输发挥了重要的作用，建立民族气节

After basic societal needs had generally been attended to，local communities could increasingly devote their efforts to enhancing their economic，cultural，and technological development through trade links with other peoples and regions．Again，transport provided the mobility required for such intertribal, international，and finally intercontinental cultural exchange and trade．During all of this gradual development toward an organized human society，represented today through the international family of nations，transport as physical process of moving people and goods，thus promoting such development，continuously underwent technological and organizational changes．Such changes were induced by several factors and circumstances．In fact，today?s transport in its various forms and organizational arrangements remains highly subject to changes in response to societal requirements and preferences．

基本社会需求大体上已照顾到后，当地社区可能会越来越多地致力于加强贸易联系通过与其他民族和地区经济、文化和科技发展共同。再次，运输提供所需的这种部落之间、国际和洲际最后的文化交流和贸易的流动。在所有有组织的人类社会，今天代表国际大家庭，交通工具的移动人员和货物，物理过程，从而促进这种发展，通过向此逐步发展的过程中不断发生了技术和组织的变化。这种变化是几个因素及环境所致。事实上，今天的各种形式和组织安排运输仍高度受回应社会需求和偏好的变化。

Clearly，the first and foremost criterion to be satisfied by transport was efficiency．For centuries，and particularly during the takeoff stages of local economics，society required reliable，fast，and low cost transport．The search for appropriate technologies was relatively unconstrained．There were times in human history when the demand for reliable and fast transport was especially pronounced，and quick solutions were required for national self-defense. During such periods of local and international conflict, human ingenuity devised new transport technologies which often proved to be the decisive element for survival, and

sometimes victory. Subsequently refined and developed, such new technologies made it possible to better meet increasing transport demand, thus improving both economic progress and human welfare.

显然符合运输的首要准则是效率。几百年来，特别是在本地经济的起飞阶段期间，社会需要快速、可靠、和低成本的运输。寻找合适的技术是相对无约束。倍时，在人类历史上尤为突出的可靠、快速的运输需求，并快速解决方案所需的国家自卫。在这样的地方和国际冲突的时期人类智慧制定新运输技术往往证明的生存空间，有时胜利的决定性因素。随后改进和发展，这种新技术使能够更好地满足日益增加的交通需求，从而提高经济进步和人类福祉。

The need for better strategic mobility induced efforts to improve sea and land transport. This resulted in bigger and faster ships and more reliable and sturdy land vehicles. Eventually, self-propulsion was introduced, exemplified by steamboats, the railways, and then the automobile. Research and development in the transport field finally became an organized undertaking with specific goals and objectives. As the result of the consequent concentration of talent and expertise, more and more sophisticated transport technologies evolved, such as the aircraft and, most recently, rocket propulsion.

需要更好的战略机动致努力提高海洋和陆地运输。这导致更大、更快的船舶和更可靠和坚固的陆地车辆。最终，自航引入，蒸汽机船、铁路和汽车的例子。在运输领域研发终于成为组织的承诺与特定的目标。作为随后浓度的人才及专业知识的结果，更多先进的传输技术如飞机和，最近，火箭推进发展。

The gradual evolution of increasingly sophisticated means of transport is manifested by today' s transport systems, which include air, surface, and water transport. Special industry needs have led to the development of transport modes that have rather limited applications, such as pipelines, cables, and belts. Within current societal needs and preferences, as well as the economic requirements of cost effectiveness, the various existing transport modes generally fulfill rather specific functions.

今天的表现是逐渐演化的日益复杂的交通工具' s 运输系统，其中包括空中、地面、和海上运输。而是有限的应用程序如管道、电缆和带的交通工具的发展导致特殊行业的需要。当前社会的需要和喜好，以及成本效益的经济上的要求，在现有的各种运输模式普遍达到而是特定的功能。

Although transport's potential to meet effectively numerous societal mobility needs improved continuously, it became evident that such effectiveness had its price. A number of transport technologies implied high energy consumption and required substantial capital inputs in production and operation. As a result, several transport modes became expensive to the user. This caused equity problems because charges required to cover operating costs were not affordable by all population groups, thus limiting their mobility and welfare. Many governments chose to subsidize transport, but quickly realized that the budget implications often caused serious distortions in their national economies.

虽然运输的潜力以满足有效众多社会流动性需要不断改善，很明显这种有效性了它的价格。运输技术的一些暗示能耗高，所需大量资金投入生产和经营。因此，几个交通工具变得昂贵给用户。这造成了股权问题，因为业务费用所需的费用不是负担得起的所有人口群体，从而限制了他们的流动性和福利。许多国家的政府补贴交通工具，选择了，但很快意识到，所涉预算问题经常在自己国家的经济造成严重扭曲。

Pollution caused by various transport modes gradually became another serious problem as world transport in most countries and the need to cope with rising volumes of commodity flows and person travel. In several regions of the world having high population and industry concentrations, such detrimental impacts on the environment have reached high levels. These effects of such damage yet are to be fully explored.

逐渐引起各种交通工具的污染成了另一个严重的问题，作为世界交通在大多数国家和应付日益增加的商品流动和人旅行的需要。过高的人口和产业的浓度在世界一些地区，这种对环境的不利影响已达到高水平。这种损害的这些影响还很充分探讨。

Finally, problems caused by dwindling world energy resources, particularly petroleum, have increasingly impeded transport services and operations. Most existing transport modes are critically dependent on petroleum derivatives for proper functioning. With unabated growth of demand for transport and a progressively limited supply of energy, the costs of providing transport have increased steadily. In particular, the disproportion of petroleum requirements and petroleum supply has caused serious inflationary problems to arise in many countries. Especially hard hit are countries with a partial or total dependence on an external petroleum supply, which have experienced growing deficits in their current accounts.

最后，特别是石油、世界能源资源日益减少，所引起的问题越来越多地阻碍了交通服务和操作。大多数现有交通工具都依赖石油衍生品的正常运作。对交通的需求有增无减，逐步有限的能源供应提供运输的费用稳步增加。特别是石油需求和石油供应的非均衡性，引起严重的通胀问题在许多国家中出现。打击尤其是部分或全部依赖外部的石油供应，经历了它们的经常账户赤字不断增长的国家。

The transport sector' s increasing inability to satisfy demand efficiently and equitably is a problem with which all nations have to cope in trying to advance economic and social progress. Energy-supply constraints, high capital and operating costs, often with excessive foreign-exchange components, and the seriousness of transport-related environmental pollution account in large part for this problem. But transport is and will continue to be an essential requirement for world development and human welfare. There is no other choice but to look for alternatives to present transport systems or to modify the technical and operational characteristics of related modes so that energy consumption and costs wil1 be reduced and environmental impacts can be kept at a minimum. Obviously, the development of transport demand will have to be controlled.

运输部门' s 越来越无法满足需求，有效和公平地是，所有国家都必须应付在试图推动经济发展和社会进步的一个问题。能源供应约束、较高的资本和经营成本，往往与过度外汇组件和运输有关环境污染帐户在很大程度上对这一问题的严重性。但运输是并将继续是世界的发展和人类福利的基本要求。有没有别的选择，但寻找替代目前的运输系统，或修改相关模式的技术和业务特点，使能源消耗及成本失败会减少和环境的影响可以保持在最低限度。很明显，发展的运输需求将不得不加以控制。

Notes

l. As tribal groups formed and gradually established their geographical identity, transport was increasingly needed to open up regions for development，to provide access to natural resources，to promote intercommunal trade，and to mobilize territorial defense．

随着种族部落的形成和地理界线的逐步确定，开发新区域、开采新资源、发展社区间

的贸易以及捍卫领地，这些都日益需要交通的发展。

2. Again，transport provided the mobility required for such intertribal，international．and finally intercontinental cultural exchange and trade．

而且交通提供了诸如部落间、国际间乃至于洲际间便利的贸易和文化交流。

3．During all of this gradual development toward an organized human society，represented today through the international family of nations，transport as physical process of moving people and goods，thus promoting such development，continuously underwent technological and organizational changes．

在向有组织的人类社会的演变过程中，这种组织在今天是通过由各国组成的国际化大家庭表现出来的，交通作为人与货物移动的物理过程，电促进了这种发展，不断地经历着技术与组织方面的改变。

4．There is no other choice but to look for alternatives to present transport systems or to modify the technical and operational characteristics of related modes so that energy consumption and costs will be reduced and environmental impacts can be kept at a minimum．没有别的办法，只有寻找新的交通替代手段或改变相关模式的技术与运行特点，才可以减少能源消耗和造价，对环境的影响也可以保持到最低程度。

Unit 3Transport Telematics

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Introduction

Transport telematics，also known as intelligent transport systems (ITS)，are concerned with the application of electronic information and control to improve transport．Some new systems have already been implemented and the pace of implementation can be expected to quicken．With a crystal ball，we can foresee how a typical journey to work may look in 10 years time．

运输信息通讯，也称为智能交通系统（ITS），涉及电子信息与控制应用提高运输。一些新的制度已经实施和执行的步伐将会加快。有一个水晶球，我们可以预见典型之旅工作在10 年时间里可能看起来。

You feel pleased with yourself that you have preceded your in-car navigation system with the coordinates of your final destination，and soon you are obtaining instructions on your best route with information updated from the local travel control center．

离开家里，渊前通过互联网检查您的旅游安排。通常您选择乘搭公共交通工具，您可以确定影响服务的任何中断和旅行的时间。这一次您选择乘搭车，因为你必须任命1ater 在一天中在这些旧式商业公园是无法访问的公共交通工具之一。没有发生事件记录在你正常工作，所以您不想使用您的计算机路由型号为您选择最佳路线的路线上。

As you near your place of work，you are aware of roadside messages informing you of the next park and ride service．You choose to ignore these as you will need to make a quick getaway for your appointment．You then check that your travel card is clearly displayed inside the car；you don?t want to be fined for not having a positive credit for the city?s road pricing and parking service! The same card gives you clearance to your parking space；you activate your parking vision and co1lision control just to be sure of not scratching the MD?s car next to you．

一旦你的车，你头，高速公路和选择巡航控制、车道支持和碰撞避免系统，使您可以专注于您最喜欢的电台服务。突然间，这是给你一件事你的路线上的信息的电台交通消息通道服务被中断。你不是惊讶的时候，在下一个路口，路边的可变信息标志(VM) 确认这；高速公路消息真的可信现在

Using transport elematics

All these information and control services, and many more besides, are discussed in the UK Government' s consultation document. One way of categorising these services is into the following application areas:

所有这些信息和控制服务和之外，更多的讨论，英国政府' s 咨询文件。Categorising 这些服务的一种方法是到下面的应用领域：

①traffic management and control

②tolling and road pricing

③road safety and law enforcement

④public transport travel information and ticketing

⑤driver information and guidance

⑥freight and fleet management

⑦vehicle safety

⑧system integration

All these applications are being developed with assistance from research and pilot implementation programmes in Europe, USA and Japan.

Traffic management and control

Any traffic management and control system needs information on traffic flows, speeds, queues, incidents accidents, vehicle breakdowns, obstructions air quality and vehicle types, lengths and weights. This information will be collected using infrared, radio, loop, radar, and microwave or vision detectors. In addition, public and private organizations will provide information on planned events roadworks, leisure events, exhibitions.

The use to which this information is put depends on the objectives set for management and control. Network management objectives set for urban areas include:

①influencing traveller behaviour, in particular modal choice, route choice and the time at which journeys are made.

②reducing the impact of traffic on air quality.

③improving priority for buses and LRT vehicles.

④providing better and safer facilities for pedestrians, cyclists and other vulnerable road users.

⑤restraining traffic in sensitive areas.

⑥managing demand and congestion more efficiently.

The software systems used will include control applications such as SCOOT, SCATS, SPOT and MOTION. These are responsive systems, which control a network of traffic signals to meet these objectives. Automatic vehicle location and identification will provide information for giving priority or allowing access to certain vehicles only.

Interurban network management systems will have similar objectives but will make greater use of access control by ramp metering and other means, and of speed control and high-occupancy vehicle lane management. Regional traffic control centers will advise motorist of incidents and alternative routes by VMS and by RDS-TMC, a signal FM radio service broadcasting localized traffic messages and advice to drivers.

Tolling and road pricing

Interurban motorway tolling and urban road pricing provide another approach to meeting network management objectives while obtaining additional revenue that can be invested in transport. Singapore's electronic zone pricing, the TOLLSTAR electronic toll collection and ADEPT automatic debiting smart cards are examples of such applications.

These systems rely on microwave or radio communication to an in-vehicle transponder in a smart card with detection of vehicle licence plates using image processing for enforcement purposes.

Public transport travel information and ticketing

Travel information is needed by passengers at home or office and also during their journey. London Transport's ROUTES computer-based service offers routing, timetable and fares information on all public transport services in London through public inquiry terminals.

Real-time travel information is provided in London by the COUNTDOWN system which is being expanded to cover 4000 bus stops. A similar system called STOPWATCH is available in Southampton as part of the ROMANSE project and is based on Peek's Bus Tracker system which can detect buses using either radio beacons or GPS (Global Positioning System) which uses satellites to identify locations.

ROMANSE also includes TRIP lanner interactive enquiry terminals with touch screens providing travel information.

Problems with tickets for through journeys can be a deterrent for travelers choosing public transport. Smartcard stored-value tickets can provide a single ticket for car parking and all legs of a journey served by different operators.

Driver information and guidance

Driver information systems include the RDS-TMC radio data system-traffic message channel, initially trialled between London and Paris in the PLEIADES project and elsewhere in Europe in similar EC-funded projects. There is also the Traffic master service which uses infrared monitors to identify congestion and an in-car visual map-based screen to inform drivers of congestion.

Driver guidance systems aim to take this a step further by informing drivers of their route and giving guidance on navigation. Communication between the control center and the vehicle can be by roadside beacon or by digital cellular radio network based on GSM(global system of mobile communications) as in SOCRATES. Commercial products include Daimler Benz's copilot dynamic route guidance system trialled in Berlin and Stuttgart and Philip's Car Systems CARIN. Similar products, such as the VICS advanced mobile information service, are commonly available in Japan.

Notes

1．Transport telematics，also known as intelligent transport systems (ITS)，are concerned with the application of electronic information and control to improve transport．

交通运输远程信息处理系统，通常也被称为智能交通系统(ITS系统)，是利用电子

信息和控制技术来改善交通的系统。

2．On this occasion，you choose to travel by car as you have an appointment later in the day at one of those old-fashioned business parks that are inaccessible by public transport．在这种情况下，当你在这天稍后有一个约会，而约会的地点是在公交车所不能到达的一个旧式商业停车场，那么你就可以选择乘坐小汽车前往。

3．Any traffic management and control system needs information on traffic flows，speeds，queues，incidents(accidents，vehicle breakdowns，obstructions)air quality and vehicle types，lengths and weights．

任何一种交通管理和控制系统都需要如下信息：交通流、车速、排队、交通事件(事故、车损、障碍物)、空气质量以及车辆的类型、长度与重量。

4．Interurban network management systems will have similar objectives but will make greater use of access control by ramp metering and other means，and of speed control and high-occupancy vehicle lane management．

城市间的网络管理系统将会有相似的目标，但是在通过匝道车流调节和其他一些方法来进行人口控制与速度控制以及高占有率车道管理方面也会起到很大作用。

5．These systems rely on microwave or radio communication to an in-vehicle transponder in a smart card with detection of vehicle license plates using image processing for enforcement purposes．

为实施管理的目的，这些系统依靠微波或无线技术与设在一张小卡片上的车载发射机应答器实现通信联系，这张卡片采用图像处理技术来探测车辆的驾驶执照。

Unit 4Public Transport Priority

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Design objectives

Public transport priority has to be seen in the context of an overall urban transport strategy with objectives which include not only improved bus or tram operation and restraint of car-borne commuting but also an enhanced environment for residents, workers and visitors. Measures proposed must serve all these objectives and yet also be demonstrably cost-effective and enforceable.

Typical design objectives for public transport priority measures include:

①to improve the conditions and reliability of bus operations through the

introduction of appropriate bus priority measures.

②to alter the traffic balance in favor of buses at those locations where this can

be properly justified.

③to improve conditions for bus passengers at stops and interchanges.

④to improve road safety generally and, in particular, for pedestrians, cyclists

and people with disabilities.

⑤to review, where appropriate, hours of operation of waiting and loading

restrictions.

⑥to establish and implement the coordinated and coherent application of

waiting, parking and loading enforcement regimes on bus route corridors.

⑦to improve conditions for all road users and frontagers on bus route corridors.

Achieving these objectives often involves compromises between improving bus operation and the needs of local businesses and residents for reasonable access and of pedestrians and cyclists for safe and convenient movement.

Bus Priority Measures

Typical bus priority measures fall into four main categories:

①bus lanes and busways

②traffic and parking management measures

③traffic signal control

④bus stop improvements.

These are considered separately, but in practice the design for a bus route corridor will draw on measures from all these categories.

(1)Bus lanes and busways

With-flow bus lanes are relatively commonplace. They enable buses to avoid queues on congested sections of road by providing a lane marked and signed clearly and implemented under a traffic regulation order prohibiting use by general traffic.

Contraflow bus lanes enable buses to avoid circuitous routes, e.g. in a gyratory system, by permitting two-way movement for buses only over a road section. The main disadvantage of a continuous contraflow bus lane is that it prevents kerbside access by vehicles, such as goods vehicles, that are not permitted to use it.

Busways and bus-only streets provide a dedicated track for use by buses. Busways are either separate roadways or a part of a roadway but segregated from it, normally by kerbs.

(2)T raffic and parking management measures

These are typically no-entry and banned turn controls which allow buses and possibly also cyclists to make a movement prohibited to other vehicles.

Finance and space permit. One solution is for the highway authority to enable provision access route to commercial properties and to provide dropped kerbs and allow residents to gain access over the footway to parking within the curtilage of their properties.

(3)T raffic signal control

Traffic signal control include: ①Signal rephrasing for passive bus priority ②Selective vehicle detection-active bus priority ③Overlap phases ④Queue relocation and traffic metering ⑤Presignals and bus advance areas.

(4)B us stop improvements

One of the major causes of delay in urban areas for buses and general traffic is inconsiderate parking near bus stops. Buses have difficulty in gaining access to bus stops and subsequently rejoining the traffic stream. Passengers have to resort to walking between parked cars to board a bus.

Sometimes the imposition of waiting and loading restrictions is inappropriate because this would prevent the reasonable use of lengths of road kerb by local residents and businesses. One solution is to deter parking local to the bus stop and provide easier boarding for passengers by constructing bus boarders which consist of local extensions of the footway into the carriageway of about 1.0-2.0m.

The positioning of bus stops is often dictated by practicalities such as avoiding banks and post offices, where space for special deliveries is required, and avoiding creating poor sight lines for side road traffic.

Bus shelters are an obvious improvement at bus stops, providing protection from the weather. Timetable information should also be provided at bus stops in common static form listing the schedule of times of buses arriving at the stop and of reaching destinations, or as real-time information.

Passel kerbs are high-sided curved kerbs which allow bus drivers to align their vehicles precisely at bus stops. The great advantage is that boarding and alighting passengers have a near-level entry and exit to the vehicle, without the need to step onto the road.

Notes

1．Public transport priority has to be seen in the context of an overall urban transport strategy with objectives which include not only improved bus (or tram) operation and restraint of car-home commuting but also an enhanced environment for residents．workers and visitors．公交优先应被看作是整个城市交通战略的一部分，它的目标不仅是改善公交(或电车)的运行和限制小汽车通勤交通，而且也是为居民、工作人员和游客提供一个更好的环境。

2．Achieving these objectives often involves compromises between improving bus operation and the needs of local businesses and residents for reasonable access and of pedestrians and cyclists for safe and convenient movement．

为了实现这些目标通常需要协调改善公交运行与各种要求之间的关系，这些要求包括地区商业和居民合理进入的需要、步行者和骑脚踏车的人的安全便利通行的需要。3．One of the major causes of delay in urban areas for buses and general traffic is inconsiderate parking near bus stops．

随意在公交车站附近停车是引起市区公交车和总体交通延误的主要原因之一。4．The positioning of bus stops is often dictated by practicalities such as avoiding banks and post offices，where space for special deliveries is required, and avoiding creating poor sight lines for side road traffic．

公交站点位置通常以实用性标准来选定，例如避开银行和邮局，因为那里要有进行特别递送活动的空间，而且也要避免造成路边交通视线不好的情况。

Unit 6Highway Systems and Functional Classifications

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Systems and classifications

The classification of highway into different operational systems，functional classes，or geometric features is necessary for communication among engineers，administrators, and the general public. Different classification schemes have been applied for different purposes in different rural and urban regions.Classification of highways by design types based on the major geometric features(e．g．，freeways and conventional streets and highways)is the most helpful one for highway location and design procedures．Classification by route numbering(e．g．，U.S.，State primary，State secondary，and county numbering systems)，is the most helpful for traffic operations. Administrative classification (e．g．，State Federal aid primary，State Federal aid secondary，State primary，and state secondary)is used to denote the levels of government responsible for, and the method of financing, highway facilities．Functional classification，the grouping of highways by the character of service they provide，was developed for transportation planning purposes．Comprehensive transportation planning，an integral part of total economic and social development，uses functional classification as an important planning tool．The emergence of functional classification as the predominant method of grouping highways is consistent with the policies contained in this publication．

The concept of functional classification

A complete functional design system provides a series of distinct travel movements．The six recognizable stages in most trips include main movement，transition，distribution，collection, access, and termination．For example，a hypothetical highway trip uses a freeway，where the main movement of vehicles is uninterrupted，high-speed flow．When approaching destinations from the freeway，vehicles reduce speed on freeway ramps，which act as transition roadways．The vehicles then enter moderate-speed arterials distributor facilities that bring them nearer to the vicinity of their destination neighborhoods．They next enter collector roads that penetrate neighborhoods．The vehicles finally enter local access roads that provide direct approaches to individual residences or other terminations．At their destinations the vehicles are parked at an appropriate terminal facility．Each of the six stages of a typical trip is handled by a separate facility designed specifically for its function. Because the movement hierarchy is based on the total amount of traffic volume, freeway travel is generally highest in the movement hierarchy, followed by distributor arterial travel, which is in turn higher in the movement hierarchy than travel on collectors and local access routes.

Although many trips can be subdivided into all of the six recognizable stages, intermediate facilities are not always needed. The complete hierarchy of circulation facilities relates especially to conditions of low-density suburban development, where traffic flows are cumulative on successive elements of the system. However, it sometimes is desirable to reduce the number of components in the chain. For instance, a large single traffic generator may fill one or more lanes of a freeway during certain periods. In this situation, it is expedient to lead traffic directly onto a freeway ramp without introducing arterial facilities that unnecessarily mix already-concentrated traffic flows with additional vehicles. This deletion of intermediate facilities does not eliminate the functional need for the remaining parts of the flow hierachy or the functional design components, although it may change their physical characters. The order of movement is still identifiable.

The failure to recognize and accommodate by suitable design each of the different trip stages of the movement hierarchy is a prominent cause of highway obsolescence. Conflicts and congestion occur at interfaces between public highways and private traffic-generating facilities when the functional transitionsare inadequate. Examples are commercial driveways that lead directly from a relatively high-speed arterial into a parking aisle without intermediate provisions for transition deceleration and arterial distribution or, more seriously, freeway ramps that lead directly into or from large traffic generator such as major shopping centers.

Inadequate acceptance capacity of the distributor arterial or internal circulation deficiencies within the traffic absorber create the danger that traffic may back up onto the freeway. Successful internal design that provides facilities to accommodate all the terminal parking facility will alleviate such a situation.

In the case of the freeway leading to a large traffic generator, deceleration from rapid movement on the freeway occurs on the exit ramp. Distribution to various parking areas is then accomplished by primary distribution-type roads or lanes within the parking facility. These roads or lanes supplant the distributor arterial function. Collector-type roads or lanes within the parking facility may then deliver segments of the entering flow to individual parking space terminals, and then becomes the equivalent of an access street. Thus, the principal functions within the hierarchal movement system are recognizable. It can be pointed out that each functional category also is related to a range of vehicle speeds.

The same principles of design are also relevant to terminal facilities that adjoin distributor arterials or collectors. The functional design of the facility includes each movement stage, with internal circulation in the terminal designed to accommodate the order of movement. The necessity of designing for all stages of the movement hierarchy varies with the size of the traffic generator. For relatively small generators, two or more stages may be accommodated on the same internal facility. For larger traffic generators, each movement stage must have a separate functional facility.

To determine the number of design components necessary, the customary volumes of traffic handled by public streets of different functional categories can be compared. The volume range on private internal facilities can be related to the comparable range on public streets. These volumes may not be directly comparable, in as much as the physical space available within a private facility is smaller and the standards of operation are necessarily quite different. However, the same principles of flow specialization and movement hierarchy can be applied.

Some further examples may demonstrate how the principles of movement hierarchy are related to a logical system of classification of traffic generation intensity. At the highest practical level of traffic generation a single generator fills an entire freeway, and for this condition, intermediate public streets could not be inserted between the generator and the freeway, so the various movement stages must be accommodated internally with appropriate design features. At the next level of traffic generation a single traffic generator could fill a single freeway lane; it is then appropriate to construct a freeway ramp for the exclusive use of the generator without intervening public streets. At still smaller volumes it becomes desirable to combine the traffic from several generators with additional traffic before the flow arrives at a freeway entrance ramp. The road performing this function then becomes a collector facility, accumulating these small flows until a traffic volume that will fill the freeway ramp is reached.

Similar principles can be applied at the distributor arterial level of service. If a given traffic generator is of sufficient size, an exclusive intersection driveway for that generator is justified. In other cases an intermediate collector street should combine smaller traffic flows until they reach a

volume that warrants an intersection along the distributor. The same theory can be applied with regard to the criteria for direct access to the collector street. A moderately sized traffic generator usually warrants a direct connection to the collector without an intermediate access street; however, in a district of single-family residences a local access street should assemble the traffic from a group of residences and lead it in to a collector street at a single point of access. In practice, direct access to arterials and collectors must be provided from commercial and residential properties, particularly in established neighborhoods.

In short, each element of the functional hierarchy can serve as a collecting facility for the next higher element, but an element must be present only where the intermediate collection is necessary, to satisfy the spacing and traffic volume requirements of the next higher facility. By defining the spacing and volume requirements for a system element, it is possible to determine in which cases it is necessary to use the full system and in which eases intermediate elements may be bypassed.

Notes

1．Comprehensive transportation planning，an integral part of total economic and social development，uses functional classification as an important planning tool．

综合交通规划是整个社会和经济发展的一个主要组成部分，它把功能划分作为一个重要的规划工具。

2．The vehicles finally enter local access roads that provide direct approaches to individual residences or other terminations．

车辆最终进入局部性支路，这些道路可以直接抵达个人居所或其他目的地。3．Inadequate acceptance capacity of the distributor arterial or internal circulation deficiencies within the traffic absorber create the danger that traffic may back up onto the freeway．集散性干道通行能力的不足或交通吸引区内部循环的缺陷会产生车流返回高速公路的危险。

4．At the next level of traffic generation a single traffic generator could fill a single freeway lane；it is then appropriate to construct a freeway ramp for the exclusive use of the generator without intervening public streets．

在一定的交通生成水平下，由单一的交通发生源产生的交通流可能会充满单条高速公路车道，因此适合设置一条专门为这一发生源而用的匝道，从而使之不会干扰公共道路。5．In practice, direct access to arterials and collectors must be provided from commercial and residential properties，particularly in established neighborhoods．

实际上，这些主干路和集散道路必须从商业和居民财产、特别是在邻近地带建造住宅的人的利益出发，提供直接的出人口。

Unit13Traffic Surveys

Text

Traffic engineering is used to either improve an existing situation or, in the case of a new facility, ensure that the facility is correctly and safely designed and adequate for the demands that will be placed on it.

In an existing situation we have to know the present day demands and patterns of movement, so that the new measure can be designed adequately. With a new road or facility, there is obviously no existing demand to base the design on; therefore, we have to estimate the expected demand.

If a new facility replaces or relieves existing roads, for example a bypass or a new cycle track, we can estimate the proportion of traffic that could be expected to transfer using a traffic assignment.

If the facility is completely new, for example a road in a new development, then the expected traffic and hence the scale of construction needed has to be estimated another way. This is usually done by a transport impact analysis which will seek to assess the likely level of traffic by reference to the traffic generated by similar developments elsewhere. In either case the starting point will be a traffic survey.

The main reason for undertaking a traffic survey is to provide an objective measure of an existing situation. A survey will provide a measure of conditions at the time that the survey was undertaken. A survey does not give a definitive description of a situation for ever and a day and, if the results are to be used as representative of ' normal' traffic conditions, the survey must be defined with care and the information used with caution.

Traffic flows also tend to vary by day of the week. On a typical urban road traffic flows tend to build during the week to a peak on Friday. Flows are lower at the weekend, when fewer people work and lowest on Sunday; although the introduction of Sunday trading has affected the balance of traveling at the weekend.

The variation in pattern of travel over the year depends a great deal upon location. In urban areas, which are employment centers, flow drops during the summer period when schools are closed and workers tend to take annual holidays. This is balanced by a reverse trend in holiday areas. Where traffic flows increase dramatically in July and August, and roads which are adequate most of the year become heavily congested. The effect can be less dramatic on interurban roads, other than those providing access to holiday areas, as, to an extent, the decline in interurban business travel during the summer is offset by tourism.

The information above shows that the pattern of flow on any road can be highly variable and, in deciding when and where to undertake a traffic survey, it is important to ensure that the survey provides a fair measure of the traffic conditions that are being studied. To take the example of the road in a tourist area, a traffic survey on August bank holiday would measure peak traffic conditions. As these levels occur only one or two days a year there would be little point value in using this data as a basis for design, as the scheme would be for traffic conditions most of the time.

Generally, traffic surveys should not be planned to measure the peak of the peak but to measure the' normal' peak conditions. Trunk road surveys may require a full year' s survey of traffic

so that the 50 th(30th or 200th) highest hourly flow can be determined, and used as the basis for design.

The starting point in defining a traffic survey is to decide what question has to be answered and choose the type of survey accordingly. If the survey is not adequately planned, there is a danger that wrong data will be collected and the traffic situation will not be correctly understood.

The only exception to this rule occurs when one is faced with a complex situation where it may not possible, at first, to adequately understand what is going on, in terms of traffic flow and circulation. In these circumstances the traffic survey is providing evidence which will not only be used to quantify behavior, it may also be used to define it.

Some surveys are adequate for measuring traffic flow and direction of movement at a single point, or at a single junction. However, if we wish to understand movement over a wider area, then other methods have to be used. Three techniques are described below, one for surveys and two covering origin and destination surveys.

( 1 ) Surveys

We may wish to understand how traffic is circulating in a limited area. This could be, for example, a complex gyratory system, a residential area where we suspect that there may be rat-runs, or even a town center ring road where we wish to understand if traffic uses the ring road or passes through the town center.

The technique used is to record the registration mark of each vehicle as it enters and leaves the system being studied and then to match the registration marks, to establish how a vehicle traveled through the road system being studied. It is not normally necessary to record the full registration mark.

(2)Origin and destination survey

The alternative way to establish where drivers are traveling is to ask them, using an origin and destination (O&D) survey. Various types of O&D surveys are used as a part of the wider transport planning process. However, this is beyond the scope of this paper and is not explored here. The standard techniques are roadside interview surveys and self-completion questionnaires.

In most cases it will be impossible to carry out a 100% survey of drivers and so we must rely on a response from a sample of drivers in the traffic flow. Clearly, if the survey results are to be relied on, sample should be unbiased with all types of vehicles and movements represented.

(3) Roadside interview surveys

At a roadside interview survey, a sample of drivers are stopped at the side of the road and asked their origin and destination, plus any other data which could be of relevance, such as journey purpose.

Notes

1．Traffic engineering is used to either improve an existing situation or, in the case of a new facility，to ensure that the facility is correctly and safely designed and adequate for the demands that will be placed on it．

交通工程既可以用于改进现有设施的交通状况，也可在新建交通设施时用，以确保该

设施设计的安全性和准确性，并适应在该设施上将会产生的交通需求。

2．This is usually done by a transport impact analysis which will seek to assess the likely level of traffic by reference to the traffic generated by similar developments elsewhere．

通常采用交通影响分析来完成该项任务，交通影响分析会根据其他类似发展环境下产生的交通情况来评价可能的交通状况。

3．A survey does not give a definitive description of a situation for ever and a day and，if the resu lts to be used as representative of …normal? traffic conditions，the survey must be defined with care and the information used with caution．

调查不可能对长期的和一天的交通状况给出确定的描述，如果要用调查结果作为一般交通状况的代表的话，则须对该调查作确切说明，采用资料时也须慎重。

4．At a roadside interview survey，a sample of drivers are stopped at the side of the road and asked their origin and destination，plus any other data which could be of relevance，such as journey purpose.

在路边访问调查中，在路边抽样拦停一些车辆驾驶员，询问他们的起讫点以及所有其他相关资料，例如出行目的等。

Unit 16Four-Step Planning Procedure

Text

Urban transportation planning calls for more than just providing for the safe and efficient movement of people and goods. It involves the planning of transportation facilities or operations responsive to the goals of the community being served.

Identifying goals and seeing that plans are responsive to them can be difficult. One way to bridge gaps between community viewpoints and the planner's technical processes is to set up an interlocking set of guiders that proceed from the general to the particular. A hierarchy of values, goals, objectives, criteria and standards has been suggested, in which:

(1)Values are basic social drives that govern human behavior. They include the desire to survive, the need to belong, the need for order, and the need for security.

(2) Goals define conditions to be achieved, as environments favorable to maximizing values. They can be stated, although the degree of their achievement may not be definable. 'Equal opportunity', for example, is a goal based on the values of security and belonging.

(3) Objectives are specific, attainable, and measurable. In relation to the goal of equal opportunity, a transportation objective might be equal public transportation costs for all citizens regardless of location within the city.

(4)Criteria are the measures or tests to show whether or not objectives are attained. For example, the ratio of transit fares to personal income may be the criterion for determining whether or not the foregoing equal-transportation-cost objective has been met.

(5) Standards establish a performance level that must be equaled or surpassed. To continue with the previous example, transit service within 1/4 mi of every residence would be a standard.

To explain and develop land use/travel relationships, four steps of trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and traffic assignment are typically followed.

Trip generation

In major urban studies, trip generation mathematically relates survey-reported trip making to household characteristics and other land-use types, using statistical procedures to establish trip rates, such as person-trips per household. The trip-distribution procedure usually determines the necessary level of detail. In some studies, trip generation expressed as auto driver trips per 1000 ft of floor space will be satisfactory. Even more simply, reported trip rates published in Trip Generation or other sources may be applied to a land-use data base.

Trip distribution

The preceding step of trip generation typically develops a tabulation of trip origins or trip attraction by small areas. Trip distribution links trip origins to destinations in order to produce estimates of network travel. Several models may be used: among these are the Fratar method, the intervening opportunities model, and the gravity model. In the latter technique, which is most commonly used, trip volumes from zone A to zone B are calculated as a direct function of the

product of trip-end quantities in both zones and as an inverse function of the time or distance separating them. Typically, trips will be stratified into groups by trip purpose and the distribution for each group will be determined independently. Grouping might include:

(1)Home-based trips to work, shopping, social-recreation, schools, and all other purposes

(2) Nonhome-based trips (neither origin nor destination at home )

(3) Truck trips

(4) Taxi trips

The model's performance is first verified by using the network and traffic assignment techniques see if model-produced O-D patterns and network loadings are comparable to those obtained from trip surveys and their assignment to the network. Once calibrated, the model is then ready to develop travel patterns based on forecast data for the target planning year.

Modal split

The trip-generation and trip-distribution steps may or may not be concerned with the problem of converting person-trips into automobile trips or transit passenger trips. Where mode choice is essential, several procedures are available to determine the split either before or after the trip-distribution step . Trip diversion based on travel-time differences between modes is the basis for some methods, but it is being supplanted by techniques relying heavily on trip-maker or household characteristics.

Traffic assignment

The fourth step brings the outputs from preceding tasks to a coded transportation network. The estimates from the trip-generation step are loaded on the network: from zone-level 'loading nodes'. They are then routed over those links giving the shortest time paths to zonal destinations as determined by the trip-distribution model. If certain links become overloaded as a result of assignments, the model may use 'capacity-restraint' procedures to limit the volumes, usually by increasing link travel times or reassigning subsequent trips to alternative paths. When the process is done, the results can be produced as tabulations of link loadings or plotted graphically. Depending on available subroutines, other results, such as link and area volume/capacity ratios，vehicle-miles, and vehicle-hours of travel, or tabulations of O-D matrices using selected links, may also be derived. Similar procedures apply to person-trips assigned to transit networks

第四步从前面的任务使输出编码的交通网络。在网络上加载的估计数字从交通生成步骤：从区域级'加载节点'。然后将它们路由通过这些链接给纬向目的地所确定的出行分布模型的时间最短路径。如果某些环节成为重载分配的结果，模型可以使用'能力约束型' 程序限制卷，通常通过增加链接旅行时间或重新分配到备用路径的后续行程。当该进程完成后时，可以作为表格的链接荷载产生结果或绘制图形。取决于可用的子例程，也可能派生其他结果，例如链接和区域卷/容量比率、行驶里程，和车辆小时的旅行或使用所选的链接，O D 矩阵的表格。类似的程序适用于分配给网络的过境人次

Notes

1．One way to bridge gaps between community viewpoints and the planner?s technical processes is to set up an interlocking set of guiders that proceed from the general to the particular．一种将公众观点与规划者的技术过程相衔接的办法是建立一套相互关联的由一般到特殊

的指导方针。

2．To explain and develop land use／travel relationships，four steps of trip generation，trip distribution，modal split，and traffic assignment are typically followed．

为了解释及研究土地利用和出行之问的关系，典型的做法只遵循出行产生、出行分布、方式划分和交通分配这四个步骤。

3．In major urban studies，trip generation mathematically relates survey-reported trip making to household characteristics and other land-use types，using statistical procedures to establish trip rates，such as person-trips per household．

在大多数城市研究中，出行产生用统计学程序得到出行率，例如每个家庭的出行人次，为调查报告中的出行与家庭特征和其他土地利用类型建立数学关系。

4．The model?s performance is first verified by using the network and traffic assignment techniques to see if model-produced O-D patterns and network loadings are comparable to those obtained from trip surveys and their assignment to the network.

模型的性能首先要通过路网和交通分配技术看其产生的起讫点方式和路网荷载是否与出行调查得到的和实际分配到路网上的情况相吻合来验证。

5．If certain links become overloaded as a result of assignments, the model may use “capacity-restraint” procedures to limit the volumes usually by increasing link travel times or reassigning subsequent trips to alternative paths．

如果某些线路由于交通分配的结果流量过大，模型会选择“容量限制”法，通过增加路段出行时间或重新分配相关出行到备选路径上来限制流量。

生物工程生物技术专业英语翻译(七)

第七章仪器化 7.1介绍 本章主要介绍发酵过程中检测和控制的仪表。显然这些仪表并不时专门用于生物发酵领域的，它们在生物工程或相关的领域中也有广泛的应用。在实际中，大多数应用与生物工程的分析仪表并不是由生物工程发展的产物，至今，生物学家常用的仪表是在化学工业中应用的而发掌出来的。但是，这些精确的仪表并不是为更加复杂的生物反应专门设计的，在计算机控制出现以后，这表现的更加明显。 计算机自动化的发展主要基于各种探测器的发展，它们可以将有意义的信号转化成控制动作。现在适合于提供发酵过程详细参数的适当仪器已经有了很大的改进，这可以提高产量和产率。遗憾的是，在商业化中实现这些自动控制还很困难，但是改变这种情况只是时间的问题。本章只讨论现有的仪表和设备，它们目前都有各自的局限性。 计算机控制是目前发酵工程中的惯用语，不久之后，发酵过程也许真的可以和计算机匹配。但是在这一进步过程中，我们开始考虑一句谚语，“工具抑制创造性思维”。计算机控制需要在线仪表，我们在章中会有涉及。 7.2 术语 如果我们所有对生物工程过程的理解需要仪表，我们真正熟悉我们所用的仪表就非常重要，否则我们就会对这些仪

表的适用性和特性产生错误的判断。下面对一些常用的性质加以介绍。 反应时间通常是描述90％输入信号转换成输出信号所需要的时间。作为经验法则，用于生物系统的仪表的反应时间要小于倍增时间的10％。因此，在典型的发酵工程中，如果倍增时间是3h，超过18min反应时间的仪表将无法完成在线控制。很多仪表有更小的反应时间，它们通常被用于一些其它样品的操作，它们的测定和控制动作的之后时间更长。 灵敏度是衡量仪表输出结果变化和输入信号变化之间的关系。通常，考虑到高灵敏度的仪表可以测量微小的输入变化，灵敏度越高的仪表越好。然而，仪表的其它参数，如线性，精确性，和测定范围也是选择仪表的考虑因素。 输入与输出的线性关系是二者最简单的关系，校正过程也最为容易。 分辨率是可以测定的输入信号的最小值，通常以仪表读数最大偏转角的百分数来表示。 残留误差是指输出结果与输入保持恒定时的真实结果的偏离值。 重现性永远不要被忽视，只要有可能，就要对仪表进行校正，尤其是那些测定氧气和二氧化碳测定的仪表。 7.3 过程控制 在过程控制中，有三种可能实现的目标：

交通工程专业英语翻译

公路建设 交通1001 绿学长公路路面结构的地基和分流路就像火车必须在轨道上行驶一样，如果没有桥梁、隧道等特殊结构，那么就需要在原来的土壤或者土堤上修建地基。所以，建造地基也就是道路设施的第一步。 [现场清理] 清理现场前的所有步骤和多数其他施工作业一样。道路开荒在农村地区有时可能只要移除杂草、灌木和其他植物或作物。但是，有时也可能会涉及到大树木、树桩和杂物的处理。我们公认的清理程序还包括处理植物的根茎，因为一旦保留了它们，它们就可能会腐烂并留下空隙，从而导致土质发生沉降。在附近区域进行选择性清除有时也是很必要的。 [开挖] 开挖是一种松动和清除障碍物和标的建设区域岩石与杂物的过程。设备的选取取决于路面材料的质量，并且要考虑到我们的移动作业和设备的处置方法。 开挖的对象通常被描述为'磐石'，'松散岩'或者“普通石块”，其中，“普通石块”意味着没有其他什么特别的分类了。磐石，即坚硬的岩石，几乎总需要钻孔和爆破才能开挖，然后用挖掘机、大卡车或其他大型牵引铲装车辆运输搬运。爆破的碎石块需要用推土机来搬运或转

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生物工程专业英语翻译(第一篇)改

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工业工程专业英语1-3单元翻译

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Chapter 1 Unit 3 Academic Disciplines of Industrial Engineering 五大主要工程学科和它们的发展 在美国，有五个主要工程学科（土木、化学、电工、工业、机械），它们是早在第一次世界大战时就出现的工程分支学科。这些进步是世界范围内发生的工业革命的一部分，并且在技术革命的开始阶段仍在发生。 随着第二次世界大战的发展导致了其他工程学科的发展，比如核工程，电子工程，航空工程，甚至是电脑工程。太空时代导致了航空工程的发展。最近对环境的关注使得环境工程和生态工程也得到了发展。这些更新的工程学科经常被认为是专长学科包含“五大”学科，即土木，化学，电工，工业，和机械工程里的一种或多种。 和美国的情况不同，工业工程在中国属于第一层级管理科学和工程学科下面的第二级别的学科。 IE学科的开端 学科后来演变成工业工程学科是最初在机械工程系被作为特殊课程教的。首个工业工程的分部在1908年的宾夕法尼亚州大学和雪城大学被建立。（在宾夕法尼亚州的项目是短期存在的，但是它在1925年又重建了）一个在普渡大学的机械工程的IE选科在1911年被建立。一个更完整的工业工程学院项目的历史可能在资料中被找到。 在机械工程部有一个IE选科的实践是主要的模式直到第二次世界大战的结束，并且分离出来的IE部在整个上个世纪里的文理学院和综合大学里被建立。 早在第二次世界大战的时候，在工业工程方面，只有很少的毕业生水平的研究。一旦分开的学部建立之后，学士和博士级别的项目开始出现。 现代IE的教育—分支学科 今天，与过去相比，工业工程对于不同的人来说意味着不同的东西。实际上，一个发展一个突出的现代工业工程的方法是通过获得在它的分支学科和它怎么联系到其他领域的理解。如果在分支学科和工业工程相关联的领域之间有清楚的

生物工程生物技术专业英语翻译一

第一章导论 1.1生物工程的特征 生物工程是属于应用生物科学和技术的一个领域，它包含生物或其亚细胞组分在制造业、服务业和环境管理等方面的应用。生物技术利用病毒、酵母、真菌、藻类、植物细胞或者哺乳动物培养细胞作为工业化处理的组成部分。只有将微生物学、生物化学、遗传学、分子生物学、化学和化学工程等多种学科和技术结合起来，生物工程的应用才能获得成功。 生物工程过程一般包括细胞或菌体的生产和实现所期望的化学改造。后者进一步分为： （a）终产物的构建（例如，酶，抗生素、有机酸、甾类）； （b）初始原料的降解（例如，污水处理、工业垃圾的降解或者石油泄漏）。 生物工程过程中的反应可能是分解代谢反应，其中复合物被分解为简单物质（葡萄糖分解代谢为乙醇），又或者可能是合成代谢反应或生物合成过程，经过这样的方式，简单分子被组建为较复杂的物质（抗生素的合成）。分解代谢反应常常是放能反应过程，相反的，合成代谢反应为吸能过程。 生物工程包括发酵工程（范围从啤酒、葡萄酒到面包、

奶酪、抗生素和疫苗的生产），水与废品的处理、某些食品生产以及从生物治疗到从低级矿石种进行金属回收这些新增领域。正是由于生物工程技术的应用多样性，它对工业生产有着重要的影响，而且，从理论上而言，几乎所有的生物材料都可以通过生物技术的方法进行生产。据预测，到2000年，生物技术产品未来市场潜力近650亿美元。但也应理解，还会有很多重要的新的生物产品仍将以化学方法，按现有的生物分子模型进行合成，例如，以干扰为基础的新药。因此，生命科学与化学之间的联系以及其与生物工程之间的关系更应阐释。 生物工程所采用的大部分技术相对于传统工业生产更经济，耗能低且更加安全，而且，对于大部分处理过程，其生产废料是经过生物降解的，无毒害。从长远角度来看，生物工程为解决世界性难题提供了一种方法，尤其是那些有关于医学、食品生产、污染控制和新能源开发方面的问题。 1.2生物工程的发展历史 与一般所理解的生物工程是一门新学科不同的是，而是认为在现实中可以探寻其发展历史。事实上，在现代生物技术体系中，生物工程的发展经历了四个主要的发展阶段。 食品与饮料的生物技术生产众所周知，像烤面包、啤酒与

交通工程专业英语翻译1

The Evolution of Transport 交通运输业的发展 交通运输的发展一直密切联系在一起的人类发展的整个地球的历史。运输的早期功能是为了满足提供食物供给和搬运建筑材料。但是随着部落甚至最后国家的形成，运输的社会和经济功能越来越复杂。起初有需要调动个人，家族，家庭和动物以保护他们的反对，并逃避自然灾害和部族侵略的危险，寻找最好的地方定居。随着种族部落的形成和地理界线的逐步确定，开发新区域、开采新资源、发展社区间的贸易以及捍卫领地，这些都日益需要交通的发展。当第一个国家应运而生,在建立全国的完整性方面,交通运输扮演着重要角色。 基本的社会需求一般都得到照顾后，当地社区可以越来越多地贡献自己的努力，用来加强与其他国家的人民和他们的经济贸易联系，文化和科技发展。而且交通提供了诸如部落间、国际间乃至于洲际间便利的贸易和文化交流。在向有组织的人类社会的演变过程中，这种组织在今天是通过由各国组成的国际化大家庭表现出来的，交通作为人与货物移动的物理过程，电促进了这种发展，不断地经历着技术与组织方面的改变。这些变化是由多种因素和情况引起的。事实上,今天的运输在它的各种形态和组织仍然高度受变化的社会需求和偏好的回应。 显然,首先也是最重要的标准是运输效率。几个世纪以来，特别是在地方经济起飞阶段，社会需要可靠、快速、低成本的运输。为寻找合适的技术相对不受限制。在人类历史上有可靠的时候，快速运输的需求尤其明显，快速的解决办法，为国家自卫所需的时间。在当地和国际冲突的时期内，人类的聪明才智设计出新的传输技术，可往往被证明是为逃生、有时也是为了胜利，的决定性因素。随后完善和发展，这种新技术使我们能够更好地满足日益增加的运输需求，从而改善双方的经济发展和人类福祉。 为更好的战略机动诱导努力提高海上和陆路运输的需要。这导致了更大，更快的船，更可靠，坚固的地面车辆。最后，详细介绍了汽船，铁路，然后是汽车的例证。研究和运输领域的发展终于成为一个具体的目标和组织目标的承诺。随之而来的是专家的集中，越来越复杂的运输技术的进化,如飞机,和最新的火箭推进器。 日益复杂的运输手段逐渐发展成今天的运输系统，其中包括空中、路面和水上运输。特殊行业的需求，引起了发展出相当有限的应用的运输模式，如管道，电缆和传送带。因为当前社会的需求和喜好，以及经济要求的成本效益，现有的各种运输方式一般都能完成特定功能。 尽管运输的潜力以满足社会的流动性需要而水平不断提高，但很明显，这种效果有其代价。大量的交通技术要求和隐含的能耗高的巨大的资金投入生产和经营。因此，一些运输方式对使用者来说是昂贵的。这引起权益问题，因为需要支付运作成本费用是不是所有的人口群体负担，从而限制其流动性和福利。许多国家的政府选择了运输补贴，但很快就意识到，预算往往对其国家的经济造成严重的扭曲。 各种运输方式污染造成的，逐渐成为另一问题，如同世界大多数国家需要应付不断上升的商品流动和人的旅行量严重的问题。在一些地区具有高浓度的人口和产业，这种对环境的不利影响已达到很高的水平。这种损害是这些影响尚未得到充分开发。 最后，这些问题引起世界能源资源的日益减少，特别是石油，已越来越多地阻碍交通服务和操作。大多数现有的运输方式都是以依赖石油衍生品才能正常运转。随着需求量的增长与不衰减得运输和能源供应的有限，逐步提供运输的成本已经稳步增加。特别是，石油需求和石油供应不均衡造成了严重的通货膨胀问题出现在许多国家。尤其沉重的打击与对外部石油供应，其中也经历了他们的经常帐赤字增长部分或完全依赖国家。 运输部门的增加无法满足有效且公平需求的问题，这是一个所有国家必须应对努力促进经济和社会进步。能源供应的限制，高额的资本和运营成本，往往与外汇组件以及与运输有关的环境污染的很大一部分用于这个严重性的问题。但运输是并将继续是世界发展和人类福利的基本要求。没有任何其他选择，只能寻求替代或修改目前的运输系统，使能源消耗和成本永存相关的技术和业务模式的特点是减少对环境的影响，可以保持在最低水平。显然，交通需求的发展将被控制。翻译：设计目标, 公交优先已被看到在整体城市交通的战略目标,不仅包括改善公共汽车(或电车)操作和 克制,car-borne通勤更是一种增强环境,为居民、工人和游客。方法必须为所有这些也有明显的目标而成本和执行。 典型的设计目标为公交优先的措施包括:

哈工大工业工程专业英语翻译

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4.2 ERP系统的发展过程 现在，ERP系统无处不在，不仅应用在大型业务中，目前还由运营商们改良后应用在中小企业中。我们需要通过理解ERP系统及其当前体系结构的历史和发展来说明其发展变迁的成果。ERP的优点和缺点会影响它对市场的渗透，系统供应商已经为ERP的推动做好了市场定位和总体策略方面的准备。ERP系统在新的世纪中的应用和发展将依赖于其对客户关系管理、供应链管理一起其他拓展功能的扩充，还有与网络应用的结合。 简介 由微电子、电脑硬件和软件系统驱动的信息和交流的前所未有的增长影响了各种组织的电脑应用的方方面面。同时，公司环境与职能部门日益结合，需要为决策提供越来越多的内部功能数据流，包括及时有效的产品部件的供给、库存管理、清算账目、人力资源以及产品和服务分配等。在这样的条件下，组织管理者需要一个有效的信息系统来降低成本并优化物流，从而提高竞争力。无论是大企业还是中小企业，大家一致认为在复杂的全球化竞争中，及时获得正确的信息的能力能够给企业带来巨大的回报。 从19世纪80年代末到90年代初开始的新的软件系统作为企业资源规划应用在复杂的大型商业企业中从而在工业界中被人们所周知。这种复杂而昂贵，强力而专有的系统供不应求，而且需要根据企业的需求量身定制。很多情况下，ERP实施人员要企业重新设计他们的商业流程来调节软件模型中的物流，从而得到整个企业的数据流。与旧的、传统的自我内部设计的企业专门系统不同，这种软件解决方案结合了多种模型的商业附加包，在需要的时候可以作为附件添加到系统中或者从中删除。 电脑性能的显著提高以及网络给ERP的供应商和设计者们带来的前所未有的挑战，打破了企业与客户定制的隔阂，还包含超出企业内部网络的合作，外部系统需要通过网络来无缝连接。供应商已经许诺了许多的附加功能包，他们中的一些人已经在市场上表现出对这些挑战的接受态度。将产品不断再设计以及在ERP市场中推出新产品和方案是一个永不终止的过程。ERP运营商和客户以及认识到了将其附件按照开放的原则设计，提供可互换的模型，以及容许更简单的定制和客户交流的必要性。 ERP系统定义 企业资源规划系统或企业系统是业务管理软件系统目前，包括模块配套功能区，如计划，制造，销售，市场营销，分销，会计，金融，人力资源管理，项目管理，库存管理，服务，维修，运输和电子商务，架构软件便于模块的透明集成，提供企业内的所有功能之间信息。在运输和电子商务。该架构软件便于模块的透明集成，提供数据流包括良好的企业内的所有功能之间的信息以及与合作公司与通过更换或重新设计实现一个单一的集成系统，其大多是不兼容的传统信息系统。美国生产与库存管理协会（2001）这样定义了ERP系统：“针对物资资源管理、人力资源管理、财务资源管理、信息资源管理集成一体化的企业管理软件。”我们从出版物中摘录了几种定义来更好的解释这个概念：“ERP包含了一个商业软件包，它可以通过企业的财务、清算、人力资源、供应链和客户信息来使数据流无缝结合”（Davenport，1998）。“ERP是将一个组织中的财务和其他信息以及基于信息的流程整合在一起的信息配置系统。”（K&VH,2000）。“一个数据库、一个应用和一个贯穿整个企业的统一界面”（Tadjer，1998）。“ERP系统是为了运作一个组织的业务方便的集成和实时计划、生产，以及客户反馈而设计的基于电脑的系统（OLeary，2001）”。 ERP系统的发展

生物工程生物技术专业英语翻译二

生物工程生物技术专业英 语翻译二 The Standardization Office was revised on the afternoon of December 13, 2020

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物与O2反应生成水和CO2，这是一个高效的放热反应过程。因此，一个进行需氧代谢的生物要使用一小部分底物进行分解代谢以维持某一水平的合成代谢，即成长过程。对于厌氧型生物，其底物的转化的过程基本上是一个不匀称的反应（氧化还原反应），产生很少的能量，因此，大部分底物都要被分解从而维持一定水平的合成代谢。 在生物体中这种差别能够明显的体现出来，比如酵母，它属于兼性厌氧生物，即它可在有氧条件下生长也可在无氧环境下生存。需氧酵母使糖以同样的速度转化为CO2和水，相对产生高产量的新酵母。而厌氧条件下，酵母菌生长缓慢，此时酵母被有效的转化为酒精和CO2。 代谢与能量 分解代谢与合成代谢间的有效联系在于，各种分解代谢过程促进少量反应物的合成，而后又被用来促进全面的合成代谢反应。在这种重要的中间产物中，其中最为重要的是ATP，其含有生物学家所说的“高能键”。在ATP分子中，酐与焦磷酸残基相联。高能键在水解过程中所产生的热量就被用来克服在其形成过程中需要摄入的能量。像ATP这类分子，为细胞提供了流通能量，当将ATP用于生物合成反应时，其水解产物为ADP（腺苷二磷酸）或者某些时候为AMP（腺苷一磷酸）：（反应式）

交通工程专业英语翻译The_Evolution_of_Transport

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周跃进工业工程专业英语翻译-全十章---副本

第一章 IE中的角色 工业工程是新兴的经典和新颖的将计算解决复杂和系统性的问题，在今天的高度科技世界职业之一。，特别是在中国快速发展的经济和其作为世界制造业中心的演技，为IE浏览器的需求将增加，并不断扩大和迫切。 生产系统或服务系统，包括输入，转换和输出。通过改造，增加值的增加，系统的效率和效益都有所提高。转化过程中所使用的技术和管理科学以及它们的组合依靠。 管理生产系统的服务体系，是一个具有挑战性和复杂的，行为科学，计算机和信息科学，经济，以及大量的主题有关的基本原则和技术，生产和服务系统的技术。 对于IE毕业生的需求 工业工程课程设计准备的学生，以满足未来中国的经济和和谐社会建设的挑战。许多即毕业生（IES），事实上，设计和运行现代制造系统和设施。其他选择从事服务活动，如健康，?ìcare交付，金融，物流，交通，教育，公共管理，或咨询等。 为IE毕业生的需求比较旺盛，每年增长。事实上，对于非法入境者的需求大大超过供给。这种需求/供给不平衡是为IE大于其他任何工程或科学学科，并预计在未来多年存在。因此，over165大学或学院于2006年在中国开设了IE浏览器程序。 教科书的目标 这本教科书的主要目的是引入系统化的理论和先进的技术和方法，工业工程，以及他们的英语表达有关科目。教科书的另一个目的是加强和改进学生，AOS与工业工程专业英语文献的阅读和理解能力。 工程与科学 怎么这两个词，?úindustrial，?ùand，?úengineering，?ùget相结合，形成长期，?úindustrial工程，非盟是什么？工业工程和其他工程学科之间的关系，企业管理，社会科学？为了了解工业工程的作用，在今天，AOS经济和知识为基础的的时代，它是有利于学习，希望在IE的演变历史的发展，有许多半途而废写历史发展的工程。治疗本单位是短暂的，因为我们的利益，在审查工程发展的意义，尤其是作为一个专业工业工程的，更完整的历史参考。工程与科学发展并行，相辅相成的方式，虽然他们是电机始终以同样的速度，而科学是有关基本知识的追求，工程与科学知识的应用关注问题的解决方案，并，?úbetter生活的追求，?ù.Obviously，知识不能被应用，直到它被发现的，一经发现，将很快投入使用，在努力解决问题，工程在新知识的地方，提供反馈，以科学因此，科学和工程工作在手的手。 工程应用 - 工具 虽然“科学”和“工程”各有特色，为不同学科，在某些情况下，?úscientist，非盟和?úengineer，非盟可能是同一个人。这是在更早的时候，尤其是当有很少沟通的基本知识的手段。发现知识的人也把它用。 当然，我们也想到如此出色的成绩，在埃及的金字塔，中国长城，罗马的建设项目，等等，当我们回顾早期的工程成就。这些都涉及一个令人印象深刻的应用程序的基本知识。 正如根本，但是，不作为众所周知的成就。斜面，弓，螺旋状，水车，帆，简单的杠杆，以及许多其他方面的发展都非常希望在工程师，AO努力提供更好的生活。 工程的基础 几乎所有的工程发展到1800年之前与物理现象：如克服摩擦，起重，储存，搬运，构造，紧固后的发展，关注与化学和分子现象：如电力，材料，热加工工艺性能，燃烧，和其他的化学过程。 几乎所有的工程发展的基本原则是在数学方面取得的进展。，准确地测量距离，角度，重量和时间的程序进行了细化，实现了更大的成就。

生物工程生物技术专业英语翻译(二)

第二章生长与代谢的生物化学 2.1 前言 一个微生物以生产另一个微生物为目的。在某些情况下，利用微生物的生物学家们希望这样的情况能够快速频繁的发生。在另外一些产物不是生物体自身的情况下，生物学家必须对它进行操纵使微生物的目标发生变化，这样以来，微生物就要努力的挣脱对它们繁殖能力的限制，生产出生物学家希望得到的产物。生物体的生长过程及其生产出的各种产物与微生物代谢的本质特点是密不可分的。 代谢过程是两种互相紧密联系又以相反方向进行的活动过程。合成代谢过程主要是细胞物质的生成，不仅包括构成细胞的主要组成物质（蛋白质、核酸、脂质、碳水化合物等等），同时也包括它们的前提物质——氨基酸、嘌呤与嘧啶、脂肪酸、各种糖与糖苷。合成代谢不是自发进行的，必须由能量所推动，对大多数微生物来说，是通过一系列的产能分解代谢过程来供给能量。碳水化合物分解为CO2和水的过程是最为常见的分解代谢反应，然而微生物以这样的方式还能够利用更大范围的还原性含碳化合物。分解代谢与合成代谢所有微生物生物化学的基础，可以从两者的平衡关系或者分别对它们进行讨论。 实际中，我们要有效的区分那些需要空气中的氧进行需氧代谢的生物与那些进行厌氧代谢的生物。还原性含碳化合物与O2反应生成水和CO2，这是一个高效的放热反应过程。因此，一个进行需氧代谢的生物要使用一小部分底物进行分解代谢以维持某一水平的合成代谢，即成长过程。对于厌氧型生物，其底物的转化的过程基本上是一个不匀称的反应（氧化还原反应），产生很少的能量，因此，大部分底物都要被分解从而

维持一定水平的合成代谢。 在生物体中这种差别能够明显的体现出来，比如酵母，它属于兼性厌氧生物，即它可在有氧条件下生长也可在无氧环境下生存。需氧酵母使糖以同样的速度转化为CO 2和水，相对产生高产量的新酵母。而厌氧条件下，酵母菌生长缓慢，此时酵母被有效的转化为酒精和CO 2。 2.2 代谢与能量 分解代谢与合成代谢间的有效联系在于，各种分解代谢过程促进少量反应物的合成，而后又被用来促进全面的合成代谢反应。在这种重要的中间产物中，其中最为重要的是ATP ，其含有生物学家所说的“高能键”。在ATP 分子中，酐与焦磷酸残基相联。高能键在水解过程中所产生的热量就被用来克服在其形成过程中需要摄入的能量。像ATP 这类分子，为细胞提供了流通能量，当将ATP 用于生物合成反应时，其水解产物为ADP （腺苷二磷酸）或者某些时候为AMP （腺苷一磷酸）：（反应式） 仍含有一个高能键的ADP 通过腺苷酸激酶反应也可生成ATP ：（反应式）。 磷酸化作用是生物体中普遍的反应，通常由ATP 作用而发生。 经过磷酸化生成的物质通常比最初的化合物更具有反应活性，用无机磷酸进行磷酸化反应是无法进行的，因为，平衡反应式的相反方向生成大量的水（55M ）。 细胞的“能量状态”认为是由占有优势的组分：ATP 、ADP 、AMP 作用形成的。为了给出一个量值，Daniel Atksirson 提出了“能荷”这个概念，定义一个细胞的能荷为： 在“满荷”细胞中，仅含有ATP 一种腺嘌呤核苷酸，它的能荷值定义为 1.0。如果三种核苷酸的量相等，即ATP=ADP=AMP ，则细胞的能荷为ATP+0.5 ADP ATP+ ADP+AMP

交通运输专业英语翻译汇总

Lesson1 to lesson3 Engine发动机 发动机充当动力装置。内燃机是最常见的：它通过在发动机汽缸里面燃烧一种液体燃料获得 动力。有2种形式的发动机：汽油机（也叫做火花点燃式发动机）和柴油机（也叫做压燃式 发动机）两种发动机均被称为热机，有燃烧的燃油产生热，引起气缸内气体的压力升高，并 输出动力使连接到传动系的轴旋转。 Suspension悬架 车桥和车轮通过悬架系统与底盘隔开。悬架系统的基本作用是吸收由不规则路面引起的振 动，从而有助于把车辆保持在一个受控的水平方向上，否则振动将传至车辆和车辆上的乘员。 Steering转向系 通过司机控制方向盘，转向系统为前轮转向提供手段。转向系统为减少转动方向盘所需的力 以及让车辆更易操纵提供了强力的帮助支持。 Brakes制动系 汽车上的制动系统有三个主要的功能。它必须能让车辆在必要时减速；它必须能让车辆在尽可能短 的一段距离内停下；它必须能让车辆保持怠速。由于制动器迫使固定表面（制动衬片）接触旋转表面 （鼓式或盘式）产生的摩擦力来完成刹车动作。 每个车轮具有一个鼓式或盘式制动总成，当驾驶员踩脚制动踏板时，靠液力产生制动 principle of operation 工作原理 这个发动机的四个行程见图2.2。在吸气行程开始时，进气阀打开活塞在汽缸中从上止点运 动到下止点。通过活塞运动产生的局部真空，导致空气燃油混合物通过进气歧管进入汽缸。 化油器提供正确比例的空气燃油混合物。当活塞运动到行程终点时进气阀关闭，因为两个阀 都关闭着，所以使得汽缸上端密封。 在图2.2b中，活塞正向上运动，压缩汽缸和活塞之间的燃油混合物至一个很小的体积，-- 这就是压缩行程。在到达上止点前，由火花塞电极产生的一个电火花，点燃了空气燃油混合 物。为了得到良好的性能，点火时刻必须精确控制。 随着空气燃油混合物燃烧，热空气膨胀气缸压力急剧上升，以致活塞被迫向汽缸下方运动。 使连杆对曲轴作用一个相当大的回转力。这就是燃烧行程，也叫做做功行程，见图2.2c。 一旦混合物燃烧，它必须尽可能快的从汽缸内排出，在排气行程中，上升着的活塞把热空 气和燃烧产物通过打开的排气阀和排气系统推出汽缸，排到空气中。 该行程依次按顺序连续循环，动力只在4个行程之一的燃烧行程传递给转轴。由于与曲轴

生物工程专业英语翻译(第二章)

Lesson Two Photosynthesis 内容： Photosynthesis occurs only in the chlorophyllchlorophyll叶绿素-containing cells of green plants, algae藻, and certain protists 原生生物and bacteria. Overall, it is a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the molecular bonds. From the point of view of chemistry and energetics, it is the opposite of cellular respiration. Whereas 然而 cellular细胞的 respiration 呼吸is highly exergonic吸收能量的and releases energy, photosynthesis光合作用requires energy and is highly endergonic. 光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞，海藻，某些原生动物和细菌之中。总体来说，这是一个将光能转化成化学能，并将能量贮存在分子键中，从化学和动能学角度来看，它是细胞呼吸作用的对立面。细胞呼吸作用是高度放能的，光合作用是需要能量并高吸能的过程。Photosynthesis starts with CO2 and H2O as raw materials and proceeds through two sets of partial reactions. In the first set, called the light-dependent reactions, water molecules are split裂开 (oxidized), 02 is released, and ATP and NADPH are formed. These reactions must take place in the presence of 在面前 light energy. In the second set, called light-independent reactions, CO2 is reduced (via the addition of H atoms) to carbohydrate. These chemical events rely on the electron carrier NADPH and ATP generated by the first set of reactions. 光合作用以二氧化碳和水为原材料并经历两步化学反应。第一步，称光反应，水分子分解，氧分子释放，ATP和NADPH形成。此反应需要光能的存在。第二步，称暗反应，二氧化碳被还原成碳水化合物，这步反应依赖电子载体NADPH以及第一步反应产生的ATP。 Both sets of reactions take place in chloroplasts. Most of the enzymes and pigments 色素for the lightdependent reactions are embedded 深入的内含的in the thylakoid 类囊体 membrane膜隔膜 of chloroplasts 叶绿体. The dark reactions take place in the stroma.基质 两步反应都发生在叶绿体中。光反应需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在叶绿体的类囊体膜上。暗反应发生在基质中。 How Light Energy Reaches Photosynthetic Cells（光合细胞如何吸收光能的） The energy in light photons in the visible part of the spectrum can be captured by biological molecules to do constructive work. The pigment chlorophyll in plant cells absorbs photons within a particular absorption spectrums statement of the amount of light absorbed by chlorophyll at different wavelengths. When light is absorbed it alters the arrangement of electrons in the absorbing molecule. The added energy of the photon boosts the energy condition of the molecule from a stable state to a less-stable excited state. During the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, as the absorbing molecule returns to the ground state, the "excess" excitation energy is transmitted to other molecules and stored as chemical energy. 生物分子能捕获可见光谱中的光能。植物细胞中叶绿素在不同光波下吸收部分吸收光谱。在吸收分子中，光的作用使分子中的电子发生重排。光子的能量激活了分子的能量状态，使其

工业工程专业英语第三章翻译

《专业英语》课程论文 （工业工程11级） 指导教师：李发权 小组成员 姓名：学号：刘凯311102020215 刘雪涛311102020216 马文杰311102020217 乔茂康311102020218 2014年11月23日

Manufacturing Systems Unit1 Introduction To Manufacturing Systems In this chapter, we consider how automation and material handing technologies are synthesized create manufacturing systems. We define a manufacturing system to be a collection of integrated equipment and human resources, whose function is perform one or more processing and/or assembly operations on a starting raw material part, or set parts. The integrated equipment includes production machines and tools, material handling and work positioning devices, and computer systems. Human resources are required either full time or periodically to keep the system running. The manufacturing system is where the value-added work is accomplished on the part or product. The position of the manufacturing system in the larger production system is shown as Figure. 3.1 Examples of manufacturing systems include : ●One worker tending one machine, which operates on semi-automatic cycle ● A cluster of semi-automated assembly machine, attended by one worker ● A full automated assembly machine, periodically attended by a human worker ● A group of automated machines working on automatic cycles to produce a family of similar parts ● A team of workers performing assembly operations on a production line Components of a Manufacturing system A manufacturing system consists of several components. In a given system, these components usually include: 1)production machines plus tools, fixtures, and other related hardware; 2)material handling system ; 3)computer systems to coordinate and/or control the above components ; 4)human workers Production Machines In virtually all modern manufacturing systems, most of the actual processing or assembly work is accomplished by machines or with the aid of tools. The machines can be classified as 1) manually operate , 2) semi-automated ,or 3)fully automated , Manually operated machines are directed or supervised by a human worker. The machine provides the power for the operation and the worker provides the control. Conventional machine tools (e. g ,lathes , milling machines ,drill presses ) fit into this category . The worker must be at the machine continuously. In manufacturing systems, we use the term workstation to refer to a location in the factory where some well-defined task operation is accomplished by an automated machine , a worker-and-machine combination , or a worker use hang tools/or portable powered tools. In the last there no definable production machine at the location . Many assembly tasks are in the category . A given manufacturing system may consist of one or more workstations. A system with multiple stations is called a production line , or assembly line , or machine cell ,or other name ,depending on its configuration and function .